Exploratory, Descriptive, and Causal Research Designs

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Exploratory, Descriptive, and

Causal Research Designs
Chapter 3
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MR/Brown & Suter

Types of Research Design
} Exploratory Research
} Discover ideas and insights
} Descriptive Research
} Describing a population with respect to important variables
} Causal Research
} Used to establish cause-and-effect relationships between
variables
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Types of Research Design
Descriptive
Research
Exploratory
Research
Causal
Research
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Exploratory Research
} Literature Search
} Search of popular press, trade, and academic literature or
published statistics from research firms or governmental
agencies
} Depth Interviews
} Interviews with people knowledgeable about the general
subject being investigated
} Focus Groups
} Small group interviews relying on group discussion
} Case Analyses
} Intensive study of selected examples of phenomenon
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Exploratory Research
Special Note on Focus Groups
} Focus Groups have two major pitfalls

} It is easy for managers to see what they expect to see in focus
group results
} Focus groups are one form of exploratory research – it (or any
other type of exploratory research) should not be expected to
deliver final results or answers to decision problems – yet
many managers seem to use them for that purpose
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Descriptive Research
} Used to
} Describe the characteristics of certain groups
} Determine the proportion of people who behave in a certain
way
} Make specific predictions
} Determine relationships between variables
} Key questions descriptive research should attempt to

answer
} Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?
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Continuous Panel
Longitudinal
Descriptive Studies Discontinuous Panel
Cross-Sectional
Sample Survey
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} Longitudinal Analysis
} Repeated measures, over time, of a fixed sample
} Two primary types
} Continuous panel – Fixed sample of respondents who are measured
repeatedly over time with respect to the same variables
} Discontinuous panel – Fixed sample of respondents who are
measured repeated over time with respect to different variables
} Cross-section Study
} Single point in time measures of a sample selected from a
population
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Causal Research
} Condition X causes Event Y (e.g., X Y)
} Experiments are often used to isolate relationships

between independent (Condition X) and dependent
(Event Y) variables
} The basic point of an experiment is to change the levels

of one or more X variables and examine the resulting
impact on Y variables
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Experiments as Causal Research
} Laboratory Experiment } Field Experiment
} Includes a situation with } Includes a situation with
exact conditions fluid conditions
} Like a chemistry lab } Like a retail store
} Control of variables other } Control of variables other
than X or Y is maximized than X or Y is challenging
} Labs are sterile } Store conditions vary
} X variables are manipulated } X variables are manipulated
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Scales of Measurement
Scale Basic Comparison Examples Average
Ratio Comparison of Absolute Units Sold Geometric Mean
Magnitudes Income Harmonic Mean
Comparison of Intervals Mean
Order Median
Identity Mode
Interval Comparison of Intervals Customer Mean
Order Satisfaction Median
Identity Brand Attitude Mode
Ordinal Order Brand Preference Median
Identity Income (in Mode
categories)
Nominal Identity Gender Mode
Brand Purchase
(Yes/No)
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} Measurement
} Rules for assigning numbers to objects to represent quantities
of attributes
} Nominal Scale
} Measurement in which numbers are assigned to objects or
classes of objects solely for the purpose of identification
} Gender: 1=Female, 2=Males
} Brand Purchase: Did you purchase Cover Girl mascara? 1=Yes, 2=No
} Average: Mode (value occurring most frequently)
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} Ordinal Scale
} Measurement in which numbers are assigned to data on the
basis of some order (e.g., more than, greater than) of objects
} Also take on the properties of nominal scale (identification)
} Brand Preference: Rank the following mascara brands (1=Most
preferred, 4=Least preferred)
__ Clinique
__ Cover Girl
__ Estee Lauder
__ Maybelline
} Average: Median (midpoint), Mode
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} Interval Scale
} Measurement in which the assigned numbers legitimately allow
the comparison of the size of the differences among and
between numbers
} Also take on the properties of nominal (identification) and
ordinal (rank order) scales
} Brand Attitude:What is your feeling toward each of the following
mascara brands (1=Negative, 5=Positive)?
Clinique 1 2 3 4 5
Cover Girl 1 2 3 4 5
Estee Lauder 1 2 3 4 5
Maybelline 1 2 3 4 5
} Average: Mean (arithmetic average), Median, Mode
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} Ratio Scale
} Measurement that has a natural, or absolute, zero and
therefore allows the comparison of absolute magnitudes of the
numbers
} Also take on the properties of nominal (identification), ordinal
(rank order), and interval (rating) scales
} Units Sold: How many cases of each of the following mascaras were
sold last month?
Clinique _____ cases
Cover Girl _____ cases
Estee Lauder _____ cases
Maybelline _____ cases
} Average: Geometric & Harmonic Means, Mean, Median, Mode
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Interval versus Ratio Scales
} Interval Scale } Ratio Scale
} Zero is just another scale } Zero has an absolute
position meaning
} Zero = the scale point } Zero = Absence of the
between -1 and 1 property being measured
} What is your attitude } What is your credit card
toward credit cards? balance?
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 $ ________
OR
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
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Ordinal versus Ratio Scales
} Income (in categories) } Income
} What is your annual } What is your annual
household income? household income?
} $0-15,000 $ ________________
} $15,001-30,000
} $30,001-45,000
} $45,001-60,000
} $60,001-75,000
} $75,001-90,000
} Greater than $90,000
} Ordinal data } Ratio data
} Cannot determine the exact } Can be put into categories
amount (to the dollar)
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Higher
Ratio
Data collected at
Interval
higher levels can
Level of
Measurement be represented at
lower levels;
however, data Ordinal
collected at lower
levels cannot be
represented at
Lower higher levels. Nominal
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Measuring Attitudes & Other Unobservables
} How can attitudes, perceptions, and preferences be
measured?
} Most of the time they are assessed via respondent self-reports
} A communication method is employed and respondents are asked for
their evaluations (i.e., attitudes) with regard to an attitude object
} Two most common scale types are both at the interval level of
measurement
} Summated-Rating (Likert) Scale
} Semantic-Differential Scale
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Summated-Rating (Likert) Scales
Neither
Agree
Strongly Nor Strongl
Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree y Agree
Statement
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Semantic-Differential Scales
Statement
Unreliable Reliable
Inconvenient Convenient
Expensive Inexpensive
Undesirable Desirable
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Graphic-Ratings Scale
Statement.
Place an “X” at the position along the row that most reflects your feelings.
Not Important Important
Reliability
Convenience
Expense
Desirability
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Constant-Sum Comparative-Ratings Scale
Please divide 100 points between the following four attributes regarding
Statement in terms of the relative importance of each attribute to you.
Reliability points
Convenience points
Expense points
Desirability points
Total 100 points
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Other Considerations
} Number of Items in a Scale
} The four previous examples had four items (i.e., questions)
each
} Could a global measure (e.g., an overall evaluation) have
provided the same insight?
} What is your overall evaluation of Cover Girl mascara?
} Number of Scale Positions

} The Summated-Rating and Semantic-Differential examples had
five scale positions each
} Would six have been better? Seven?
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Other Considerations
} Including a “Don’t Know” or “Not Applicable” Response
Category
} If you are unfamiliar with Cover Girl mascara and its attributes,
would the opportunity to state that these questions do not
apply be helpful?
} Reverse Scaling
} The Summated-Rating example had two positively worded and
two negatively worded items
} Positive: long-lasting, volume boosting
} Negative: smudges, runs when wet
28 MR/Brown & Suter

Reliability versus Validity
Neither Reliable Reliable, but not Both Reliable and

Nor Valid Valid Valid
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Exploratory, Descriptive, and

MR/Brown & Suter

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} Focus Groups have two major pitfalls

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} Key questions descriptive research should attempt to

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Descriptive Studies Discontinuous Panel

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} Experiments are often used to isolate relationships

} The basic point of an experiment is to change the levels

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} Number of Scale Positions

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Neither Reliable Reliable, but not Both Reliable and

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