Terrestrial and

Coastal Navigation 2
(Nav3)
College of Maritime Education
 Disclaimer Statement:

This Course Study Guide is not intended to be presented as the original work of
the module compiler. It is meant to be the primary reference material for the
course composed of the flexible learning syllabus, learning plans, course
content, and assessments compiled from various sources. Accordingly, the sale
and distribution of such outside the University of the Visayas is strictly
prohibited.

2
 Course Study Guide Contents
Week No. Module Topic Page

1 Positions and Position Lines 6

2 The Sailings 20

3 Chart Works 52

4 Tides 69

Editorial Committee

Module Compiler 2M Eustequio C. Cabatuan Jr.

2M Eustequio C. Cabatuan Jr.

CM Judelito D. Balos
Content Experts
2M Fritz Nomar Basnillo

Language Editor Dr. Ma. Crispy B. Velasco, RGC, LPT

Ms. Jedidiah K. Singco

Design/ Media Specialist
Dr. Ma. Crispy B. Velasco, RGC, LPT

3
 Flexible Learning Course Syllabus
Flexible Learning Course Syllabus
College of Maritime Education
Professional Education Subjects
First Semester, Academic Year 2020 - 2021
I. Course Information
NAV 03 This course introduces relevant information obtained from Nautical
Course Code Course Charts and publications in passage planning, sailing directions, tide
Terrestrial and Description tables, notice to mariners, radio navigational warnings and ship’s
Coastal routing information.
Course Title
Navigation 2
1.
Apply relevant information obtained from Charts, Lists of
lights and Other Publications in passage planning.
Prerequisites(s) Nav2 Course 2. Determine compass error using terrestrial observations
Learning 3. Apply compass corrections to determine true course and true
Outcomes bearing
4. Solve problems great circle sailing in determining courses and
distances.
5. Plot position lines to determine ship’s position using
Credit Unit
3 Units (Lecture) terrestrial observation.
6. Write entries in the ship’s logbook using relevant information
related to navigation.
A-II/1 F1.C1.KUP2: Terrestrial and coastal A-II/1 F1.C1.KUP6:Ability to determine errors of the
navigation-Ability to determine the ship’s position gyro and magnetic compasses, using terrestrial
by use of: means, and to allow for such errors
1. Landmarks;
KUPs
2. Aids to navigation, including lighthouses,
beacons and buoys;
3. Dead reckoning, taking into account winds,
tides, currents, and estimated speed.
Competency A-II/1 F1.C1 Plan and conduct a passage and determine position
II Instructor’s Information
Instructor Name 2M EUSTEQUIO C. CABATUAN JR Corporate Email ecabatuan@uv.edu.ph
Title: 2M Phone +639756210301
III Course Syllabus
Mode of Assessment
Intended Learning Materials and
We No. of Instruction/ Task/ Graded
Module Topic Learning Resources
ek Hours Delivery Tools Output
Outcomes
No. Required Suggested
 understand positions  Lesson1 Course  Japitana:Terres  Course Packet Learning Log 1:
13.5 total Lesson 1: and position lines of Module on trial and  Printed Creating a
hours Position and a ship; Terrestrial and Coastal  Digital Diagram Showing
12 hours Position Lines  compute the Coastal Navigation: A Line Positions of a
 Microsoft Teams
Navigation2. Practical Guide, Vessel
1 self-
directed
distance of a ship
which will pass off a College of 2019, Lecture 1
Maritime – Nautical Learning Log 2:
learning given distance when
Education, Charts and Computation of
& abeam; and University of the Publications, the Ship’s Position
1.5 hours  construct a position Visayas; ISBN 978-971- When Abeam
of line to clear a 95747-5-0
assessmen navigational danger  Table A-II/1 Weekly Student
t tasks by a given distance. Function 1: Journal Entry 1
Navigation at the
operational level;
and

 CMO No. 67 series

of 2017. Revised
PSG for BS Marine
Transportation
and BS Marine
Engineering
Programs
Lesson 2: The  discuss the different  Lesson 2 Course Ynion, Eugenio J., Learning Log 3:
13.5 total Sailings types of sailings; Module on Terrestrial Calculating Course
hours  explain the Terrestrial and Navigation, 2003 and Distance
12 hours relationship between Coastal Using the Mercator
self- departure and Navigation2. Formula
College of
directed difference of
Maritime Weekly Student
learning longitude in cases
Education, Journal Entry 2
2 &
1.5 hours
involving a change
of latitude, by using
University of the
Visayas;
of mean latitude; and  Table A-II/1
assessmen  describe the layout Function 1:
t tasks of a traverse table; Navigation at the

4
 and operational level;
 Use the Mercator and
formula to calculate  CMO No. 67 series
course and distance of 2017. Revised
between two PSG for BS Marine
Transportation
positions.
and BS Marine
Engineering
Programs
13.5 total Lesson 3: Chart  explain the term  Lesson 3 Course  Moore, D. A. Learning Log 4:
hours works running fix and uses Module on Marine Problem Solving:
12 hours the method to plot a Terrestrial and Chartwork Set and Drift
self- position; Coastal 2nd ed, 1984
directed  comprehend the Navigation2.
College of
learning positions by running
Maritime
& fix in a tidal stream
Education, Weekly Student
1.5 hours or current; University of the Journal Entry 3
3 of
assessmen
 describe set, rate,
drift and leeway due
Visayas;

t tasks to wind; and  Table A-II/1

 illustrate and solve a Function 1:
problem of 'set‘ and Navigation at the
'drift’ operational level;
and

 CMO No. 67
series of 2017.
Revised PSG for
BS Marine
Transportation
and BS Marine
Engineering
Programs
13.5 total Lesson 4: Tides  discuss spring tides,  Lesson 4 Course  Ynion, Eugenio Learning Log 5:
hours neap tides, height of Module on J., Terrestrial Sketching or
12 hours tide high water and Terrestrial and Navigation, Diagramming a
self- low water, mean Coastal 2003 Reference Plane
directed high water springs, Navigation2.
College of Weekly Student
learning mean high water
Maritime Journal Entry 4
& neaps, mean low
Education,
4 1.5 hours water springs, mean University of
of low water neaps, the Visayas;
assessmen range, chart datum
t tasks highest astronomical  Table A-II/1
tide; Function 1:
 acquire the predicted Navigation at the
time and height of operational level;
high and low water and
at standard and
secondary ports;  CMO No. 67 series
and of 2017. Revised
PSG for BS Marine
 understand the
Transportation
spring and neap
and BS Marine
ranges for standard Engineering
and secondary ports Programs
IV - A Points for Graded Output IV-B. Grade Equivalent Based on Points Earned
Module Topic 100% 1.0 86% 2.1
Course Week Points 99% 1.1 85% 2.2
Output
98% 1.2 84% 2.3
1 Major 245
97% 1.2 83% 2.4
96% 1.3 82% 2.4
2 Major 200
95% 1.4 81% 2.5
94% 1.5 80% 2.6
3 Major 200
93% 1.6 79% 2.7
92% 1.6 78% 2.7
4 Minor 185
91% 1.7 77% 2.8
90% 1.8 76% 2.9
89% 1.9 75% 3.0
Total 830
88% 2.0
74% and below INC
87% 2.0
INC is given if the final grade is 2.5 or better but missing any two of the course requirements listed above. INC should be complied within 365 days
immediately after the close of the Semester.

Approval:
Prepared by: Reviewed by: Approved by:

2M EUSTEQUIO C. CABATUAN JR CM JUDELITO D. BALOS DR. AILEEN B. CATACUTAN DR. ANNA LOU C. CABUENAS
Instructor BSMT Program Coordinator Director of Libraries Chief Academic Officer

5
Les
Lesson 1
Position and Position Lines

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

1. understand positions and position lines of a ship;

2. compute the distance of a ship which will pass off a given distance when
abeam; and
3. construct a position line to clear a navigational danger by a given distance.

6
 College College of Maritime Education
Program Bachelor of Science in Marine Transportation
Course Code NAV 3
Course Title Terrestrial and coastal navigation 2
Credit Unit 3 units (Lecture)
Lesson 1 Week 1
Module Topic Positions and Position Lines
At the end of the lesson the students are able to:
1. understand positions and position lines of a ship;
Intended Learning 2. compute the distance of a ship which will pass off a given distance when abeam; and
Outcomes 3. construct a position line to clear a navigational danger by a given distance.
Number of Hours 13.5 Hours (12 Hours Self-Directed Learning and 1.5 Hours Assessment Tasks)
1. Why is it important to understand the position and position lines of a ship?
Study Questions 2. How to compute a distance of ship when abeam?
3. How to construct a position line to clear a navigational danger by a given distance?
Required Suggested
 Lesson1 Course Module on Terrestrial and Coastal
Learning Resources Navigation2. College of Maritime Education, University Japitana:Terrestrial and Coastal Navigation: A Practical Guide,
of the Visayas; 2019, Lecture 1 – Nautical Charts and Publications, ISBN 978-
971-95747-5-0
 Table A-II/1 Function 1: Navigation at the operational
level; and

 CMO No. 67 series of 2017. Revised PSG for BS Marine

Transportation and BS Marine Engineering Programs
1. Student shall study and learn Lesson 1 on Position and Position Lines. Student may refer to
the suggested and other recommended learning materials indicated in this Course Study
Guide as additional reading resources.
2. The student shall engage himself in Lesson 1 by understanding positions and position lines of
a ship thru the details in the Course notes.
3. The student shall explore more and learn the on the various types of position and position
Learning Activity lines of a vessel.
4. The student shall continue his exploration of the topics and analyze on how to compute the
distance of a ship when abeam.
5. While studying and learning the topics in Lesson 1, the student can apply what he has learned
through the Learning Logs stipulated on the succeeding pages.
6. After studying and learning the topics in Lesson 1 and with the knowledge he has applied in
the given Learning Logs the student shall now make a synthesis of what he has learned in the
sub-topics of this lesson via Weekly Student Journal Entry 1.

Learning Log 1 and 2

Required Output Weekly Student Journal Entry 1
Learning Log No. 1 - Creating a Diagram Showing Line Positions of a Vessel
Assessment Tasks Learning Log No. 2 - Computation of the Ship’s Position When Abeam
Weekly Student Journal Entry 1
1. Short Answer Rubric
Assessment Tool
2. Student Journal Rubric
Target Competency Plan and conduct a passage and determine position
Prepared by: Reviewed by: Approved for use:

2M EUSTEQUIO C. CABATUAN, JR. CM JUDELITO D. BALOS DR. ANA LOUC C. CABUENAS

Instructor BSMT Program Coordinator Chief Academic Officer

7
Position Lines and Positions
The Line of Position. A Line Position (LOP) is a line established by observation or measurement on which a vessel
can be expected to be located. A vessel can be an infinite number of positions along any single LOP. In piloting, an
LOP may be established by a measured bearing to known and charted object, or by an alignment of two visible and
charted objects, or by a measured distance from a charted object.

In the case of bearings, LOPs are straight lines. In the case of distances, LOPs are circles., and sometimes referred to
as circles of position (COP). LOPs are used in this text to refer to both. LOPs can also be determined by electronic
means such as radar.

A position line generally is a line that contains the ship’s position somewhere on it. When taking the bearing of a
charted object to obtain its position, a straight line is drawn
from the object with obtained degrees; the ship’s position is
somewhere on that line, which is called the position line. This
line of bearing is basically a part of a great circle that passes
through the charted object and the ship’s position. When taking
the range from a charted object to obtain the ship’s position, a
small circle can be drawn with the object at its the centre; the
range is the radius, and the circle is called the position circle.
Instead of drawing the whole circle, a part of it in the vicinity of
the ship’s position is drawn; this small arc of the part of the
position circle is called the position line. The position line is
therefore a part of a great or a small circle.

Position Circle by Horizontal Angle Horizontal angle α < 90° Let the horizontal angle between two shore-charted
objects, A and B, be α, where α is less than 90°. Draw the line to join A and B. As shown in the figure next page, the
angle on a chord (AB) at the centre of the circle is twice any angle at the circumference of the circle that is subtended
by the same chord.

Hence, the triangle AOB having OA equals OB, because they are the radius of the circle, then:

So, by knowing the horizontal angle between two charted objects, we can draw the arc of the circle which contains the
position of the ship.

Horizontal angle α > 90° In this case, the ship is on the opposite side of the chord from the centre of the circle.
Similarly, as shown in the figure, when the horizontal angle is greater than 90°.

8
Procedure to Obtain Position Circle

1. Use the sextant or compass to obtain the angle between two charted objects. The advantage of using the
compass to take the bearing of an object is that any compass error will have no effect on the position line,
and the bearing of the objects can be obtained.
2. Draw the line to join the positions of the objects (AB).
3. From each object’s position, if the horizontal angle between two objects is less than 90°, then construct the
line on the same side of the ship’s position that makes an angle of (90°− α) with the line joining two objects.
If the horizontal angle between two objects is more than 90°, then construct the line on the opposite side of
the ship’s position that makes an angle of (α − 90°) with the line joining the two objects. The point of
intersection of two lines will form the centre of the circle.
4. Draw the circle; it should pass through the positions of two objects. This is the position circle. The ship’s
position is somewhere in the position circle.
5. The ship’s position can be obtained by drawing the bearing of one of the objects obtained earlier by compass;
the intersection of the position circle and the bearing line is the fix of the ship’s position. For sextant use, and
to eliminate any unknown error of the compass, repeat for another horizontal angle to obtain another position
circle. The intersection of the two position circles is the ship’s position.

Position circle by rising and dipping distance When the ship is making landfall, select the highest structure charted on
land, e.g., a lighthouse, especially at night time when the light from the lighthouse can be observed. The distance
from the lighthouse to the ship’s position can be calculated by formula:

9
Fixing the Ship’s Position

The position line tells us only that the ship’s position is

somewhere on that line, but not exactly where she is. To obtain
the ship’s position, another position line is necessary in order to
form a fix. The fix can be formed by two bearings, and is the
intersection of two great circles or of two ranges, which is the
intersection of two small circles or the combination of a bearing
and a range. When the fix is obtained and drawn on the chart,
the coordinates of the ship’s position can be read from the chart.
Otherwise, D. Lat. and Dep. can be calculated in relation to a
known object to figure out the ship’s position, as shown in the
figure below.

Running Fix. This method obtains a fix from the bearings of one or two charted objects and the course and speed.

Procedure to obtain a running fix

1. Calculate time and distance made good;

2. Plot the position line of the first bearing;
3. Plot the position line of the second bearing;
4. From any point on the first position line, lay off the course and distance made good toward the second
position line;
5. From another end of the course and distance made good line, plot the transferred first position line. The
intersection of the transferred position line and the second position line is the fix when the second bearing
taken;
6. From the fix, transfer the course and distance made good line. The intersection between the course and
distance made good line and the first position line is the fix when first bearing was taken.

Example

Running Fix with single charted object:

1. Calculate time and distance made good;

2. Plot the position line of the first bearing (040°) at 1400;

3. Plot the position line of the second bearing (310°) at 1430;
10
4. From first position line, lay off the course 080° and distance 5 miles;
5. From the end of the course and distance made good line, plot the transferred first position line (dotted line). The
intersection of the transferred position line and the second position line is the fix at 1430;
6. From the fix at 1430, transfer the course and distance made good line. The intersection between the course and
distance made good line and the first position line is the fix at 1400.

Procedure to obtain a fix by triangle

1. Calculate the distance made good;
2. Plot the position line of the first and second bearings;
3. Calculate the range of the first bearing to obtain the first fix;
4. From the first fix, lay off the course and distance made good; this line should contact the second position line,
and the point of intersection is the second fix. The second fix can also be obtained by calculating the range
similarly to the first range, then joining two fixes; it should be the line that represents the course and distance
made good.

11
Running Fix with Current If the current has an effect, then the set and drift is laid off at the end of the course and
distance to find the course and distance made good, as shown in the figure, before plotting the transferred position
line.

12
13
Running Fix with Position Circles

Procedure to obtain a fix by two position circles:

1. Calculate distance made good;
2. From the observed object, lay off the course and distance made good line;
3. Using the end point of the course and distance made good line as the centre of the circle; plot the first range;
4. From the observed object as the centre of the circle, plot the second range. The intersection of two position
circles is the second fix;
5. From the second fix, transfer the course and distance made good line; the point at the end of this line is the
first fix.

A Fix by Angles on the Bow. A vessel is steaming the course along AC track, at speed V knots. At the time tA, from
position A, a stationary object at O is observed bearing at an angle α° off the port bow; and at the time tB, from
position B, the same object is observed bearing at an angle β° off the port bow.
14
With the above information, we can calculate:
 Distance from object to B position;
 Distance when the object is abeam;
 The time when the object will be abeam.

15
LOP by bearing from charted object

One of the simplest and most common LOPs is developed from a single bearing on a charted object. The bearing can
be taken using a perlorus, or a hand bearing is dead ahead (000R), abeam (090R or 27OR), or astern (180R).
Bearings so determined could be compass bearings of the ship’s compass is used, magnetic bearings if a hand-bearing
compass is used in a location where it is free of deviation or relative bearings if a pelorus is used. If a relative bearing
is taken, it must be converted to a true bearing by first determining the compass heading at the instant of the relative
bearing observation, correcting this compass heading to a magnetic by applying deviation, and then a true heading by
allowing for variation.

Lap by Distance from Charted Object

Distance to an object can be determined by measurement using a radar observation, by measurement of vertical
angle with a sextant stadimeter, or range finder. In this case, however, the LOP is a circle rather than a straight line.
The resulting COP (or arc of position) is drawn as the circumference of a circle with origin at the observed object and
radius equal to the measured distance.

Lines of position
The modern chart shows us positions of many recognizable aids to navigation like churches and lighthouses, which
facilitate the approach to a coastal area. This concept originated from a chart by Waghenaer and proved a
milestone in the development of European cartography. This work was called “Spieghel der Zeevaerdt” and
included coastal profiles and tidal information much like the modern chart. It enables us to find the angle between the
North and for example an offshore platform, as seen from our position.

16
Taking a bearing on this oil rig with a compass provides us with a compass course or bearing. This course first needs
correction for both variation and - according to the deviation card or graph, which tells us the deviation for our current
heading - the deviation before plotting a Line of Position (LOP) in the chart as a true course.
Our position is somewhere on this line: 50° towards (or 180°+50°=230° eminating from) the oil rig.

Ranges

A precise way to obtain a LOP, and without a compass, is to locate two aids to
navigation in line. The map of Laura Island on the right shows four examples of
ranges, each consisting of two aids to navigation.
Please, note that:

 More distance between the two landmarks enhances accuracy.

 And less distance between the vessel and the closest aid to navigation
also enhances accuracy.

One of these four ranges consists of two lights that are intentionally placed to
provide a LOP. These pairs of lights are called range lights or leading lights. In this case they indicate the approach
towards the marina and mark the channel between the dangerous rocks along
a true course of 50°. When looking towards any leading lights, the nearest one
will be lower, a range without man-made structures. Therefore, in the middle
of the channel both lights will appear vertically above each other.

Even when there are no man-made structures available, a range can be found
by using natural features such as coastlines and islets. The example on the left
shows a yacht that will avoid the dangerous wreck as long as the islets don't
overlap.
Position fix

If two LOPs intersect we can construct a position fix: the ship's position on the earth. Often however, a triangle occurs
when a third LOP is added in the construction. This indicates that there are errors involved in at least one of the
bearings taken. In practice, we should consider each LOP as the average bearing in a wider sector of for instance 10°.

The optimum angular spread is 90° (two objects) or 120° (three objects). Moreover, bearings on distant objects bring
about more uncertainty in our position fix as the sector widens. Finally, if moving fast you should not put any time
between the bearings.

The next example features a nocturnal landfall on Willemsen Island - you are welcome to visit, but mind the rocks.
The position fix is plotted by taking bearings at two light-vessels as their lights appear over the horizon . The
variation is -1° and the ship's compass heading is 190°. Since we use our steering compass for our bearings, we
can use the same deviation table. That means a deviation of -4° with which we can calculate (cc + var + dev = tc)
the true courses.

17
Without a third LOP - forming the dreaded triangle - there is the false suggestion of accuracy. Yet, instrument errors,
erroneous identification of an aid to navigation, sloppy plotting, etc. can and will cause navigation errors. Therefore, if
close to e.g. rocks, you should assume to be at the worst possible position (i.e. closest to the navigational hazard).
The lines plotted in the chart are always true courses and these are labeled with true courses by default; the “T” is
optional. If labeled with the corresponding magnetic course or compass course add an “M” or “C”, respectively.

Estimated position

It is sometimes impossible to obtain more than one LOP at a time. To

determine the ship's position with one aid to navigation we can use a running
fix. However if a running fix is not possible, we can determine an estimated
position.

Estimated position plot : One LOP plus DR position gives EP.An estimated
position is based upon whatever incomplete navigational information is
available, such as a single LOP, a series of depth measurements correlated to
charted depths, or a visual observation of the surroundings.

In the example on the right we see an estimated position constructed using a single LOP and the ship's dead
reckoning position (DR). This is done by drawing a line from the DR position at the time of the LOP perpendicular to
the LOP. An EP is denoted by a square instead of an ellipse.

Do not rely on an EP as much as a fix. The scale of reliability, from best to worst:
 Fix
 Running fix
 Estimated position
 DR position

Dead reckoning
Dead reckoning is a technique to determine a ship's approximate position by applying to the last established charted
position a vector or series of vectors representing true courses and speed. This means that if we have an earlier fix,
we plot from that position our course and “distance travelled since then” and deduce our current position.

18
Dead reckoning is crucial since it provides an approximate position in the future. Each time a fix or running fix is
plotted, a vector representing the ordered course and speed originate from it. The direction of this course line
represents the ship's course, and the length represents the distance one would expect the ship to travel in a given
time. This extrapolation is used as a safety precaution: a predicted DR position that will place the ship in water 1
metre deep should raise an eyebrow…In the example above the true courses are plotted in the chart, and to assist the
helmsman these course lines are labelled with the corresponding compass courses.

Guidelines for dead reckoning:

 Plot a new course line from each new fix or running fix (single LOP).
 Never draw a new course line from an EP.
 Plot a DR position every time course or speed changes.
 Plot a corrected DR position if the predicted course line proofed wrong, and continue from there.

Running fix

Under some circumstances, such as low visibility, only one line of position can be obtained at a time. In this event, a
line of position obtained at an earlier time may be advanced to the time of the later LOP. These two LOPs should not
be parallel to each other; remember that the optimal angular spread is 90°. The position obtained is termed a running
fix because the ship has “run” a certain distance during the time interval between the two LOPs.

To use the LOP obtained at an earlier time, we must advance it to the time of the second LOP. This is done by using
the dead reckoning plot. First, we measure the distance between the two DR positions and draw a construction line,
which is parallel to a line connecting the two DR positions.

Note that if there are no intervening course changes between the two DR positions, it's easiest just to use the course
line itself as the construction line.

Now, using the parallel rulers we advance the first LOP along this construction line over the distance we measured. Et
voilá, the intersection is our RFix.

If there is an intervening course change, it appears to make our problem harder. Not so! The only DR positions that
matter are the two corresponding with the LOPs.

19
Guidelines for advancing a LOP:
 The distance: equal to the distance between the two corresponding DR positions.
 The direction: equal to the direction between the two corresponding DR positions.
 Draw the advanced LOP with a dotted line and mark with both times.
 Label the Running Fix with an ellipse and "RFix" without underlining.

Danger bearing

Like the dead reckoning positioning, the danger bearing is an important tool to keep the ship out of harm's way. First,
the navigator identifies the limits of safe, navigable water and determines a bearing to for instance a major light. This
bearing is marked as “No More Than” (NMT) or “No Less Than” (NLT), depending on which side is safe. Hatching is
included on the side that is hazardous, along with its compass bearing.

In the example on the right a true course of 325° is plotted (5° variation), marked
with the magnetic course of 320°, practical for a handheld compass that requires no
deviation correction. Were we see that light at 350° magnetic - which is definitely
“More Than” - the rocks and wreck would be between us and the major light. A
possible cause could be a (tidal) stream from east to west.

When a distance is used instead of a direction, a danger range is plotted much the
same way as the danger bearing.

Turn Bearing
The Turn bearing - like the danger bearing - is constructed in the chart in advance. It
should be used as a means of anticipation for sailing out of safe waters (again like the
danger bearing and dead reckoning). The turn bearing is taken on an appropriate aid to navigation and is marked
“TB”. As you pass the object its bearing will slowly change. When it reaches the turn bearing turn the vessel on her
new course. This type of bearing is also used for selecting an anchorage position or diving position.

Snellius Construction

Willebrord Snellius - a 16th century mathematician from Leiden, the Netherlands - became famous for inventing the
loxodrome and his method of triangulation. The Snellius construction was first used to obtain the length of the
meridian by measuring the distance between two Dutch cities. He took angles from and to church towers of villages in
between to reach his objective. Nowadays we use the Snellius method to derive our position from three bearings
without the use of LOPs, and while leaving out deviation and variation, which simplifies things. Also, since only relative
angles are needed a sextant can be used to measure navigation aids at
greater distances. Closer in a compass can be used.

The construction:

 See Figure 1: Compass bearings are 320° on A; 360° on B;

050° on object C.
 The angle between A and B = 40°.
 The angle between B and C = 50°.
 Draw lines from A to B and from B to C.
 Add the two light-blue perpendicular bisectors of lines AB and BC.
 Draw at object A a construction line 40° inland of line AB.
 Draw at object C a second construction line 50° inland of line CB.

See figure 2: At object A: draw a line perpendicular to the construction line.

 At object C: draw another line perpendicular to the construction line.
 The two intersections with the light-blue lines indicate the centres of
two circles.
 Finally, draw the first circle using A and B and the second circle using B
and C.
 The off shore intersection of the two circle gives us our position fix.

The advantage: deviation and variation can be left out since the angles (here
40° and 50°) are relative ones. Moreover, a sextant can be used to obtain
angles between objects at greater distances, that with a compass would be less
20
 precise.

Note, that a few countries use an alternative symbol

Plotting should be done with a soft pencil. Moreover, avoid drawing lines through the chart symbols. This is to prevent
damage to the chart when you have to erase the construction.

Glossary

 Line Of Position (LOP): The locus of points along which a ship's position must lie. A minimum of two LOPs are
necessary to establish a fix. It is standard practice to use at least three LOPs when obtaining a fix, to guard
against the possibility of and, in some cases, remove ambiguity.
 Transit fix: The method of lining up charted objects to obtain an LOP.
 Leading lights or Range lights: A pair of lights or day marks deliberately placed to mark a narrow channel.
 Position fix: The intersection of various LOPs.
 Cross bearing: The use of LOPs of several navigational aids to obtain a position fix. Remember to use an
optimal angular spread.
 Running fix: The use of an advanced LOP. Make sure to use only the corresponding DR positions. Also don't
use the EP for advancing the first LOP.
 Dead reckoning: Determining a position by plotting courses and speeds from a known position. It is also used
to predict when lights become visible or to determine the set and rate of a current.
 Estimated position: Combine a corresponding DR position with a single LOP to get an EP position.
 Snellius construction: Another way to combine three compass bearings to obtain a position fix. The advantage
over a cross bearing is that both magnetic variation and deviation don't need to be taken into account.
 Course: (C) The direction in which a vessel is steered or is intended to be steered (direction through the
water).
 Speed: (S) The speed of the boat through the water.
 Set: (SET) The direction in which the current is flowing (see chapters 6,7 and 8).
 Drift: (DFT) The speed (in knots) of the current (see chapters 6,7 and 8).
 Default heading is True course (M = magnetic , C = compass).
 Default time is 24 hour clock ship time else UTC.

There are several types of position line:

Compass bearing - the angle between north and the line passing through the compass and the point of interset
Transit - a line passing through the observer and to other reference points
Leading line - the line passing through to marks indicating a safe channel
Leading lights - the line passing through to beacons indicating a safe channel
Sector lights – the lines created by masked coloured lights that indicate a safe channel

21
 LEARNING LOG NO. 1

Creating a Diagram Showing Line Positions of a Vessel

Direction: Draw a diagram showing Line Positions. Make consistent explanation of each with a maximum of 50 words
in each of the types of marks below by using relevant terminologies from the specified topic. A Short Answer Rubric is
provided in the succeeding page for you to know and understand what the instructor‘s expectation from your answer
and how you will be graded.

1. Compass Courses

2. True Courses

3. Position Fix

4. Running Fix

5. Dead Reckoning

22
 Short Answer Rubric

Reminder: This rubric will be rated by your instructor only!

Note: Each of the items in Learning Log No. 1 requires a 15-point answer guided with the criteria and levels of assessment.

Levels of Assessment

Criteria
Exemplary Above Average Adequate Inadequate

1
5 3 2
Writing shows high Writing is coherent and Writing is coherent and Writing lacks logical
Organization of degree of attention to logically organized with logically organized. organization. It shows
Thoughts logic and reasoning of transitions used between Some points remain some coherence but
(5) points. Unity clearly leads ideas and paragraphs to misplaced and stray ideas lack unity.
the reader to the create coherence. Overall from the topic. Serious errors.
conclusion and stirs unity of ideas is present. Transitions evident but
thought regarding the not used throughout
topic. essay.
1
5 3 2
Content indicates Content indicates original Content indicates Shows some thinking
Level of Content synthesis of ideas, in thinking and develops ideas thinking and reasoning and reasoning but
(5) depth analysis and with sufficient and firm applied with original most ideas are
evidences original evidence. thought on a few ideas. underdeveloped and
thought and support for unoriginal.
the topic.

1
5 3 2
Development Main points well Main points well developed Main points are present Main points lack
(choice of words and developed with high with quality supporting with limited detail and detailed development.
grammar) quality and quantity details and quantity. Critical development. Some Ideas are vague with
(5) support. Reveals high thinking is weaved into critical thinking is little evidence of
degree of critical points. present. critical thinking.
thinking.

Organization of Level of Content Development

Item No. Points
Thoughts

1 /15

2 /15

3 /15

4 /15

5 /15

Total Points /75

*Adapted from: Teaching Commons, Center for Innovation and Excellence in Learning, by Dr. Rhonda Dubec,2018

23
 LEARNING LOG NO. 2
Computation of the Ship’s Position When Abeam
Direction: Analyse each of the given scenarios below. Solve problems involving the distance of ship when abeam. A
Short Answer Rubric is provided in the succeeding page for you to know and understand what the instructor‘s
expectation from your answer and how you will be graded.

1. A vessel is heading 1800 C in the vicinity of BSMT Group of Islands (approximately latitude 390 and
27.4 S. at 1100 hours she observed the following Compass bearings:

a. Give the vessel’s position at 1100 hours;

b. She now wishes to alter course to pass Big Rock (32) (approximately 3900 Latitude 30.4 S) at a distance of 1
mile. What is her next compass course;
c. If her log sped is 10 knots. At what time she will be abeam of the Big Rock? (ABEAM means at right angle to
the vessel’s fore and aft line)?

2. If a navigator sees Deck Department’s Head Lighthouse (46° 13.9’N 06° 10.2’W) on a bearing of
050°M, then one hour later it bears 125 °M, what is the latitude and longitude if the course was
330 °M and the vessel travelled 5.1M, during a period when the current was 343°T at 1.2kn? Find
the following:

a. Initial Bearing
b. Distance Travelled
c. Tidal Vector
d. Second Bearing
e. Plot Bearing

24
 Weekly Student Journal Rubric

Reminder: This rubric will be rated by your instructor only!

Note: Each of the items in Learning log No. 3 requires a 30-point answer guided with the criteria and levels of
assessment.

Levels of Assessment

Criteria
Exemplary Above Average Adequate Inadequate

1
5 3 3
Identifying the
problems Appropriate variables Appropriate variables In appropriate variable No attempt
(5) defined precisely defined imprecisely definition
w/units
1
5 3 2
Model and execute the
problem Appropriate attempts of Appropriate attempt with Inappropriate attempt No attempt
mathematically method with no errors minor arithmetic errors
(5)

1
5 3 2
Evaluate the results
Complete explanation Incomplete explanations An attempt but fails to No attempt
(5)
with correct labelling explain solution, provide
units

Model and Execute the

Identifying the Evaluate the results
Item No. problem mathematically Points
problems (5)
(5)
(5)

/15
a
/15
1. b
/15
c
/15
a
/15
b
/15
2 c
/15
d
/15
e

Total Points /120

*Adapted from: Teaching Commons, Center for Innovation and Excellence in Learning, by Dr. Rhonda Dubec,2018

25
 Weekly Student Journal Entry No. 1

Direction: Based on your readings about the topic, log your learning on the space provided below. Write a maximum
of 250 words on the salient points you have gained from the topic about Position Lines and Position. Please refer to
the Student Journal Rubric in the next page of what is expected from you and how you will be graded. Start your
Journal Entry with the given introductory statement.

Position Lines and Position

I have learned from the topics that __________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

26
 Weekly Student Journal Rubric

Reminder: This rubric will be rated by your instructor only!

Levels of Assessment

Exceeds Meets
Acceptable Unacceptable Points
Criteria Expectations Expectations

20 15 10 1

Selected items that Selected items that Selected items and Selected items and
are important and are important in details that discuss details that are not
help make content discussing the the activities for important or
interesting; the activities for the the week, but they relevant
details focus on the week; the details are not very
Content most important help the reader see important.
information. things about the
Choices help the items in interesting
reader see things in ways.
a new way. /20

20 15 10 1

Organization of
thought units Journal entry is Journal entry is Journal entry is Journal entry lacks
logical and generally logical somewhat illogical logical order and
effective. and effective with a and confusing in organization. /20
few minor places.
problems.

10 7 4 1

Mechanics and Correct spelling and Few or no spelling Several spelling Fulfills few of the
Grammar appropriate errors; some minor errors. Many requirements of the
grammar. punctuation instances of assignment.
mistakes incorrect spelling
and grammar.
/10

Total Points
/50
*Adapted from: Teaching Commons, Center for Innovation and Excellence in Learning, by Dr. Rhonda Dubec, 2018

27
 Lesson 2
The Sailings

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

1. discuss the different types of sailings;

2. explain the relationship between departure and difference of longitude in
cases involving a change of latitude, by using mean latitude;
3. describe the layout of a traverse table;
4. use the Mercator formula to calculate course and distance between two
positions.
Google Image

28
 College College of Maritime Education
Program Bachelor of Science in Marine Transportation
Course Code NAV 3
Course Title Terrestrial and coastal navigation 2
Credit Unit 3 units (Lecture)
Lesson 2 Week 2
Module Topic The Sailings
At the end of the lesson the students are able to:
1. discuss the different types of sailings;
Intended Learning 2. explain the relationship between departure and difference of longitude in cases involving a
Outcomes change of latitude, by using mean latitude;
3. describe the layout of a traverse table;
4. use the Mercator formula to calculate course and distance between two positions

Number of Hours 13.5 Hours (12 Hours Self-Directed Learning and 1.5 Hours Assessment Tasks)
1. What are the different types of sailings?
2. When do we use Mercator sailing formula in solving problem?
Study Questions 3. How do we solve simple problem by the use of Mercator sailing?

Required Suggested
 Lesson 3 Course Module on Terrestrial and  Ynion, Eugenio J., Terrestrial Navigation, 2003
Coastal Navigation2. College of Maritime  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ruDB87OYVqY
Education, University of the Visayas;  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UNwcQ-OuJ14
Learning Resources  Table A-II/1 Function 1: Navigation at the  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ndQLKh1hE30
operational level; and
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_kFjpaaRdA
 CMO No. 67 series of 2017. Revised PSG
for BS Marine Transportation and BS
Marine Engineering Programs

1. To condition the mind of the student about the lesson he shall watch a video about:
Parallel sailing - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ruDB87OYVqY
Great circle sailing - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UNwcQ-OuJ14
2. To observe continuity of the lesson the student shall watch another video about:
Mercator sailing - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ndQLKh1hE30
Middle latitude sailing-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_kFjpaaRdA
Learning Activity 3. The student shall read the attached notes about the sailings and shall understand the given
topic guided with the following questions:
What are the different types of sailings?
When do we use Mercator sailing formula in solving problem?
How do we solve simple problem by the use of Mercator sailing?
4. To measure the students understanding about the topic, he shall achieve Learning Log No.4
Mercator sailing, solve problems using Mercator formula.
5. To further evaluate student’s learning about the lesson, he shall make Student Weekly Journal
No. 3 “The sailing”

Required Output Learning Log 3

Weekly Student Journal Entry 2
Assessment Tasks Learning Log No. 3 Calculating Course and Distance Using the Mercator Formula
Weekly Student Journal Entry 2
1. Short Answer Rubric
Assessment Tool
2. Student Journal Rubric
Target Competency Plan and conduct a passage and determine position
Prepared by: Reviewed by: Approved for use:

2M EUSTEQUIO CABATUAN, JR. CM JUDELITO D. BALOS DR. ANNA LOU C. CABUENAS

Instructor BSMT Program Coordinator Chief Academic Officer

29
THE SAILINGS
Introduction

Sailing employs the wind—acting on sails, wingsails or kites—to propel a craft on the surface of the water, on ice or on
land over a chosen course, which is often part of a larger plan of navigation. A course defined with respect to the true
wind direction is called a point of sail.

The term sailings refers to the mathematical solution of problems involving the finding of courses and distances from
one known point to another. For short distances, these problems are easily solved directly on charts, but for long
distances, a purely mathematical solution is often a better method.

Dead reckoning involves the determination of one’s present or future position by projecting the ship’s course and
distance run from a known position. A closely related problem is that of finding the course and distance from one
known point to another. For short distances, these problems are easily solved directly on charts, but for trans-oceanic
distances, a purely mathematical solution is often a better method. Collectively, these methods are called The
Sailings.

Dead reckoning involves the determination of one’s present or future position by projecting the ship’s course and
distance run from a known position. A closely related problem is that of finding the course and distance from one
known point to another. For short distances, these problems are easily solved directly on charts, but for trans-oceanic
distances, a purely mathematical solution is often a better method. Collectively, these methods are called The
Sailings.

Navigational computer programs and calculators commonly contain algorithms for computing all of the problems of
the sailings. For those situations when a calculator is not available, this chapter discusses hand calculation methods
and tabular solutions. Navigators can also refer to NIMA Pub. 151, Distances Between Ports, for distances along
normal ocean routes.

Because most commonly used formulas for the sailings are based on rules of spherical trigonometry and assume a
perfectly spherical Earth, there may be inherent errors in the calculated answers. Errors of a few miles over distances
of a few thousand can be expected. These will generally be much less than errors due to currents, steering error, and
leeway.

To increase the accuracy of these calculations, one would have to take into account the oblateness of the Earth.
Formulas exist which account for oblateness, reducing these errors to less than the length of the typical vessel using
them, but far larger errors can be expected on any voyage of more than a few day’s duration.

Rhumb Lines and Great Circles

The principal advantage of a rhumb line is that it maintains constant true direction. A ship following the rhumb line
between two places does not change its true course. A rhumb line makes the same angle with all meridians it crosses
and appears as a straight line on a Mercator chart. For any other case, the difference between the rhumb line and the
great circle connecting two points increases (1) as the latitude increases, (2) as the difference of latitude between the
two points decreases, and (3) as the difference of longitude increases.

A great circle is the intersection of the surface of a sphere and a plane passing through the center of the sphere. It is
the largest circle that can be drawn on the surface of the sphere, and is the shortest distance along the surface
between any two points. Any two points are connected by only one great circle unless the points are antipodal (180°
apart on the Earth), and then an infinite number of great circles passes through them. Every great circle bisects every
other great circle. Thus, except for the equator, every great circle lies exactly half in the Northern Hemisphere and
half in the Southern Hemisphere. Any two points 180° apart on a great circle have the same latitude numerically, but
contrary names, and are 180° apart in longitude. The point of greatest latitude is called the vertex. For each great
circle, there is a vertex in each hemisphere, 180° apart in longitude. At these points the great circle is tangent to a
parallel of latitude, and its direction is due east-west. On each side of these vertices, the direction changes
progressively until the intersection with the equator is reached, 90° in longitude away, where the great circle crosses
the equator at an angle equal to the latitude of the vertex.

On a Mercator chart, a great circle appears as a sine curve extending equal distances each side of the equator. The
rhumb line connecting any two points of the great circle on the same side of the equator is a chord of the curve. Along
any intersecting meridian the great circle crosses at a higher latitude than the rhumb line. If the two points are on
opposite sides of the equator, the direction of curvature of the great circle relative to the rhumb line changes at the
30
equator. The rhumb line and great circle may intersect each other, and if the points are equal distances on each side
of the equator, the intersection takes place at the equator.

Great circle sailing takes advantage of the shorter distance along the great circle between two points, rather than the
longer rhumb line. The arc of the great circle between the points is called the great circle track. If it could be followed
exactly, the destination would be dead ahead throughout the voyage (assuming course and heading were the same).
The rhumb line appears the more direct route on a Mercator chart because of chart distortion. The great circle crosses
meridians at higher latitudes, where the distance between them is less. This is why the great circle route is shorter
than the rhumb line.

The decision as to whether or not to use great circle sailing depends upon the conditions. The savings in distance
should be worth the additional effort, and of course the great circle route cannot cross land, nor should it carry the
vessel into dangerous waters. Composite sailing may save time and distance over the rhumb line track without
leading the vessel into danger.

Since a great circle other than a meridian or the equator is a curved line whose true direction changes continually, the
navigator does not attempt to follow it exactly. Instead, he selects a number of waypoints along the great circle,
constructs rhumb lines between the waypoints, and steers along these rhumb lines.

Before studying about the kinds of Sailings, the following terminologies and quantities should be understood to best
remember on how to compute the solutions of the sailings:

1. Latitude (L). The latitude of the point of departure is designated Ll ; that of the destination, L2; middle (mid)
or mean latitude, Lm; latitude of the vertex of a great circle, Lv; and latitude of any point on a great circle, Lx.
2. Mean latitude (Lm). Half the arithmetical sum of the latitudes of two places on the same side of the
equator.
3. Middle or mid latitude (Lm). The latitude at which the arc length of the parallel separating the meridians
passing through two specific points is exactly equal to the departure in proceeding from one point to the other
by mid-latitude sailing. The mean latitude is used when there is no practicable means of determining the
middle latitude.
4. Difference of latitude (l or DLat.).
5. Meridional parts (M). The meridional parts of the point of departure are designated Ml , and of the point of
arrival or the destination, M2.
6. Meridional difference (m).
7. Longitude (λ). The longitude of the point of departure is designated λ1; that of the point of arrival or the
destination, λ2; of the vertex of a great circle, λv; and of any point on a great circle, λx.
8. Difference of longitude (DLo).
9. Departure (p or Dep.).
10. Course or course angle (Cn or C).
11. Distance (D or Dist.).

Kinds of Sailings
These are (1) Plane sailing, (2)traverse sailing, (3)middle or mid
latitude sailing, (4) mercator Sailing, (5) Great Circle Sailing (6)
Composite Sailing, and (7) Parallel Sailing.

The seven sailings are dicussed and elaborated based on their

computations.

1. Plane sailing. Solves problems involving a single course

and distance, difference of latitude, and departure, in
which the Earth is regarded as a plane surface. This
method, therefore, provides solution for latitude of the
point of arrival, but not for longitude. To calculate the
longitude, the spherical sailings are necessary. Plane
sailing is not intended for distances of more than a few
hundred miles.

This method therefore provides solution for latitude of the point of arrival, but not for longitude. To calculate
the longitude, the spherical sailings are necessary.

31
 In
plane sailing the figure formed by the meridian through the
point of departure, the parallel through the point of arrival, and
the course line is considered a plane right triangle. This is
illustrated in Figure 2412a. P1 and P2 are the points of
departure and arrival, respectively. The course angle and the
three sides are as labelled. From this triangle:

Label l as N or S, and p as E or W, to aid in identification of the quadrant of the

course. Solutions by calculations and traverse tables are illustrated in the following
examples:

Example 1: A vessel steams 188.0 miles on course 005°.

Required: (1) (a) Difference of latitude and (b) departure by computation.

(2) (a) difference of latitude and (b) departure by traverse table.

Solution:
(1) (a) Difference of latitude by computation:
diff latitude = D × cos C
= 188.0 miles × cos (005°)
The plane sailing triangle = 187.3 arc min
= 3° 07.3' N

(1) (b) Departure by computation:

departure = D × sin C = 188.0 miles × sin (005°) = 16.4 miles

Answer: Diff. Lat. = 3° 07.3' N departure = 16.4 miles

(2) Difference of latitude and departure by traverse table:

Refer to The Plane Sailing Triangle. Enter the traverse table and find course 005° at the top of the page. Using
the column headings at the top of the table, opposite 188 in the Dist. column extract D. Lat. 187.3 and Dep.
16.4

(a) D. Lat. = 187.3' N.

(b) Dep. = 16.4 mi. E.

32
 Example 2: A ship has steamed 136.0 miles north and 203.0 miles west.

Required: (1) (a) Course and (b) distance by computation. (2) (a) course and (b) distance by traverse table.

Solution:

Answer: C = 304°
D = 244.8 miles

Draw the course vectors to determine the correct course. In this case the vessel has gone north 136 miles and
west 203 miles. The course, therefore, must have been between 270° and 360°. No solution other than 304° is
reasonable.
(1) (b) Distance by computation: D = diff. latitude × sec C
= 136 miles × sec (304°)
= 136 miles × 1.8
= 244.8 miles

Summary of the Solutions for the Plane Sailings:

1. To convert from C (course angle) to Cn (true course): EQUATIONS YOU NEED:

1. Determine the direction of travel (North Easterly) Sin C = p / D
2. In this case C and C = Cn Cos C = l / D
3. If you have direction of travel NW then you subtract C from 360° Tan C = p / l
4. If you have SE, subtract C from 180° How were these formulas derived?
5. If you have SW, add C to 180°

2. To solve for Course and Distance:

2.1 If given Lat and Long for P1 and P2, solve or convert for l and final latitude in degrees and tenths, and solve
for DLo in minutes

L1 = 34°06’ N λ1: 146°32’ E

L2 = 30°16’N λ2: 140°16‘ E

30.2667°N

l = 3°50’ (S) DLO = 6°16‘ (W)

3.8333° (S) 376‘ (W)

2.2 Then enter into the equation p=DLo cos L2 to solve for p.

p = DLo cos L2

p = 376 cos 30.2667

p = 324.75nm

33
2.3 Then solve for C using the equation tan C = p/l.
p = DLo cos L2

p = 376 cos 30.2667

p = 324.75nm

3. To Solve for Final Position:

3.1 If given P1 and a course and distance, work backward through the equations to find what you need.

L1: 34°06’N λ1: 146°32‘ E Cn = 234.69° T D = 398nm

C = S 54.69° W

3.2 Use sin C = p/D to solve for the Departure (p)

sin C = p/D

sin 54.69 = p/398

p = 324.75nm

3.3 Then solve for l using tan C = p/l

L1: 34°06’N

l = 3°50’S

L2 = 30°16’N

3.4 Get L2 using l

L1: 34°06’N

l = 3°50’S

L2 = 30°16’N

3.5 p can then be converted into DLo using p = DLo cos L2

p = DLo cos L2

324.75 = DLo cos 30.2667

DLo = 376' (W) = 6°16‘ (W)

3.6 To get λ2 use DLo

λ1: 146°32‘ E

DLo: 6°16‘ (W)

λ2: 140°16‘ E

34
4. If given Two Situations FORMULA TO USE:
4.1 If Given Both Positions
Dep / DLo = Cos of Lat
Find the course and distance between them How was the formula derived?
4.1.1 Start by finding the course (East or West, easy!
4.1.2 Next solve for Dlo. Simply subtract or add the two longitude values
4.1.3 Next, use the value of DLo, and L (in degrees and tenths), and the
equation p = DLo cos L to solve for the departure (p), along the trackline.
In this case, this is also the total distance traveled.
Λ1 = 130°45'E

Λ2 = 145°45'W

FIND:
Answer: 1. Course
2. Distance
Course = EAST or 090°
choose the closest distance

λ1: 130°45'E

λ2: 145°45'W

DLo = 360-λ1+λ2

p = DLo cos L

p = 5010 cos 23.1

p (distance) = 4608.3nm

4.2 If Given The Initial Position, Course, and Distance

4.2.1 Begin by finding the DLo by using the equation p = DLo cos L
4.2.2 The answer you get will be in minutes, which can easily be converted into degrees.
4.2.3 Once you know DLo, you can add or subtract appropriately to find λ2.

2. Traverse sailing. Combines the plane sailing solutions when there are two or more courses and determines
the equivalent course and distance made good by a vessel steaming along a series of rhumb lines.

Using Traverse Tables

Traverse tables can be used in the solution of any of the sailings except great circle and composite. They
consist of the tabulation of the solutions of plane right triangles. Because the solutions are for integral values
of the course angle and the distance, interpolation for intermediate values may be required. Through
appropriate interchanges of the headings of the columns, solutions for other than plane sailing can be made.
For the solution of the plane right triangle, any value N in the distance (Dist.) column is the hypotenuse; the
value opposite in the difference of latitude (D. Lat.) column is the product of N and the cosine of the acute
angle; and the other number opposite in the departure (Dep.) column is the product of N and the sine of the
acute angle. Or, the number in the D. Lat. column is the value of the side adjacent, and the number in the
Dep. column is the value of the side opposite the acute angle. Hence, if the acute angle is the course angle,
the side adjacent in the D. Lat. column is meridional difference m; the side opposite in the Dep. column is
DLo. If the acute angle is the midlatitude of the formula p = DLo cos Lm, then DLo is any value N in the Dist.
column, and the departure is the value N × cos Lm in the D. Lat. column.

35
 The examples below clarify the use of the traverse tables for plane, traverse, parallel, mid latitude, and
Mercator sailings.

Traverse Table Extract from the Traverse Table

(2) Solution by traverse table:

Refer to the Extract from the Traverse Table. Enter the table and find 136 and 203 beside each other in the
columns labeled D. Lat. and Dep., respectively. This occurs most nearly on the page for course angle 56°.
Therefore, the course is 304°. Interpolating for intermediate values, the corresponding number in the Dist.
column is 244.3 miles. Answer: (a) C = 304°
(b) D = 244.3 mi.

Example: A ship steams as follows: course 158°, distance 15.5 miles; course 135°, distance 33.7 miles;
course 259°, distance 16.1 miles; course 293°, distance 39.0 miles; course 169°, distance 40.4 miles.

Required: Equivalent single (1) course (2) distance.

Solution: Solve each leg as a plane sailing and tabulate each solution as follows: For course 158°, extract the
values for D. Lat. and Dep. opposite 155 in the Dist. column. Then, divide the values by 10 and round them
off to the nearest tenth. Repeat the procedure for each leg.

Thus, the latitude difference is S 65.8 miles and the departure

is W 14.4 miles. Convert this to a course and distance using the
formulas discussed in Article 2413.

Answer: (1) C = 192.3° (2) D = 67.3 miles.

3. Parallel sailing is the interconversion of departure and difference of longitude when a vessel is proceeding
due east or due west. Parallel sailing consists of the interconversion of departure and difference of longitude.
It is the simplest form of spherical sailing. The formulas for these transformations are: DLo p sec L= p DLo cos L

Example 1: The DR latitude of a ship on course 090° is 49°30' N. The ship steams on this course until the
longitude changes 3°30'.

Required: The departure by

(1) computation and
(2) traverse table.
Answer: p = 136.4 miles

36
 (2) Solution by traverse table:
Refer to Figure 2414a. Enter the traverse table with latitude as course angle and substitute DLo as the
heading of the Dist. column and Dep. as the heading of the D. Lat. column. Since the table is computed for
integral degrees of course angle (or latitude), the tabulations in the pages for 49° and 50° must be
interpolated for the intermediate value (49°30'). The departure for latitude 49° and DLo 210' is 137.8 miles.
The departure for latitude 50° and DLo 210' is 135.0 miles. Interpolating for the intermediate latitude, the
departure is 136.4 miles. Answer: p = 136.4 miles

Example 2: The DR latitude of a ship on course 270° is 38°15'S. The ship steams on this course for a
distance of 215.5 miles.
Required: The change in longitude by (1) computation and (2) traverse table
Solution:
(1) Solution by computation
DLo = 215.5 arc min × sec (38.25°)
DLo = 215.5 arc min × 1.27
DLo = 274.4 minutes of arc (west) Answer: DLo = 4° 34.4' W
DLo = 4° 34.4' W
(2) Solution by traverse table
Refer to Extract from the Traverse Table. Enter the traverse tables with latitude as course angle and
substitute DLo as the heading of the Dist. column and Dep. as the heading of the D. Lat. column. As the
table is computed for integral degrees of course angle (or latitude), the tabulations in the pages for 38° and
39° must be interpolated for the minutes of latitude. Corresponding to Dep. 215.5 miles in the former is DLo
273.5', and in the latter DLo 277.3'. Interpolating for minutes of latitude, the DLo is 274.4'W. Answer: DLo
= 4° 34.4'

4. Middle- (or mid-) latitude sailing uses the mean latitude for converting departure to difference of longitude
when the course is not due east or due
west. This combines plane sailing and
parallel sailing.

Middle-latitude sailing combines plane

sailing and parallel sailing. Plane sailing is
used to find difference of latitude and
departure when course and distance are
known, or vice versa. Parallel sailing is used
to interconvert departure and difference
of longitude. The mean latitude (Lm) is
normally used for want of a practical
means of determining the middle latitude, or
the latitude at which the arc length of the
parallel separating the meridians
passing through two specific points is exactly
equal to the departure in proceeding from
one point to the other. The formulas for these
transformations are: DLo p sec Lm = p DLo cos
Lm.

The mean latitude (Lm) is half the arithmetic

sum of the latitudes of two places on the
same side of the equator. It is labeled N or S
to indicate its position north or south of the
equator. If a course line crosses the equator,
solve each course line segment separately.

37
Example 1: A vessel steams 1,253 miles on course 070° from lat. 15°17.0' N, long. 151°37.0' E.
Required: Latitude and longitude of the point of arrival by (1) computation and (2) traverse table.
Solution:
(1) Solution by computation:
l = D cos C; p = D sin C; and DLo = p sec Lm.
D = 1253.0 miles.
C = 070°
Answer: L2 = 22° 25.6' N
l = 428.6' N λ2 = 172° 21.2' E
p = 1177.4 miles E
L1 = 15°17.0' N
l = 7°08.6' N
L2 = 22°25.6' N
Lm = 18°51.3' N
DLo = 1244.2' E λ1 = 151°37.0' E
DLo = 20°44.2' E λ2 = 172° 21.2' E

5. Mercator sailing is meridional distance made good by a vessel steaming along a series of rhumb lines and the
difference and difference of longitude in place of difference of latitude and departure.

Mercator Sailing

• Provides a mathematical solution of the plot as made on a Mercator chart.

• It is similar to plane sailing, but uses meridional differences and difference of longitude in place of
difference of latitude and departure
• Can be used when travelling in any direction for any distance.

GIVEN L1: 23°06'N λ1: 130°45'E Cn = 270°T Dist: 600nm

N
FIND: The final position

Answer:

p = DLo cos L

600 = DLo cos 23.1

DLo = 652.3'(W)= 10°52.3'(W)

λ1: 130°45'E

DLo = 10°52.3'(W)

λ2: 119°52.7'E

38
 Example No. 1
λ2: 135°15'E
L1: 34°06'N L2: 44°06'N
λ1: 130°45'E

λ1: 130°45'E λ2: 135°15'E

DLo: 4°30'(W)

COMPUTATION STEPS:

1. Begin by finding the meridional parts (M) for each of the positions using the equation below:
MP = (Lat÷2) + 45 = Tan Log Ans x 7915.7 – Sin Latitude x 23.2
Or refer to Norie’s Nautical Tables and also from Bowditch Table 6

2. Solve for the difference of Meridional Parts or m

Ways to Solve:
M1 = 2165.8’ 1. COMPUTATION
2. TRAVERSE TABLE
M2 = 2938.2’
Formula To Use:
m = 772.4’ tan C = DLo/m
cos C = l/D

Find: Course and Distance

SAMPLE OF BOWDITCH

COMPUTATION STEPS: Find Course and Distance

3. Then find the Dlat (l) and Dlo in degrees and tenths.

The letters in the parenthesis after l and Dlo indicate the direction of travel. If moving in a northerly direction,
(N) follows l. If moving in westerly direction (W) follows Dlo.

L2: 44°06'N

L1: 34°06'N

l: 10°(N)

4. Next, enter the known m value and the known DLo value into the equations to find your course and distance.

39
 tan C = DLo/m

tan C = 270 / 772.4

C = N 19.3° E
Cn = 019.3° T

Example Problem No.2

L1: 32°14.7'N L2: 36°58.7'N

λ1: 66°28.9‘W λ2: 75°42.2‘W

SOLUTION BY TRAVERSE TABLE:

1. Solve for m and Dlo

2. Substitute m as the heading of Dlat column and Dlo as the heading of the Dep. Column

M1 = 2032.9
cos C = l/D

M2 = 2377.5
Cos 19.3 = 600/D
(10° of lat=600nm)
m = 344.6
D = 635.72nm

3. Because a number as high as 344.6 is not tabulated in the m column, it is necessary to divide m and Dlo by
10 thus
m = 344.6’ / 10 Find:
= 34.4 (subbed as DLat)
DLo = DLo: 9°13.3'(W) 1. Course and
= 553.3’ / 10 2. Distance
= 55.3 (subbed as Dep)
By TRAVERSE TABLE

λ2: 075°42.2‘W (Can only be used for distances up to 600nm

and for courses for every degree of the
λ1: 066°28.9‘W compass)

DLo: 9°13.3'(W) or 553.3’

4. This occurs most nearly on the page

for course angle 58° or course 302°
5. Re-enter the table with course 302° to
find Dist. For DLat 284.0’
6. Distance is 536nm

ANSWER:

C = 302°
D = 536 nm

40
6. Great circle sailing involves the solution of courses, distances, and points along a great circle between two points.
This is used for long ocean passages. For this purpose, the earth is considered a perfect spherical shape; therefore,
the shortest distance between two points on its surface is the arc of the great circle containing two points. As the
track is the circle, so the course is constantly changing, and the track must be broken down into a series of short
rhum lines at frequent intervals that can be used to sail on the Mercatos Chart. Doing this, the navigator would use
the Gnomic charts combined with the Mercator chats to draw the sailing track.

The initial coursee always has same name as the initial lattde and east or west direction of the course. The final
course always has the opposite name from the final latitude unless initial poistion and final position are in different
hemispheres, when the final will have same name as final latitde and east or west direction of the course.

The graphic solution of great circle problems involves the use of two charts. NIMA publishes several gnomonic
projections covering the principal navigable waters of the world. On these great circle charts, any straight line is a
great circle. The chart, however, is not conformal; therefore, the navigator cannot directly measure directions and
distances as on a Mercator chart.

The usual method of using a gnomonic chart is to plot the route and pick points along the track every 5° of longitude
using the latitude and longitude scales in the immediate vicinity of each point. These points are then transferred to a
Mercator chart and connected by rhumb lines. The course and distance for each leg can then be measured, and the
points entered as waypoints in an electronic chart system, GPS, or Loran C.

Great Circle Sailing by Sight Reduction Tables

Any method of solving a spherical triangle can be used for solving great circle sailing problems. The point of departure
replaces the assumed position of the observer, the destination replaces the geographical position of the body, the
difference of longitude replaces the meridian angle or local hour angle, the initial course angle replaces the azimuth
angle, and the great circle distance replaces the zenith distance (90° - altitude). Therefore, any table of azimuths (if
the entering values are meridian angle, declination, and latitude) can be used for determining initial great circle
course. Tables which solve for altitude, such as Pub. No. 229, can be used for determining great circle distance. The
required distance is 90° - altitude.
41
 Constructing a great circle track on a Mercator
projection.
In inspection tables such as Pub. No. 229, the given combination of L1, L2, and DLo may not be tabulated. In this
case reverse the name of L2 and use 180° - DLo for entering the table. The required course angle is then 180° minus
the tabulated azimuth, and distance is 90° plus the altitude. If neither combination can be found, solution cannot be
made by that method. By interchanging L1 and L2, one can find the supplement of the final course angle.

Solution by table often provides a rapid approximate check, but accurate results usually require triple interpolation.
Except for Pub. No. 229, inspection tables do not provide a solution for points along the great circle. Pub. No. 229
provides solutions for these points only if interpolation is not required.

By entering Pub. No. 229 with the latitude of the point of departure as latitude, latitude of destination as declination,
and difference of longitude as LHA, the tabular altitude and azimuth angle may be extracted and converted to great
circle distance and course. As in sight reduction, the tables are entered according to whether the name of the latitude
of the point of departure is the same as or contrary to the name of the latitude of the destination (declination). If the
values correspond to those of a celestial body above the celestial horizon, 90° minus the arc of the tabular altitude
becomes the distance; the tabular azimuth angle becomes the initial great circle course angle. If the respondents
correspond to those of a celestial body below the celestial horizon, the arc of the tabular altitude plus 90° becomes
the distance; the supplement of the tabular azimuth angle becomes the initial great circle course angle.

When the Contrary/Same (CS) Line is crossed in either direction, the altitude becomes negative; the body lies below
the celestial horizon. For example: If the tables are entered with the LHA (DLo) at the bottom of a right-hand page
and declination (L2) such that the respondents lie above the CS Line, the CS Line has been crossed. Then the distance
is 90° plus the tabular altitude; the initial course angle is the supplement of the tabular azimuth angle. Similarly, if
the tables are entered with the LHA (DLo) at the top of a right-hand page and the respondents are found below the
CS Line, the distance is 90° plus the tabular altitude; the initial course
angle is the supplement of the tabular azimuth angle. If the tables are
entered with the LHA (DLo) at the bottom of a right-hand page and the
name of L2 is contrary to L1, the respondents are found in the column for
L1 on the facing page. In this case, the CS Line has been crossed; the
distance is 90° plus the tabular altitude; the initial course angle is the
supplement of the tabular azimuth angle.

The tabular azimuth angle, or its supplement, is prefixed N or S for the

latitude of the point of departure and suffixed E or W depending upon the
destination being east or west of the point of departure.

If all entering arguments are integral degrees, the distance and course
angle are obtained directly from the tables without interpolation. If the
latitude of the destination is nonintegral, interpolation for the additional Adapting the astronomical triangle to
minutes of latitude is done as in correcting altitude for any declination the navigational triangle of great circle
increment; if the latitude of departure or difference of longitude is sailing

nonintegral, the additional interpolation is done graphically.

42
Since the latitude of destination becomes the declination entry, and all declinations appear on every page, the great
circle solution can always be extracted from the volume which covers the latitude of the point of departure

Example 1: Using Pub. No. 229, find the distance and initial great circle course from lat. 32°S, long. 116°E to
lat. 30°S, long. 31°E.

Solution: Refer to Figure 2405. The point of departure (lat. 32°S, long. 116°E) replaces the AP of the observer;
the destination (lat. 30°S, long. 31°E) replaces the GP of the celestial body; the difference of longitude (DLo 85°)
replaces local hour angle (LHA) of the body.

Enter Pub. No. 229, Volume 3 with lat. 32° (Same Name), LHA 85°, and declination 30°. The respondents
correspond to a celestial body above the celestial horizon. Therefore, 90° minus the tabular altitude (90° -
19°12.4' = 70°47.6') becomes the distance; the tabular azimuth angle (S66.0°W) becomes the initial great circle
course angle, prefixed S for the latitude of the point of departure and suffixed W due to the destination being
west of the point of departure. Answer: D = 4248 nautical miles

Example 2: Using Pub. No. 229, find the distance and initial great circle course from lat. 38°N, long. 122°W to
lat. 24°S, long. 151°E.

Solution: Refer to Figure 2405. The point of departure (lat. 38°N, long. 122°W) replaces the AP of the observer;
the destination (lat. 24°S, long. 151°E) replaces the GP of the celestial body; the difference of longitude (DLo
87°) replaces local hour angle (LHA) of the body.

Enter Pub. No. 229 Volume 3 with lat. 38° (Contrary Name), LHA 87°, and declination 24°. The respondents
correspond to those of a celestial body below the celestial horizon. Therefore, the tabular altitude plus 90°
(12°17.0' + 90° = 102°17.0') becomes the distance; the supplement of tabular azimuth angle (180° - 69.0° =
111.0°) becomes the initial great circle course angle, prefixed N for the latitude of the point of departure and
suffixed W since the destination is west of the point of departure.

Note that the data is extracted from across the CS Line from the entering argument (LHA 87°), indicating that
the corresponding celestial body would be below the celestial horizon.

Answer: D = 6137 nautical miles C = N111.0°W = 249°.

Create circle Sailing By Computation

In the Navigational Triangle and Great Circle Sailing, 1 is the point of departure,
2 the destination, P the pole nearer 1, l-X-V-2 the great circle through 1 and 2,
V the vertex, and X any point on the great circle. The arcs P1, PX, PV, and P2
are the colatitudes of points 1, X, V, and 2, respectively. If 1 and 2 are on
opposite sides of the equator, P2 is 90°+ L2. The length of arc 1-2 is the great
circle distance between 1 and 2. Arcs 1- 2, P1, and P2 form a spherical triangle.
The angle at 1 is the initial great circle course from 1 to 2, that at 2 the
supplement of the final great circle course (or the initial course from 2 to 1), and
that at P the DLo between 1 and 2.

Great circle sailing by computation usually involves solving for the initial great
circle course, the distance, latitude/longitude (and sometimes the distance) of
the vertex, and the latitude and longitude of various points (X) on the great The navigational triangle and
circle. The computation for initial course and the distance involves solution of an great circle sailing
oblique spherical triangle, and any method of solving such a triangle can be
used. If 2 is the geographical position (GP) of a celestial body (the point at which the body is in the zenith), this
triangle is solved in celestial navigation, except that 90° - D (the altitude) is desired instead of D. The solution for the
vertex and any point X usually involves the solution of right spherical triangles.

Points along the Great Circle

If the latitude of the point of departure and the initial great circle course angle are integral degrees, points along the
great circle are found by entering the tables with the latitude of departure as the latitude argument (always Same
Name), the initial great circle course angle as the LHA argument, and 90° minus distance to a point on the great circle
as the declination argument. The latitude of the point on the great circle and the difference of longitude between that
point and the point of departure are the tabular altitude and azimuth angle, respectively. If, however, the respondents
43
are extracted from across the CS Line, the tabular altitude corresponds to a latitude on the side of the equator
opposite from that of the point of departure; the tabular azimuth angle is the supplement of the difference of
longitude.

Example 1: Find a number of points along the great circle from latitude 38°N, longitude 125°W when the initial
great circle course angle is N111°W.

Solution: Entering the tables with latitude 38° (Same Name), LHA 111°, and with successive declinations of 85°,
80°, 75°, etc., the latitudes and differences in longitude from 125°W are found as tabular altitudes and azimuth
angles respectively:

Example 2: Find a number of points along the great circle track from latitude 38°N, long. 125°W when the initial
great circle course angle is N 69° W.

Solution: Enter the tables with latitude 38° (Same Name), LHA 69°, and with successive declinations as shown.
Find the latitudes and differences of longitude from 125°W as tabular altitudes and azimuth angles, respectively:

Finding the Vertex

To find the approximate position of the vertex of a great circle track provides a rapid check on the solution by
computation. This approximate solution is also useful for voyage planning purposes.

Using the procedures for finding points along the great circle, inspect the column of data for the latitude of the point
of departure and find the maximum value of tabular altitude. This maximum tabular altitude and the tabular azimuth
angle correspond to the latitude of the vertex and the difference of longitude of the vertex and the point of
departure.

Example 1: Find the vertex of the great circle track from lat. 38°N, long. 125°W when the initial great
circle course angle is N69°W.

Solution: Enter Pub. No. 229 with lat. 38° (Same Name), LHA 69°, and inspect the column for lat.
38° to find the maximum tabular altitude. The maximum altitude is 42°38.1' at a distance of 1500
nautical miles (90° - 65° = 25°) from the point of departure. The corresponding tabular azimuth
angle is 32.4°. Therefore, the difference of longitude of vertex and point of departure is 32.4°.

Answer: Latitude of vertex = 42°38.1'N.

Longitude of vertex = 125° + 32.4° = 157.4°W

44
Altering a Great Circle Track to Avoid Obstructions

Land, ice, or severe weather may prevent the use of great circle sailing for some or all of one’s route. One of the
principal advantages of the solution by great circle chart is that any hazards become immediately apparent. The pilot
charts are particularly useful in this regard. Often a relatively short run by rhumb line is sufficient to reach a point
from which the great circle track can be followed. Where a choice is possible, the rhumb line selected should conform
as nearly as practicable to the direct great circle.

If the great circle route passes too near a navigation hazard, it may be necessary to follow a great circle to the vicinity
of the hazard, one or more rhumb lines along the edge of the hazard, and another great circle to the destination.
Another possible solution is the use of composite sailing; still another is the use of two great circles, one from the
point of departure to a point near the maximum latitude of unobstructed water and the second from this point to the
destination.

GREAT CIRCLE SAILING

• The earth is considered a perfect spherical shape for the purpose of Navigation. Therefore, the shortest
distance between two points on its surface is the arc of the great circle containing two points.
• Is the closest approximation we have to steering along the exact curve of the earth.
• Is used for long ocean passages normally passages East to West or vice versa.
• On these great circle charts, any straight line is a great circle.
• Chart is not conformal therefore the navigator cannot directly measure directions and distances as on a
Mercator chart

WAYS TO SOLVE GREAT CIRLE SAILING:

OTHER TYPES OF GREAT CIRCLE
1. By Chart SAILING:
2. By Computation
3. By Sight Reduction Tables 1. Composite Great Circle Sailing
4. By Pub. No. 229 2. Limited Latitude Great Circle
Sailing

SOLVING GREAT CIRCLE USING GNOMONIC CHART:

• Navigators can most easily solve great-circle sailing problems graphically.
• Chart makers publishes several gnomonic projections covering the principal navigable waters of the
world

Mercator chart:
1. Plot the route and pick points along the track every 5° of longitude using the latitude and longitude scales in
the immediate vicinity of each point.
2. These points are then transferred to a Mercator chart and connected as rhumb lines.
3. The course and distance for each leg is measured on the Mercator chart.
4. Course can be measured using Compass Rose and Distance using the Latitude Scale of the Mercator chart.

SOLVING GREAT CIRCLE USING EQUATION

Few things to consider:

• All variables are described in degrees, and from there are converted
• When entering into the equations, L1 and L2 are contrary name, L2 is entered as a negative number
• If after solving an equation, C is found to be negative, add 180 to find true value
• C is based off the elevated pole, not the direction of travel as with the other sailings
• Formulas are based on Celestial Nav calculations

Terms to Remember:

GC EQUATIONS:

cos D = sinL1sinL2 + cosL1cosL2cosDLo sin Dv = cos L1sinDLov

tan C = (sin DLo) / ((cosL1tanL2) - (sinL1cosDLo)) tan Lx = (cosDLovx)(tanLv)
cos Lv = cosL1sinC sin Lx = (sinLv)(cosDvx)
sin DLov = (cos C) / (sin Lv) sin DLovx = (sin Dvx) / (cos Lx)

45
GC Example No.1

You intend to leave 25°00'N, 145°00'E for 36°00'N, 175°00'W the day after tomorrow. What is your initial course and
the Great Circle distance of the voyage?

D – GC distance in degrees (°) of arc

Cn – Initial true course from P1 along GC
C – Initial course angle from P1 along GC, measured from elevated pole
DLov – Distance between λ1 and λv
X – any point on GC track between P1 and P2
Dvx – Distance in degrees (°) from V to X along GC track
Dv – Distance in degrees (°) from P1 to V
V – Vertex of GC Track
Lv – Latitude of vertex
Λv – Longitude of vertex
Lx – Latitude of point along GC Track
DLovx – Longitudinal distance in degrees from V to X
What you need: What you know:
L1: 25°00' N L2: 36°00'N
L1 25°00' N

λ1: 145°00'E λ2: 175°00' W

L2 36°00'N

DLo ???
How to Solve:

1. Establish what you need to know and what you do already know from the information provided.

Which Equations To Use:

cos D = sinL1sinL2 + cosL1cosL2cosDLo

tan C = (sin DLo) / ((cosL1tanL2) - (sinL1cosDLo))

2. Solve for what you don't know. In this case, we do not yet know DLo, so we will solve by adding λ1 to λ2 and
subtracting the sum from 360.

λ1 145°00'E

λ2 175°00' W

DLo 360-(λ1+λ2) = 40°(E)

3. Lastly, now that you only have one unsolved variable, solve for your initial course and distance using the
appropriate equations.

tan C = (sin DLo) / ((cosL1tanL2) -

cos D = sinL1sinL2 + cosL1cosL2cosDLo (sinL1cosDLo))

tan C = (sin 40.0°) / (((cos 25.0°)(tan 36.0°))

cos D = (sin 25.0°)(sin 36.0°) + (cos 25.0°)(cos
- ((sin 25.0°)(cos 40.0°)))
36.0°)(cos 40.0°)
tan C = 1.92033
cos D = 0.810087
C = 62.5°
D = 35.895° = 2153.7 nm
Cn = 062.5°

46
GC Example No.2

You are on a great circle track departing from 25°30.0'N, 077°00.0'W and your initial course is 061.7°T. The position
of the vertex is 37°20.0'N, 025°45.0'W. If you leave at 0800, April 3 and travel at 20 knots, when will you arrive at
the vertex?

L1: 25°30.0'N Lv: 37°20.0'N

λ1: 077°00.0'W λv: 025°45.0'W

How to Solve:

1. Establish what you need to know and what you do already know from the information provided.

Which Equations To Use: What you need: What you know:

L1 25°00' N
sin Dv = (cos L1)(sin DLov)
DLo ???
2. Solve for what you don't know. In this case, we do not
yet know DLo, so we will solve by subtracting λv from λ1.

λ1 077°00.0'W

λv 025°45.0'W

DLo λ1-λv = 51°15.0' (E)

3. Now that you only have one unsolved variable, solve for your Dv.

sin Dv = (cos L1)(sin DLov)

sin Dv = (cos 25.5)(sin 51.25)

sin Dv = 0.70391

Dv = 44.7° = 2684.5 nm

4. Lastly, solve ETA using the appropriate equations

Time = Distance / Speed

Departure 0800, 3 Apr
Time = 2684.5nm / 20kts
Time in
5d 14h 14m
Transit Time = 134.225 hrs = 5 days 14 hours 14
minutes
2214, 8
Arrival
Apr Time = Distance / Speed

7. Composite sailing is a modification of great circle sailing to limit the maximum latitude, generally to avoid
ice or severe weather near the poles. When the great circle would carry a vessel to higher latitude than
desired, a modification of great sailing called composite sailing may be used to good advantage. The

47
 composite track consists of a great circle from the point of departure and tangent to the limiting parallel, a
corse line along the parallel, and a great circle tangent to the limiting parallel and through the destination.

When the great circle would carry a vessel to higher latitude than desired, a modification of great circle sailing
called composite sailing may be used to good advantage. The composite track consists of a great circle from
the point of departure and tangent to the limiting parallel, a course line along the parallel, and a great circle
tangent to the limiting parallel and through the destination. Solution of composite sailing problems is most
easily made with a great circle chart. For this solution, draw lines from the point of departure and the
destination, tangent to the limiting parallel. Then measure the coordinates of various selected points along the
composite track and transfer them to a Mercator chart, as in great circle sailing. Composite sailing problems
can also be solved by computation, using the equation:

end of the limiting parallel, and use parallel sailing along the limiting parallel. Since both great circles have
vertices at the same parallel, computation for C, D, and DLovx can be made by considering them parts of the
same great circle with L1, L2, and Lv as given and DLo = DLov1 + DLov2. The total distance is the sum of the
great circle and parallel distances.

Important Terminologies to be remembered in Sailing with info graphics:

1. MERIDIAN – Imaginary semi-circle joining the earth's poles, and

crossing the equator and all latitudes (baselines) at right angles.

2. RHUMB LINES – or loxodrome is an arc crossing all meridians

of longitude at the same angle, i.e. a path with constant bearing as
measured relative to true or magnetic north.

A rhumb line spiraling

towards the North Pole

3. GREAT CIRCLE – also known as an orthodrome . A circle on the surface of a sphere that lies in a plane
passing through the sphere's center.

48
 4. LATITUDE – is an angle which ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° (North or South) at the poles. Lines of
constant latitude, or parallels, run east to west as circles parallel to the equator.

5. LONGITUDE – Angular distance East or West on the earth's surface, measured by the angle contained
between the meridian of a particular place and some prime meridian, as that of Greenwich, England, and
expressed either in degrees or by some corresponding difference in time.

6. TRUE COURSE – the course of a ship measured with respect to True North.

49
7. DISTANCE – The length in nautical miles of the rhumb line joining any two places on the earth's surface.
In the figure, distance is measured in the chart using compass dividers and the Latitude scale.

8. DEPARTURE – The distance between two meridians.

DEP vs. DLO

DLO – Difference between Longitudes is the angle between two meridians.

9. GREAT CIRCLE TRACK – Because the earth is not

flat, but a sphere (roughly), the shortest distance
between two points is not a straight line, but a curved
one.
It is the arc of the great circle between two points.

The image above shows the difference of distance between GC and RL (Mercator Track)

10. VERTEX – The point on the Great Circle Track where greatest value of Latitude is located.

50
11. MERCATOR CHART – A cylindrical map projection in which the meridians and parallels appear as lines
crossing at right angles and in which areas appear greater farther from the equator. Straight line segments
represent true bearings, thus making this projection useful for navigation.

12. GNOMONIC CHART – A chart on the gnomonic projection where great circles project as straight lines. Also
known as great-circle chart.

51
 LEARNING LOG NO. 3
Calculating Course and Distance Using the Mercator Formula

Direction: Analyse each of the given questions below. Solve problems involving Mercator sailing. A Short Answer
Rubric is provided in the succeeding page for you to know and understand what the instructor‘s expectation from your
answer and how you will be graded.

1. You depart LAT 32˚16.6’N, LONG 068˚28.0’W. What is the course and distance as calculated by Mercator
sailing to a position at LAT 43˚12.2’N, LONG 055˚39.0’W?

2. A vessel at LAT 38˚36’N, LONG 011˚36’W, heads for a destination at LAT 24˚16’N, LONG 071˚52’W.
Determine the true course and distance to the distress scene by Mercator sailing?

3. You receive a distress call from a vessel reporting her positions as LAT 30˚21’N, LONG 088˚34’W. Your
position is LAT 24˚30’N, LONG 083˚00’W. Determine the true course and distance to the distress scene by
Mercator sailing?

4. A vessel at LAT 49˚45’N, LONG 006˚35’W, heads for destination at LAT 25˚50’N, LONG 077˚00’W. Determine
the true course and distance by Mercator sailing?

5. A vessel steams 1650 miles on course 77˚ T from LAT 12˚47’N, long 045˚10’E. What is the latitude and
longitude of the point of arrival by Mercator sailing?

52
 Weekly Student Journal Rubric

Reminder: This rubric will be rated by your instructor only!

Note: Each of the items in Learning log No. 3 requires a 30-point answer guided with the criteria and levels of
assessment.

Levels of Assessment

Criteria
Exemplary Above Average Adequate Inadequate

1
10 8 5
Identifying the problems
Appropriate variables Appropriate variables In appropriate variable No attempt
(10)
defined precisely defined imprecisely definition
w/units
1
5 3 2
Model and execute the
problem mathematically Appropriate attempts of Appropriate attempt with Inappropriate attempt No attempt
(10) method with no errors minor arithmetic errors

1
5 3 2
Evaluate the results
Complete explanation Incomplete explanations An attempt but fails to No attempt
(10)
with correct labelling explain solution, provide
units

Model and Execute the

Identifying the Evaluate the results
Item No. problem mathematically Points
problems (10)
(10)
(10)

1 /30

2 /30

3 /30

4 /30

5 /30

Total Points /150

*Adapted from: Teaching Commons, Center for Innovation and Excellence in Learning, by Dr. Rhonda Dubec,2018

53
 Weekly Student Journal Entry No. 2

Direction: Based on your readings about the topic in the sailing, log your learning on the space provided below. Write
a maximum of 250 words on the salient points you have gained from the parallel sailing, Mercator sailing. great circle
sailing, mid-latitude sailing. Please refer to the Student Journal Rubric in the next page of what is expected from you
and how you will be graded. Start your Journal Entry with the given introductory statement.

The Sailing

I have learned from the topics that _______________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

54
 Weekly Student Journal Rubric

Reminder: This rubric will be rated by your instructor only!

Levels of Assessment

Exceeds Meets
Acceptable Unacceptable Points
Criteria Expectations Expectations

20 15 10 5

Selected items that Selected items that Selected items and Selected items and
are important and are important in details that discuss details that are not
help make content discussing the the activities for important or
interesting; the activities for the the week, but they relevant
details focus on the week; the details are not very
Content most important help the reader see important.
information. things about the
Choices help the items in interesting
reader see things in ways.
a new way. /20

Journal entry is Journal entry is Journal entry is Journal entry lacks

logical and generally logical somewhat illogical logical order and
Organization of effective. and effective with a and confusing in organization.
thought units few minor places.
problems.
/20

10 7 4 1

Mechanics and Correct spelling and Few or no spelling Several spelling Fulfills few of the
Grammar appropriate errors; some minor errors. Many requirements of the
grammar. punctuation instances of assignment.
mistakes incorrect spelling
and grammar.
/10

Total Points
/50
*Adapted from: Teaching Commons, Center for Innovation and Excellence in Learning, by Dr. Rhonda Dubec, 2018

55
 Lesson 3
Chart works

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

1. explain the term running fix and uses the method to plot a position;
2. comprehend the positions by running fix in a tidal stream or current;
3. describe set, rate, drift and leeway due to wind; and
4. illustrate and solve a problem of set and drift.

56
 College College of Maritime Education
Program Bachelor of Science in Marine Transportation
Course Code NAV 3
Course Title Terrestrial and coastal navigation 2
Credit Unit 3 units (Lecture)
Lesson 3 Week 3
Module Topic Chart Works
At the end of the lesson the students are able to:
1. explain the term 'running fix' and uses the method to plot a position;
Intended Learning 2. comprehend the positions by running fix in a tidal stream or current;
Outcomes 3. describe 'set', 'rate', 'drift' and 'leeway' due to wind;
4. illustrate and solve a problem of 'set‘ and 'drift’

Number of Hours 13.5 Hours (12 Hours Self-Directed Learning and 1.5 Hours Assessment Tasks)
1. What is chart work?
2. How do you plot a dead reckoning and fix position by the use of chart?
Study Questions 3. How do you plot a running fix?

Required Suggested
 Lesson 3 Course Module on Terrestrial and  Moore, D. A. Marine Chartwork 2nd ed, 1984
Learning Resources Coastal Navigation2. College of Maritime  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y22P1YOntjk&
Education, University of the Visayas; list=PLjZi6sSb2w5ahg0Vap0iXLJtqHqKM191t&index
 Table A-II/1 Function 1: Navigation at the =2
operational level; and  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4sWeF0DFRKk
 CMO No. 67 series of 2017. Revised PSG &list=PLjZi6sSb2w5ahg0Vap0iXLJtqHqKM191t&ind
for BS Marine Transportation and BS ex=3
Marine Engineering Programs

1. To condition the mind of the student about the lesson he shall watch a video about:
Chartworks-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y22P1YOntjk&list=PLjZi6sSb2w5ahg0Vap0iXLJtqHqKM19
1t&index=2
2. To observe continuity of the lesson the student shall watch another video about:
Chart works-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4sWeF0DFRKk&list=PLjZi6sSb2w5ahg0Vap0iXLJtqHqKM1
91t&index=3
Learning Activity 3. The student shall read the attached notes about chart works and shall understand the given
topic guided with the following questions:

 What is chart work?

 How do you plot a dead reckoning and fix position by the use of chart?
 How do you plot a running fix?
4. To measure the students understanding about the topic, he shall achieve Learning Log No.4
set and drift.
5. To further evaluate student’s learning about the lesson, he shall make Student Weekly Journal
No. 2 “Chart works”
Required Output Learning Log 4
Weekly Student Journal Entry 3
Assessment Tasks Learning Log No. 4 - Problem Solving: Set and Drift
Weekly Student Journal Entry 3
1. Short Answer Rubric
Assessment Tool
2. Student Journal Rubric
Target Competency Plan and conduct a passage and determine position
Prepared by: Reviewed by: Approved for use:

2M EUSTEQUIO CABATUAN, JR. CM JUDELITO D. BALOS DR. ANNA LOU C. CABUENAS

Instructor BSMT Program Coordinator Chief Academic Officer

57
What is Nautical Chart and How it Works?
A nautical chart is a graphic representation of a sea area and adjacent coastal regions. Depending on the scale of the
chart, it may show depths of water and heights of land (topographic map), natural features of the seabed, details of
the coastline, navigational hazards, locations of natural and human-made aids to navigation, information
on tides and currents, local details of the Earth's magnetic field, and human-made structures such as harbours,
buildings and bridges. Nautical charts are essential tools for marine navigation; many countries require vessels,
especially commercial ships, to carry them. Nautical charting may take the form of charts printed on paper or
computerized electronic navigational charts. Recent technologies have made available paper charts which are printed
"on demand" with cartographic data that has been downloaded to the commercial printing company as recently as the
night before printing. With each daily download, critical data such as Local Notices to Mariners are added to the on-
demand chart files so that these charts are up to date at the time of printing. In short, Nautical Chart Work is a:
• A practice done by Navigators that involve plotting courses and other navigational processes on a chart.
• Chart work is crucial to passage planning and safe coastal cruising.
• Accurate chart work is the basis for good navigation.
• Before going to sea, a course is plotted on a chart noting bearings, distances and expected times for each leg
of the trip.
• While at sea, position is fixed at regular intervals and the course adjusted when necessary.

Materials needed:

 Navigational Chart
 Compass dividers
 Pencil and Eraser
 Parallel Ruler
 Protractor Triangle
 Chart Plotter

Terms to remember:

• Speed – the rate of movement of a vessel measured in knots (kts)

• Distance – the space between two points measured in nautical miles (nm)
• Course – the route or direction followed by a ship measured in degrees (°)
• Speed and Course Made Good – the actual Speed and Course maintained in proceeding on the desired route
• Speed to use and Course to steer – the needed Speed and Course to apply in order to maintain on the
intended track

• Line of Position (LOP) - a line connecting all the possible positions of a ship, as determined by a single
observation
• Fix – a position determined without reference to any former position, intersected by two or more lines of
positions
• Running Fix – a position determined by crossing lines of position obtained at different time and advanced or
retired to a common time.
• Dead Reckoning (DR) – determines position by advancing a known position for courses and distances
• Estimated Position (EP) – corrected DR position for leeway, current effect and steering error

58
 Calculates the speed between two positions

1. Get the Distance between 2

positions

2. Calculate the time between the 2 points

3. Use the DST formula

D=SxT
S=D/T
T= D / S

59
 Define 'set', 'rate', 'drift' and 'leeway' due to wind

• Leeway is the leeward motion of a vessel due to that component of the wind vector perpendicular to the
vessel’s track.
• Leeway and current combine to produce the most pronounced natural dynamic effects on a transiting vessel.

Illustrate and solve a problem of 'set‘ and 'drift’

Example No. 1: A ship on course 080°, speed 10 knots, is steaming through a current having an estimated set of
140° and drift of 2 knots.

Required: Estimated track and Speed Made Good

Solution:

1. From A, any convenient point, draw AB, the course and speed of the ship, in direction 080°, for a distance of
10 nm
2. From B draw BC, the set and drift of the current, in direction 140°, for a distance of 2 miles
3. The direction and length of AC are the estimated track and speed made good

Answer for Example No 1:

Estimated track made good 089°, estimated speed made good 11.2 knots

Example No. 2 : The captain desires to make good a course of 095° through a current having a set of 170° and a drift
of 2.5 knots, using a speed of 12 knots

Required : The course to steer and the speed made good

Solution :

1. From A, any convenient point, draw line AB extending in the direction of the course to be made good 095°
2. From A draw AC, the set and drift of the current.
3. Using C as a center, swing an arc of radius CD, the speed thought the water (12 knots), intersecting line AB at
D
4. Measure the direction of line CG, 083.5°. This is the course to steer
5. Measure the length AD, 12.4 knots. This is the speed made good

60
Answer for Example No 2:

Course to steer 083.5°, speed made good 12.4 knots

Illustrate and solve a problem of 'leeway’

Example No. 1 : You wish to make good a course of 046° but a Northerly wind is producing a 5° Leeway. What is the
course to steer to make good the desired course?

Solution :

• You desire to steer a NE’ly course but the wind will push you from the North to the South approximately 5°
• You need to steer a bit more toward the North in order to obtain the desired results
• To make good 046° you must steer 5° more toward the North 046° - 5° = 041°

Example No. 2 : You are steering 125° PGC. The wind is southwest by south causing a 3° leeway. The variation is
6°E, the deviation is 2°W, and the gyro error is 1°W. What is the true course made good?

A. 121°T B. 122°T C. 127°T D. 129°T

61
 Plotting the Dead Reckoning (DR) Position

Things to consider:

1. At least every hour on the hour

2. After every change of course or speed
3. After every fix or running fix
4. After plotting a single line of position 0900H
5. DR symbol when plotting is half a circle

Example:

• The navigator lays out 090° course line with speed of 10 knots from departure
• At 1000H, the navigator plots a DR position
• At 1030H, the conning officer orders a course change to 060°T.
• The navigator plots the 1030H DR Position
• At 1100H, the conning officer changes back to 090°T and plots 1100H DR.

Answer of Example No. 2 :

A. 121°T

Plotting the Estimated Position (EP)

• To calculate EP, draw a vector from the DR position in the direction of the set, with the length equal to the
product of the drift and the number of hours since the last reset.
• Note that the EP is enclosed in a square and labeled horizontally with the time.
• Plot and evaluate an EP with every DR position
62
Example:

• From 0900H DR position the navigator draw a set and drift vector.
• The end of that vector marks the 0900 EP.

Find positions by running fix in a tidal stream or current

• Under some circumstances, such as low visibility, only one line of position can be obtained at a time. In this
event, a line of position obtained at an earlier time may be advanced to the time of the later LOP.
• These two LOPs should not be parallel to each other; remember that the optimal angular spread is 90°.
• The position obtained is termed a running fix because the ship has “run” a certain distance during the time
interval between the two LOPs.

EXAMPLE No. 1 - SIMPLE RUNNING FIX

1. Plot LOP from a NAVAID (LOP1)

2. Plot a second bearing to the same NAVAID at a later time (LOP2)
3. Advance LOP 1 to the time when LOP 2 was taken
4. Dist of Advance = Speed of Vessel x Steaming Time
5. The intersection of LOP 2 and the advanced LOP1 constitute a running fix.

63
 0930H

Calculate the actual set and rate of tidal stream or current from DR and fixed positions

If reliable fix places a vessel in a position which is different from the D.R. position, that difference will be the result of
current and/or tide (and possibly wind).

• In the illustration, a vessel obtained a good fix at 0600 (position “A”) and set course 285°(T) at a speed of 10
knots.
• At 0630 the D.R. was at position “B”, but a reliable fix showed the true position to be at “C”.
• In this case the set is 050°(T) and the drift is 1.0 mile.
• Since the time period was thirty minutes the rate of the current was 2 knots.

The scale of reliability, from best to worst:

Fix
Running fix
Estimated position
DR position

64
 LEARNING LOG NO. 4

Problem Solving: Set and Drift

Direction: Test your understanding by answering the questions below based on what you have learned from your
readings. Solve a problem of set and drift. A Short Answer Rubric is provided in the succeeding page for you to know
and understand what the instructor‘s expectation from your answer and how you will be graded.

1. A ship on course 080˚T, speed 10 knots, is steaming through a current having an estimated set of 140˚ and
drift of 2 knots. Find the course and speed made good.

2. The Captain desires to make good a course of 265˚T and a speed of 15 knots through a current having a set
of 185˚T and a drift of 3 knots. Find the course to steer and the speed to use.

3. A vessel is to proceed at 12 knots on a course of 211˚T, through a current estimated to be setting 075˚, drift
3 knot. Find the course made good and speed of advance along that track.

4. Given: Estimated set of the current is 075˚, drift 3 knots. Ship’s speed, 12 knots; ship’s course, 195˚T. Find
course made good and speed of advance (SOA).

5. A vessel at 1300H is 100 miles due west of her desired destination. If the ship is to arrive at her destination at
1800H, find the course and speed to use if a 2-knot current setting of 135˚T is predicted.

65
 Problem Solving Rubric

Reminder: This rubric will be rated by your instructor only!

Note: Each of the items in Learning log No. 2 requires a 30-point answer guided with the criteria and levels of
assessment.

Levels of Assessment

Criteria
Exemplary Above Average Adequate Inadequate

1
10 7 5
Identifying the
problems Appropriate variables Appropriate variables In appropriate variable No attempt
(10) defined precisely w/units defined imprecisely definition

1
10 7 5
Model and execute the
problem Appropriate attempts of Appropriate attempt with Inappropriate attempt No attempt
mathematically method with no errors minor arithmetic errors
(10)

1
10 7 5
Evaluate the results
Complete explanation with Incomplete explanations An attempt but fails to No attempt
(10)
correct labeling explain solution, provide
units

Model and Execute the

Identifying the Evaluate the results
Item No. problem mathematically Points
problems (10)
(10)
(10)

1 /30

2 /30

3 /30

4 /30

5 /30

Total Points /150

*Adapted from: Teaching Commons, Center for Innovation and Excellence in Learning, by Dr. Rhonda Dubec,2018

66
 Weekly Student Journal Entry No. 3

Direction: Based on your readings about the topic, log your learning on the space provided below. Write a maximum
of 250 words on the salient points you have gained from the topic about chart works. Please refer to the Student
Journal Rubric in the next page of what is expected from you and how you will be graded. Start your Journal Entry
with the given introductory statement.

Nautical Chart: How it works?

I have learned from the topics that _______________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

67
 Weekly Student Journal Rubric

Reminder: This rubric will be rated by your instructor only!

Levels of Assessment

Points
Exceeds
Criteria
Expectations Meets
Acceptable Unacceptable
Expectations

20 15 10 5

Selected items that Selected items that Selected items and Selected items and
are important and are important in details that discuss details that are not
help make content discussing the the activities for important or
interesting; the activities for the the week, but they relevant
details focus on the week; the details are not very
Content most important help the reader see important.
(20) information. things about the
Choices help the items in interesting
reader see things in ways.
a new way. /20

Journal entry is Journal entry is Journal entry is Journal entry lacks

Organization of logical and generally logical somewhat illogical logical order and
thought units effective. and effective with a and confusing in organization.
(20) few minor places.
problems.
/20

10 7 4 1

Mechanics and Correct spelling and Few or no spelling Several spelling Fulfills few of the
Grammar appropriate errors; some minor errors. Many requirements of the
(10) grammar. punctuation instances of assignment.
mistakes incorrect spelling
and grammar.
/10

Total Points
/50
*Adapted from: Teaching Commons, Center for Innovation and Excellence in Learning, by Dr. Rhonda Dubec, 2018

68
 Lesson 4
TIDES

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

1. explain the basic theory of tides;

2. discuss the different kinds of tides;
3. acquire the predicted time and height of high and low water at standard
and secondary ports; and
4. understand the spring and neap ranges for standard and secondary port.

69
 College College of Maritime Education
Program Bachelor of Science in Marine Transportation
Course Code NAV 3
Course Title Terrestrial and coastal navigation 2
Credit Unit 3 units (Lecture)
Lesson 4 Week 4
Module Topic Tides
At the end of the lesson the students are able to:
1. explain the basic theory of tides;
Intended Learning 2. discuss the different kinds of tides;
Outcomes 3. acquire the predicted time and height of high and low water at standard and secondary
ports; and
4. understand the spring and neap ranges for standard and secondary port.
Number of Hours 13.5 Hours (12 Hours Self-Directed Learning and 1.5 Hours Assessment Tasks)
1. What causes tides?
2. What are spring and neap tides?
Study Questions 3. What are the four different types of Tides?
4. How do we predict tides?
Required Suggested
Lesson 4 Course Module on Terrestrial and Coastal  Ynion, Eugenio J., Terrestrial Navigation, 2003
Learning Resources Navigation2. College of Maritime Education,  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Ez1QaJYc
University of the Visayas. 8U
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cm7T1Etl2
XY
1.To condition the mind of the student about the lesson he shall watch a video about:
Tides-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Ez1QaJYc8U
2. To observe continuity of the lesson the student shall watch another video about:
Tides - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cm7T1Etl2XY
3. The student shall read the attached notes about tides and shall understand the given topic
guided with the following questions:
Learning Activity  What causes tides?
 What are spring and neap tides?
 What are the four different types of tides?
 How do we predict tides?
4. To measure the students understanding about the topic, he shall achieve Learning Log No.
5 reference plane
5. To further evaluate student’s learning about the lesson, he shall make Student Weekly
Journal No. 4 “Tides”
Required Output Learning Log 5
Weekly Student Journal Entry 4
Learning Log No. 4 Sketching or Diagramming a Reference Plane
Assessment Tasks Weekly Student Journal Entry 4
1. Short Answer Rubric
Assessment Tool
2. Student Journal Rubric
Target Competency Plan and conduct a passage and determine position
Prepared by: Reviewed by: Approved for use:

2M EUSTEQUIO C. CABATUAN, JR. CM JUDELITO D. BALOS DR. ANNA LOUC C. CABUENAS

Instructor BSMT Program Coordinator Chief Academic Officer

70
What Causes Tides?
Tides refer to the rise and fall of our oceans’
surfaces. It is caused by the attractive forces of the Moon
and Sun’s gravitational fields as well as the centrifugal
force due to the Earth’s spin. As the positions of
these celestial bodies change, so do the surfaces’ heights.
For example, when the Sun and Moon are aligned with
the Earth, water levels in ocean surfaces fronting them
are pulled and subsequently rise.

Tides are the periodic motion of the waters of the sea due
to changes in the attractive forces of the Moon and Sun
upon the rotating Earth.

Tides can either help or hinder a mariner.

A high tide may provide enough depth to clear a bar,
while a low tide may prevent entering or leaving a harbor.
Tidal current may help progress or hinder, may set the ship toward dangers or away from them. By understanding
tides and making intelligent use of predictions, the navigator can plan expeditious and safe passage through tidal
water.

• Tides are caused by the gravitational interaction between the Earth and the Moon.

• The gravitational attraction of the moon causes the oceans to bulge out in the direction of the moon.

BASIC THEORY

• Another bulge occurs on the opposite side, since the Earth is also being pulled toward the moon (and away
from the water on the far side).

• Since the earth is rotating while this is happening, two tides

occur each day.
Isaac Newton was the first person to explain tides scientifically.

DEFINITIONS:

Hydrography- the science that deals with the measurements and

description of the physical features of the oceans, seas , lakes, rivers, and their adjoining coastal areas, with
particular reference to their use for navigation.

Hydrographer- one who studies and practices the science of hydrography.

Sounding- determination of the depth of water by the use of a sounding lead or an echo sounder or fathometer.

The Four Different Types of Tides

Diurnal Tide

A diurnal tide has one episode of high water and one episode of low water each day. These tides usually occur in
locations when the moon is farthest from the equator. In the United States, you'll find diurnal tides along the
coast of the Gulf of Mexico.

Semi-diurnal Tide

A semi-diurnal tide has two episodes of equal high water and two episodes of low equal water each day. The
second high tide rises to the same level it did in the first high tide and the second low tide falls to the same level it

71
did in the first low tide. Semi-diurnal tides tend to occur when the moon is directly over the equator. This is the
most common type of tidal pattern. You'll see semi-diurnal tides along the U.S. Atlantic coast.

Mixed Tide

Mixed tides, like the semi-diurnal tide, can have two episodes of high water and two episodes of low water per
day. However, unlike a semi-diurnal tide, mixed tides are unequal, meaning they do not rise and fall to the same
levels. Mixed tides can either include both sets of unequal high and low waters, or only o ne set of unequal high or
low waters. Mixed tides will happen when the moon is extremely far north or extremely far south of the equator.
View mixed tides along the U.S. Pacific coast. For mixed tides, it is helpful to purchase a tide book to know when
the high and low tides will occur.

Meteorological Tide

The first three tides listed are astronomical tides, meaning they are influenced by gravitational actions of the sun,
moon and Earth. Meteorological tides represent all atmospherically influenced tides, s uch as those affected by
wind, barometric pressures, rainfall, ice melting and land drying. One example of a meteorological tide is a storm
surge, when wind and inverted barometric pressure combine to cause a dramatic increase in sea levels.

Tide Levels

Tides are the rise and fall of the ocean water level at any given place. For six hours, a tide will rise on the beach.
Then for six hours, the water level will recede into the ocean. Because oceans are liquid, their bulge is more
obvious than the land bulge.

High Tides
The side of the Earth facing the moon will have a tidal bulge called the direct tide. Similarly, on the opposite side of
the planet, the ocean will also be bulging. This is called the opposite tide, and it happens because the inertial force
of the Earth exceeds the gravitational force of the moon at this location. Therefore, high tides occur simultaneously
on the the opposite sides of the Earth.

Low Tides

Low tides are the receding waters between the high tides. In some places, low tide can be only a few feet, while in
others the ocean can recede much farther. High and low tides both appear two times each in a 24-hour day, but
since the moon rises 50 minutes later each day, the tide cycles will differ by the same 50 minutes daily.

Spring Tides

The phases of the moon also affect tides. When the moon is at its full or new moon phase, high tides are at their
highest, while low tides are lower than usual. Called spring tides, these tides occur when the sun, moon and the
Earth all line up. The added gravity of the sun can make the oceans bulge more than at other times.

Neap Tides

During the moon's quarter phases, the sun pulls against the moon's gravitational pull instead of with it. During
these tides, the result is the lowest high tide and the highest low tide -- in other words, the least extreme
difference between high and low tides. This is called a neap tide.

The lunar tide

The differential attraction of the moon on opposite sides of the earth, produces an ellipsoid of water surrounding
the earth, with its major diameter in line with the direction of the moon. As the earths rotates within this ellipsoid
of water, the water level at any place would rise and fall. This rising and falling due to the influence of the moon, is
known as the lunar tide.

The solar tide

The sun produces a similar effects to the moon, but to a lesser degree. The differential solar attraction on opposites
sides of the earth is small compared with the differential lunar attractions.

72
The rising and falling of the water level due to the effects of the sun is known as the solar tide. The solar tide has
a period has a period of 12h 00m

The combination of the lunar and solar tides is known as the luni-solar tide.

The Sun's Interaction with the Tides

• Spring tides are • mean high water springs

especially strong • mean high water neaps • chart datum tides
(they do not have • mean low water springs • Highest or Lowest
anything to do with • mean low water neaps astronomical tide the
season Spring). • Range
• They occur when the
Earth, the Sun, and the Moon are in a line.
• The gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun both contribute to the tides.
• Spring tides occur during the full moon and the new moon
• Neap tides are especially weak tides.
• They occur when the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun are perpendicular to one another (with
respect to the Earth).
• Neap tides occur during quarter moons.

Define the following of Terms:

• spring tides
• neap tides
• height of tide
• high water

73
 • low water

Reference planes for Tidal Data

The expression ‘height’ of tides refers to the vertical distance from the surface of the water to an arbitrarily chosen
reference plane or datum, such pane being based as a selected low water average. On the other hand, the term
depth of water refers to the vertical distance from the surface of the water to the bottom.

The charted depth is the vertical distance from a reference plane or datum to the ocean bottom. The difference
between the selected high water and low water averages is called the mean range of the tide.

The arbitrarily chosen reference plane differs with the locality and the country making the survey on which the
chart is based. The principal planes of reference used are derived from the approximation of the following:

Mean Low Water Springs(MLWS). This is usually shortened to low water springs. It is the average level of the
low waters that occur at the times of spring tides.

Mean Low Water (MLWL). This is the averages height of all low waters at a given place about half of the low
waters fall below it and half bove.

Mean Low Water Neaps (MLWN). This is the averages height of low waters.

Mean lower Low Water (MLLW). This is the averages height of the lower low waters of each tidal day.

Mean Lower Low Water springs (MLLWS). This is the averages level of the lower of the two lower waters of the
days of spring tides.

Mean Sea Level (MSL). this is the averages height of the surface of
the sea for all stages of the tide over a 19-year period. This may
differ slightly from half-tide level, which is the level midway between
mean high water and mean low water.

Note: Inconsistencies of terminology are found among charts of

different countries and between charts issued at different times.

Mean High Water Neaps (MHWN). This is the averages height of

the high waters of the neap tides.

Mean High Water (MHW). This is the averages height of all high
waters over a 19-year period.

Mean High Water spring (MHWS). This is the averages levels of

the high waters that occur at the time of spring tides.

Mean Higher High Water (MHHW). This is the averages height of

the higher high waters of each tidal day.

Chart Datum

“This may be defined as being a level below which the tide will seldom fall”.

• Lowest Astronomical tide (LAT) - being the lowest tidal level that can be predicted under average
meteorological conditions.
• Soundings on charts are given below Chart Datum

74
 Tide Tables

Tidal Data for various parts of the world is published by NOS in 4

volumes

Central and Western Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean

East Coast of North and South America

Europe and West Coast of Africa

West Coast of North and South America

Tide Duration and Range

1. Range of Tide is the difference in height between Low Water and High Water.
2. The Duration of Tide is the time interval between successive High Waters.
3. The Duration of Rise is the time interval from Low Water to High Water.
4. The Duration of Fall is the time interval from High Water to Low Water.

PUBLICATIONS FOR PREDICTING TIDES

Tide Tables

Each maritime country publishes their own Tide and Current Tables but in the worldwide scale, the United Kingdom
world.

The Tide and Current Tables of the Philippines is published by the Oceanography Division of the coast guard and
geodetic survey, Department of the National Mapping, and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA).

HOW TO USE THE TIDE TABLES

Tide and Current Tables of the Philippines

The Tide and Current Table of the Philippines for the year 2002 contain the predicted times and heights of high and
low waters for each day for 13 primary and 30 secondary tide stations.

It also provides information on the principal variations in the tide at the primary and secondary stations as well as
information as to whether the tide at these stations is diurnal, semidiurnal, or mixed type.

Relevant information such as sunrise, sunset, moonrise, moonset, and other astronomical data are presented in the
latter portion of the tide Tables.

TIDES VERSUS CURRENTS

It is important at this point to make clear the proper meaning and use of the terms that are often loosely. And
incorrectly used. Tide is the rise and fall of the ocean level as a result of changes in the gravitational attraction
between the earth, moon, and sun. Current on the other hand, is a horizontal movement of the sea surface
caused by meteorological, oceanographic, or topographical effects.

Currents may be either ‘tidal’ or ‘non-tidal. Tidal current is the periodic horizontal flow of water accompanying the
rise and fall of the tide. In british usage, tidal current is called tidal stream. Non tidal currents include the
permanent currents in the general circulatory system of the oceans as well as temporary currents arising from
meteorological conditions. The current experienced at any time is usually a combination of tidal and non-tidal
currents.
75
Standard Ports

Standard ports are usually larger commercial harbors that have their own comprehensive tide tables.
By referencing these to their equally unique tidal curves and graphs, specific height and time data can be quickly and
easily extracted without having to grapple with any interpolation

Standard Ports

76
Standard Ports

Secondary Ports
• Secondary ports or Subordinate stations are based as near as practicable on Standard port tidal
characteristics in the area.
• The predictions for tidal times and heights for secondary ports are made by the application of time and
height differences to the standard port.

77
 How to Interpolate

The practical application of the tide tables

Example:

• Let us look at the extraction of times and heights of high and low water for a Standard Port
• To find the time and height of high and low water at Hobart on 16th June 2015.

78
 Example:

Extract from Tide Table

Hobart, Australia 16th of June 2015

TIME OF HW HEIGHT OF HW

0950 1.4m

1947 1.8

TIME OF LW HEIGHT OF LW

0308 0.8m

1209 1.4

The classic rule of twelfths

• The Rule of Twelfths can be used to calculate intermediate times and heights between High and Low Water
without having to refer to tidal curves or graphs.

• While the ‘rule’ can produce acceptable results if the area to which it applies has a reasonably symmetrical
six-hour rise and fall of tide, it can be complicated to use in practice.

Taking the height of LW from HW (to get the range), then dividing the result by 12 before adding up the required
number of twelfths and applying them to either LW or HW heights can call for quite a bit of mental arithmetic.

79
Chartplotters and Websites

Electronic chart predictions

These days, most electronic chartplotters use software that can instantly display the predicted height of tide above
Chart Datum

Websites and apps

For those with access to the Internet, either at home or afloat, there are a variety of tidal height apps and
programs for PCs available.

80
 LEARNING LOG NO. 5
Sketching or Diagramming a Reference Plane

Direction: Draw a sketch or diagram showing the principal levels for reference in a chart. Make consistent responses
with a minimum of 20 words in each of the variations in the ranges and heights of tide below by using relevant
terminologies from the specified topic. A Short Answer Rubric is provided in the succeeding page for you to know and
understand what the instructor‘s expectation from your answer and how you will be graded.

1. Seabed

2. Chart datum

3. Mean low water springs(MLWS)

4. Mean high water spring(MHWS)

5. Mean low water neaps(MLWN)

6. Mean high water neaps(MHWN)

7. Charted and actual depth

8. Neap and spring range of tide

9. Drying heights
81
 Short Answer Rubric

Reminder: This rubric will be rated by your instructor only!

Note: Each of the items in Learning Log No. 5 requires a 15-point answer guided with the criteria and levels of assessment.

Levels of Assessment

Criteria
Exemplary Above Average Adequate Inadequate

5 3 2 1
Writing shows high degree Writing is coherent and Writing is coherent and Writing lacks logical
of attention to logic and logically organized with logically organized. Some organization. It shows
Organization of reasoning of points. Unity transitions used between points remain misplaced some coherence but
Thoughts clearly leads the reader to ideas and paragraphs to and stray from the topic. ideas lack unity. Serious
(5) the conclusion and stirs create coherence. Overall Transitions evident but errors.
thought regarding the unity of ideas is present. not used throughout
topic. essay.
5 3 2 1
Content indicates synthesis Content indicates original Content indicates Shows some thinking
of ideas, in depth analysis thinking and develops ideas thinking and reasoning and reasoning but most
Level of Content and evidences original with sufficient and firm applied with original ideas are
(5) thought and support for evidence. thought on a few ideas. underdeveloped and
the topic. unoriginal.
5-4 3 2 1
Development Main points well developed Main points well developed Main points are present Main points lack detailed
(choice of words and with high quality and with quality supporting details with limited detail and development. Ideas are
grammar) quantity support. Reveals and quantity. Critical thinking development. Some vague with little
(5) high degree of critical is weaved into points. critical thinking is evidence of critical
thinking. present. thinking.

Organization of Level of Content Development

Item No. Points
Thoughts (5) (5)
(5)

1
/15

2
/15

3
/15

4
/15

5
/15

6
/15

7 /15

8 /15

9 /15

Total Points /135

*Adapted from: Teaching Commons, Center for Innovation and Excellence in Learning, by Dr. Rhonda Dubec,2018

82
 Weekly Student Journal Entry No. 4

Direction: Based on your readings about the topic, log your learning on the space provided below. Write a maximum
of 250 words on the salient points you have gained from the topic about tides. Please refer to the Student Journal
Rubric in the next page of what is expected from you and how you will be graded. Start your Journal Entry with the
given introductory statement.

TIDES

I have learned from the topics that _________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

83
 Weekly Student Journal Rubric

Reminder: This rubric will be rated by your instructor only!

Levels of Assessment

Points
Exceeds Meets
Criteria Acceptable Unacceptable
Expectations Expectations

20 15 10 1

Selected items that Selected items that Selected items and Selected items and
are important and are important in details that discuss details that are not
help make content discussing the the activities for important or
interesting; the activities for the the week, but they relevant
details focus on the week; the details are not very
Content most important help the reader see important.
information. things about the
Choices help the items in interesting
reader see things in ways.
a new way. /20

Journal entry is Journal entry is Journal entry is Journal entry lacks

logical and generally logical somewhat illogical logical order and
Organization of effective. and effective with a and confusing in organization.
thought units few minor places.
problems.
/20

10 7 4 1

Mechanics and Correct spelling and Few or no spelling Several spelling Fulfills few of the
Grammar appropriate errors; some minor errors. Many requirements of the
grammar. punctuation instances of assignment.
mistakes incorrect spelling
and grammar.
/10

Total Points
/50
*Adapted from: Teaching Commons, Center for Innovation and Excellence in Learning, by Dr. Rhonda Dubec, 2018

84
 References
Bowditch, N. (1995) American Practical Navigator (H.O. No. 9). Maryland, USA: Defense Mapping Agency
Brown, H.H. (1981). Nicholl’s Concise Guide to the Navigation Examinations Vol. 1. Glasgow, UK: Brown,uson Son &
Ferguson, Ltd.
CMO No. 67 series of 2017. Revised PSG for BS Marine Transportation and BS Marine Engineering Programs
Denne, W. (1968). Magnetic Compass Deviation and Correction. Glasgow, UK: Brown Son & Ferguson Ltd.
Gardener, A.C. & Creelman, W.G. (1976). Navigation for School and College. Glasgow, UK: Brown, Son & Ferguson, Ltd.
Hydrographic/ Topographic Center
House, D.J. (1998). Navigation for Masters. London: Witherby & Co Ltd.
Leff, L.S. (1984). Geometry the Easy Way. New York, USA: Barron’s Educational Series, Inc.
Maloney, E.S. (1985). Dutton’s Navigation and Piloting (14th ed. Maryland, USA: Naval Institute Press
Moore, D. A. (1984). Marine Chartwork (2nd ed.). London: PITMAN.
Squair, W.H.(1971). Modern Chartwork. Glasgow, UK: Brown, Son & Ferguson, Ltd.
Table A-II/1 Function 1: Navigation at the operational level; and

Photo Credits:

 https://www.google.com/search?source=univ&tbm=isch&q=visual+navigation+aids+PICTURES&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj9r7TPseXqAhXpyYsBHd
NvDMwQ7Al6BAgKEBk&biw=1024&bih=489
 https://www.google.com/search?q=PICTURE+of+iala+buoyage+system&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwj16ZHXseXqAhWMx4sBHaclD1YQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=PICTURE+of+iala+buoyage+system&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoHCAAQsQMQQzoECAAQQzoFCAAQsQM6AggAUOO5BVjUvAZghM
YGaABwAHgAgAGTB4gBv0uSAQ4wLjIuMTQuNi41LjEuMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=upAaX_WkKYyPr7wPp8u8sA
U&bih=489&biw=1024
 https://www.google.com/search?q=PICTURE+of+chartworks&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjhjfC8suXqAhUSR5QKHVTBBV4Q2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=PICTURE+of+chartworks&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1CBPli2VmCAYWgAcAB4AIABgAeIAaQbkgELMi0zLjIuMS4wLjKYAQCgAQGqAQt
nd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=kJEaX-GFApKO0QTUgpfwBQ&bih=489&biw=1024
 https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1GCEA_enPH887PH887&source=univ&tbm=isch&q=picture+of+mercator+sailing&sa=X&ved=2ahUKE
wi59cWTs-XqAhU0zIsBHewZBtEQ7Al6BAgFEC0&biw=1024&bih=489
 https://www.google.com/search?q=picture+of+tides&rlz=1C1GCEA_enPH887PH887&oq=picture+of+tides&aqs=chrome..69i57j0j69i59j0l5.6
197j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

Videos:

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z7-yCYECTvo
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GWTXkqMsyDY
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y22P1YOntjk&list=PLjZi6sSb2w5ahg0Vap0iXLJtqHqKM191t&index=2
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4sWeF0DFRKk&list=PLjZi6sSb2w5ahg0Vap0iXLJtqHqKM191t&index=3
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ruDB87OYVqY
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UNwcQ-OuJ14
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ndQLKh1hE30
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_kFjpaaRdA
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Ez1QaJYc8U
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cm7T1Etl2XY

85