II

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Communications I

INTRODUCTION

In the early 1960s, the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) released
studies indicating that a few powerful satellites of advanced design could handle more
traffic than the entire AT&T long-distance communications network. The cost of these
satellites was estimated to be only a fraction of the cost of equivalent terrestrial
microwave facilities. Unfortunately, because AT&T was a utility, government regulations
prevented them from developing the satellite systems. Smaller and much less lucrative
corporations were left to develop the satellite systems, and AT&T continued to invest bil-
lions of dollars each year in conventional terrestrial microwave systems. Because of this,
early developments in satellite technology were slow in coming.
Throughout the years the prices of most goods and services have increased substan-
tially; however, satellite communications services have become more affordable each
year. In most instances, satellite systems offer more flexibility than submarine cables,
buried underground cables, line-of-sight microwave radio, tropospheric scatter radio, or
optical fiber systems.
Essentially, a communications satellite is a radio repeater in the sky (transponder).
A satellite system consists of a transponder, a ground-based station to control its opera-
tion, and a user network of earth stations that provide the facilities for transmission and
reception of communications traffic through the satellite system. Satellite transmissions
are categorized as either bus or payload. The bus includes control mechanisms that sup-
port the payload operation. The payload is the actual user information that is conveyed
through the system. Although in recent years new data services and television broadcast-
ing are more and more in demand, the transmission of conventional speech telephone sig-
nals (in analog or digital form) is still the bulk of the satellite payload.

266
HISTORY OF SATELLITES

The simplest type of satellite is a passive reflector, a device that simply "bounces" a signal
from one place to another. The moon is a natural satellite of the earth and, consequently,
in the late 1940s and early 1950s, became the first passive satellite. In 1954, the U.S. Navy
successfully transmitted the first messages over this earth-to-moon-to-earth relay. In 1956,
a relay service was established between Washington, D.C. and Hawaii and, until 1962,
offered reliable long-distance communications. Service was limited only by the availabil-
ity of the moon.
In 1957, Russia launched Sputnik I, the first active earth satellite. An active satellite is
capable of receiving, amplifying, and retransmitting information to and from earth stations.
Sputnik I tr$llsmittedtelemetry information for 21 days. Later in the same year, the United
States launcned Explorer I, which transmitted telemetry information for nearly 5 months.
In 1958, NASA launched Score, a l50-pound conical-shaped satellite. With an on"
board tape recording, Score rebroadcast President Eisenhower's 1958 Christmas message.
Score was the first artificial satellite used for relaying terrestrial communications. Score
was a delayed repeater satellite; it received transmissions from earth stations, stored them
on magnetic tape, and rebroadcast them to ground stations farther along in its orbit.
In 1960, NASA in conjunction with Bell Telephone Laboratories and the Jet Propul-
sion Laboratory launched Echo, a 100-ft-diameter plastic balloon with an aluminum coat-
ing. Echo passively reflected radio signals from a large earth antenna. Echo was simple
and reliable but required extremely high power transmitters at the earth stations. The first
transatlantic transmission using a satellite was accomplished using Echo. Also in 1960,
the Department of Defense launched Courier. Courier transmitted 3 W of power and
lasted only 17 days.
In 1962, AT&T launched Telstar I, the first satellite to receive and transmit simulta-
neously. The electronic equipment in Telstar I was damaged by radiation from the newly
discovered Van Allen belts and, consequently, lasted only a few weeks. Telstar II was
electronically identical to Telstar I, but it was made more radiation resistant. Telstar II
was successfully launched in 1963. It was used for telephone, television, facsimile, and
data transmissions. The first successful transatlantic transmission of video was accom-
plished with Telstar II.
Early satellites were both of the passive and active type. Again, a passive satellite is
one that simply reflects a signal back to earth; there are no gain devices on board to amplify
or repeat the signal. An active satellite is one that electronically repeats a signal back to
earth (i.e., receives, amplifies, and retransmits the signal). An advantage of passive satel-
lites is that they do not require sophisticated electronic equipment on board, although they
are not necessarily void of power. Some passive satellites require a radio beacon transmit-
ter for tracking and ranging purposes. A beacon is a continuously transmitted unmodu-
lated carrier that an earth station can lock onto and use to align its antennas or to determine
the exact location of the satellite. A disadvantage of passive satellites is their inefficient
use of transmitted power. With Echo, for example, only 1 part in every 1018of the earth
station transmitted power was actually returned to the earth station receiving antenna.

ORBITAL SATELLITES

The satellites mentioned thus far are called orbital or nonsynchronous satellites. Nonsyn-
chronous satellites rotate around the earth in a low-altitude elliptical or circular pattern.
If the satellite is orbiting in the same direction as Earth's rotation and at an angular

Orbital Satellites 267

- --1" ~,~'E iII~~"" ~--~~- II1II ..

 velocity greater than that of Earth, the orbit is called a prograde orbit. If the satellite is
orbiting in the opposite direction as Earth's rotation or in the same direction but at an
angular velocity less than that of Earth, the orbit is called a retrograde orbit. Conse-
quently, nonsynchronous satellites are continuously either gaining or falling back on earth
and do not remain stationary relative to any particular point on earth. Thus nonsynchro-
nous satellites have to be used when available, which may be as short a period of time as
15 minutes per orbit. Another disadvantage of orbital satellites is the need for complicated
and expensive tracking equipment at the earth stations. Each earth station must locate the
satellite as it comes into view on each orbit and then lock its antenna onto the satellite and
track it as it passes overhead. A major advantage of orbital satellites is that propulsion
rockets are not required on board the satellites to keep them in their respective orbits.
One of the 910re interesting orbital satellite systems is the Soviet Molniya system.
This is also spelled Molnya and Molnia, which means "lightning" in Russian (in colloquial
Russian it means "news flash"). The Molniya satellites are used for television broadcast-
ing and are presently the only nonsynchronous-orbit commercial satellite system in use.
Molniya uses a highly elliptical orbit with apogee at about 40,000 km and perigee at about
1000 km (see Figure 7-1). The apogee is the farthest distance from earth a satellite orbit
reaches, the perigee is the minimum distance, and the line of apsides is the line joining the
perigee and apogee through the center of the earth. With the Molniya system, the apogee is
reached while over the northern hemisphere and the perigee while over the southern hemi-
sphere. The size of the ellipse was chosen to make its period exactly one-half of a sidereal
day (the time it takes the earth to rotate back to the same constellation). Because of its
unique orbital pattern, the Molniya satellite is synchronous with the rotation of the earth.
During its l2-h orbit, it spends about 11 h over the north hemisphere.

GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITES

Geostationary or geosynchronous satellites are satellites that orbit in a circular pattern

with an angular velocity equal to that of earth. Consequently, they remain in a fixed posi-
tion in respect to a given point on earth. An obvious advantage is they are available to all
the earth stations within their shadow 100% of the time. The shadow of a satellite includes
all earth stations that have a line-of-sight path to it and lie within the radiation pattern of
the satellite's antennas. An obvious disadvantage is they require sophisticated and heavy
propulsion devices on board to keep them in a fixed orbit. The orbital time of a geosyn-
chronous satellite is 24 h, the same as earth.

Eliptical
orbit
Perigee
1000 km
Figure 7-1 Soviet Molniya satellite
orbit.

268 Chap. 7 Satellite CommuniCations

 Syncom I, launched in February 1963, was the first attempt to place a geosynchro-
nous satellite into orbit. Syncom I was lost during orbit injection. Syncom II and Syncom
III were successfully launched in February 1963 and August 1964, respectively. The Syn-
com III satellite was used to broadcast the 1964 Olympic Games from Tokyo. The Syncom
projects demonstrated the feasibility of using geosynchronous satellites.
Since the Syncom projects, a number of nations and private corporations have suc-
cessfully launched satellites that are currently being used to provide national as well as
regional and international global communications. There are more than 200 satellite
communications systems operating in the world today. They provide worldwide fixed com-
mon-carrier telephone and data circuits; point-to-point cable television (CATV); network
television distribution; music broadcasting; mobile telephone service; and private net-
works for corpor~ions, governmental agencies, and military applications.
In 1964 a commercial global satellite network known as Intelsat (International
Telecommunications Satellite Organization) was established. Intelsat is owned and oper-
ated by a consortium of more than 100 countries. Intelsatis managed by the designated
communications entities in their respective countries. The first Intelsat satellite was Early
Bird 1, which was launched in 1965 and provided 480 voice channels. From 1966 to 1987,
a series of satellites designated Intelsat II, Ill, IV, V, and VI were launched. 1ntelsat VI has
a capacity of 80,000 voice channels.
Domestic satellites (domsats) are used to provide satellite services within a single
country. In the United States, all domsats are situated in geostationary orbit. Table 7-1 is a
partial list of current international and domestic satellite systems and their primary payload.

ORBITAL PATTERNS

Once projected, a satellite remains in orbit because the centrifugal force caused by its rota-
tion around the earth is counterbalanced by the earth's gravitational pull. The closer to
earth the satellite rotates, the greater the gravitational pull and the greater the velocity
required to keep it from being pulled to earth. Low-altitude satellites that orbit close to
earth (100 to 300 miles in height) travel at approximately 17,500 miles per hour. At this
speed, it takes approximately H h to rotate around the entire earth. Consequently, the time
that the satellite is in line of sight of a particular earth station is only t h or less per orbit.
Medium-altitude satellites (6000 to 12,000 miles in height) have a rotation period of 5 to
12 h and remain in line of sight of a particular earth station for 2 to 4 h per orbit. High-
altitude, geosynchronous satellites (19,000 to 25,000 miles in height) travel at approxi-
mately 6879 miles per hour and have a rotation period of 24 h, exactly the same as the
earth.Consequently,theyremainin a fixed positionin respectto a givenearthstationand
have a 24-h availability time. Figure 7-2 shows a low-, medium-, and high-altitude satel-
lite orbit. It can be seen that three equally spaced, high-altitude geosynchronous satellites
rotating around the earth above the equator can cover the entire earth except for the
unpopulated areas of the north and south poles.
Figure 7-3 shows the three paths that a satellite may take as it rotates around the
earth. When the satellite rotates in an orbit above the equator, it is called an equatorial
orbit. When the satellite rotates in an orbit that takes it over the north and south poles, it is
called a polar orbit. Any other orbital path is called an inclined orbit. An ascending node
is the point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from south to north, and a
descending node is the point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from north
to south. The line joining the ascending and descending nodes through the center of earth
is calIed the line of nodes.

Orbital Patterns 269

 TABLE 7-1 CURRENT SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

Characteristic system

Fleet-
Westar Intelsat V SBS satcom ANIK-D

Operator Western Intelsat Satellite U.S. Dept. Telsat

Union Business of Canada
Telegraph Systems Defense
Frequency C C and Ku Ku UHF,X C,Ku
band
Coverage Conus Global, Conus Global Canada,
zonal, northern
1 spot U.S.
Number of 12 21 10 12 24
transponders
Transponder 36 36-77 43 0.005-D.5 36
BW (MHz)
EIRP (dBW) 33 23.5-29 40-43.7 26-28 36
Multiple FDMA, FDMA, TDMA FDMA FDMA
Access TDMA TDMA,
reuse
Modulation FM, QPSK FDM/FM, QPSK FM,QPSK FDM, FM,
QPSK FMffVD,
SCPC
Service Fixed tele, Fixed tele, Fixed tele, Mobile Fixed tele
TTY TVD TVD military

C-band: 3.4-6.425 GHz

Ku-band: 10.95-14.5 GHz
X-band: 7.25-8.4 GHz
TTY Teletype
TVD TV distribution
FDMA Frequency-division multiple access
TDMA Time-division multiple access
Conus Continental United States

It is interesting to note that 100% of the earth's surface can be covered with a single
satellite in a polar orbit. The satellite is rotating around the earth in a longitudinal orbit while
the earth is rotating on a latitudinal axis. Consequently, the satellite's radiation pattern is a
diagonal spiral around the earth which somewhat resembles a barber pole. As a result,
every location on earth lies within the radiation pattern of the satellite twice each day.

SUMMARY

Advantages of Geosynchronous Orbits

1. The satellite remains almost stationary in respect to a given earth station. Conse-
quently, expensive tracking equipment is not required at the earth stations.
2. There is no need to switch from one satellite to another as they orbit overhead.
Consequently, there are no breaks in transmission because of the switching times.

270 Chap. 7 Satellite Communications

 ~ \\\ ,
\ ,
\ ,
\ \
\\ , ,
\\ ,,
\ "
\ ,
\ ,
\ '--

I
I
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/
\
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; -----
- ----------
/
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1
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I /
I /

I
I
/
/
I /
I /
I /
I /
~ I / /
1/
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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7-2 Satellite orbits: (a) low altitude (circular orbit, 100-300 mi);
(b) medium altitude (elliptical orbit, 6000 to 12,000 mi); (c) high altitude
(geosynchronous orbit, 19,000 to 25,000 mi).

3. High-altitude geosynchronous satellites can cover a much larger area of the earth
than their low-altitude orbital counterparts.
4. The effects of Doppler shift are negligible.

Disadvantages of Geosynchronous Orbits

1. The higher altitudes of geosynchronous satellites introduce much longer propa-

gation times. The round-trip propagation delay between two earth stations through a geo-
synchronous satellite is 500 to 600 ms.
2. Geosynchronous satellites require higher transmit powers and more sensitive
receivers because of the longer distances and greater path losses.
3. High-precision spacemanship is required to place a geosynchronous satellite into
orbit and to keep it there. Also, propulsion engines are required on board the satellites to
keep them in their respective orbits.

Polar

Equatorial

Descending
node

Ascending
node Figure 7-3 Satellite orbits.

Summary 271
LOOK ANGLES

To orient an earth station antenna toward a satellite, it is necessary to know the elevation
angle and azimuth (Figure 7-4). These are called the look angles.

Angle of Elevation

The angle of elevation is the angle fonned between the direction of travel of a wave radi-
ated from an earth station antenna and the horizontal, or the angle subtended at the earth
station antenna between the satellite and the horizontal. The smaller the angle of elevation,
the greater the distance a propagated wave must pass through Earth's atmosphere. As with
any wave propalated through Earth's atmosphere, it suffers absorption and may also be
severely contaminated by noise. Consequently, if the angle of elevation is too small and
the distance the wave is within Earth's atmosphere is too long, the wave may deteriorate to
a degree that it provides inadequate transmission. Generally, 5° is considered as the mini-
mum acceptable angle of elevation. Figure 7-5 shows how the angle of elevation affects
the signal strength of a propagated wave due to nonnal atmospheric absorption, absorption
due to thick fog, and absorption due to a heavy rain. It can be seen that the l4/l2-GHz

Equator 1350 West

longitude

95.50 longitude
South

Azimuth
referred to
-~ 1800 Satellite Antenna

North angle
Elevation ~t Eart h
I Horizontala.t
antenna location

Antenna from top Antenna from side

Figure 7-4 Azimuth and angle of elevation "look angles."

272 Chap. 7 Satellite Communications

 50 3.0 99.9 30

99.8
2.5 25
99.5
40
~ 2.0 ~ 20 (D-
t; (D t;
.9. :s! .9. :s!
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Q) % en
en ..."..
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~ 30 ~ .9. .9.
Q, ~.'0 1.5 :u 15 :u
m ~ ~
c:
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(j)

20
~
'8
%.
"0
:to-:$.
$0>
/.y I'~.
"'I)
1.0
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I ::\ \
.-
(/) 90 'C>.,
10
0..

0.,
0;.-
i>.' <111)
t~/C,f~ 0.5 en 01)
10 109 '0 by 05
8ll'0
50 ':f thick F.

20
0 0
O' 5. 10. 20. 30. 40. 50.
Elevation angle
(a) (b)

Figure 7-5 Attenuation due to atmospheric absorption: (a) 6/4-GHz band; (b) 14/12-GHz band.

IV
"w
band (Figure 7-5b) is more severely affected than the 6/4-GHz band (Figure 7-5a). This is
due to the smaller wavelengths associated with the higher frequencies. Also, at elevation
angles less than 5°, the attenuation increases rapidly.

Azimuth

Azimuth is defined as the horizontal pointing angle of an antenna. It is usually measured

in a clockwise direction in degrees from true north. The angle of elevation and the azimuth
both depend on the latitude of the earth station and the longitude of both the earth station
and the orbiting satellite. For a geosynchronous satellite in an equatorial orbit, the proce-
dure is as follows: From a good map, determine the longitude and latitude of the earth sta-
tion. From Tible 7-2, determine the longitude of the satellite of interest. Calculate the
difference, in degrees (D..L),between the longitude of the satellite and the longitude of the
earth station. Then, from Figure 7-6, determine the azimuth and elevation angle for the
antenna. Figure 7-6 is for a geosynchronous satellite in an equatorial orbit.

EXAMPLE 7-1
An earth station is located at Houston, Texas, which has a longitude of 95.5°W and a latitude
of 29.5°N. The satellite of interest is RCA's Satcom I, which has a longitude of 135°W.
Determine the azimuth and elevation angle for the earth station antenna.

Solution First determine the difference between the longitude of the earth station and the
satellite.
!:lL = 135°- 95.5° = 39.5°

Locate the intersection of!:lL and the latitude of the earth station on Figure 7-6. From the figure
the angle of elevation is approximately 35°, and the azimuth is approximately 59° west of south.

TABLE7-2
LONGITUDINAL
POSITION OF
SEVERAL CURRENT
SYNCHRONOUS
SATELLITES
PARKED IN AN
EQUATORIAL ARCa

Longitude
Satellite (OW)
Satcom I 135
Satcom V 143
ANIK I 104
Westar I 99
Westar II 123.5
Westar III 91
Westar IV 98.5
Westar V 119.5
RCA 126
Mexico 116.5
Galaxy 74
Telstar 96
"0° Latitude.

274 Chap. 7 Satellite Communications

 Azimuth angle referenced to 1800 (degrees)
10 5 0
5 10 15 80 85
70
15
65
20 i\ 60
\

-
25
55
30
50
00
35 '"
'"
00
~ 40f- 45 Co
'"
Co
'" ~
~'" 45L- 40 ~
I a
g>
'" 50 35 ~
c:: c::
0
.g
'" 55 30 .~
> en

60 25 "€
&:i
'"
65
=1i 20
w

70 / 15
75
~
.1/
10

80 t::i ::
~ 5
851'J\ 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
IlL (degrees)

Figure 7-6 Azimuth and elevation angle for earth stations located in the northern
hemisphere (referred to 180°).

ORBITAL CLASSIFICATIONS, SPACING, AND FREQUENCY

ALLOCATION

There are two primary classifications for communications satellites: spinners and three-
axis stabilizer satellites. Spinner satellites use the angular momentum of its spinning body
to provide roll and yaw stabilization. With a three-axis stabilizer, the body remains fixed
relative to Earth's surface while an internal subsystem provides roll and yaw stabilization.
Figure 7-7 shows the two main classifications of communications satellites.
Geosynchronous satellites must share a limited space and frequency spectrum
within a given arc of a geostationary orbit. Each communications satellite is assigned a
longitude in the geostationary arc approximately 22,300 miles above the equator. The
position in the slot depends on the communications frequency band used. Satellites operat-
ing at or near the same frequency must be sufficiently separated in space to avoid interfer-
ing with each other (Figure 7-8). There is a realistic limit to the number of satellite
structures that can be stationed (parked) within a given area in space. The required spatial
separation is dependent on the following variables: .

1. Beamwidths and sidelobe radiation of both the earth station and satellite antennas
2. RF carrier frequency
3. Encoding or modulation technique used

Orbital Classifications, Spacing, and Frequency Allocation 275

 Earth-oriented
body

(a) (b)

Figure 7-7 Satellite classes: (a) spinner; (b) three-axis stabilized.

4. Acceptable limits of interference

5. Transmit carrier power

Generally, 3 to 6° of spatial separation is required depending on the variables stated above.

The most common carrier frequencies used for satellite communications are the 6/4-
and 14/12-GHz bands. The first number is the up-link (earth station-to-transponder) fre-
quency, and the second number is the down-link (transponder-to-earth station) frequency.
Different up-link and down-link frequencies are used to prevent ringaround from occur-
ring (Chapter 7). The higher the carrier frequency, the smaller the diameter required of an
antenna for a given gain. Most domestic satellites use the 6/4-GHz band. Unfortunately,
this band is also used extensively for terrestrial microwave systems. Care must be taken

it
Satellite A .
II ,
,
I ~/
I
I
« I 0'/
0'
;,;;;', i
0' lif,
.~I OJ,
::;:, 0
S I ""i
/JlI if/ 3-6"
.s I qf:jj/ c: I 19,000-25,000 miles
fIj I / .g
c::,' '"
1!!I / :0
o/!J',
, , 0-
Q)
SI,
c::I, en
-.!!!
I,
I,
" -'"
,, ,, 0-
en
1/ I
"I'

Center Figure 7-8 Spatial separation of

of ea rth satellites in geosynchronous orbit.

276 Chap. 7 Satellite Communications

 C-band X-band
f
Domestic Domestic Military

I I
m I I
m I I
mm I I I
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 GHz

K-band
Ku-band
Intelsat ANIK ANIK Ka-band
I t I t I +I
I I I I
m I I
I
I I
t
I I
I t I
I
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 GHz

K-band Q-band V-band

I + 1+I ITrTl m I -- I r-=-

I I I I I I I I I I I I I
26 29 32 35 38 41 44 47 50 53 56 59 62

+ Uplink t Downlink -- Cross-link

Figure 7-9 WARC satellite frequency assignments.

when designing a satellite network to avoid interference from or interference with estab-
lished microwave links.
Certain positions in the geosynchronous orbit are in higher demand than the others.
For example, the mid-Atlantic position which is used to interconnect North America and
Europe is in exceptionally high demand. The mid-Pacific position is another.
The frequencies allocated by WARC (World Administrative Radio Conference) are
summarized in Figure 7-9. Table 7-3 shows the bandwidths available for various services
in the United States. These services include fixed-point (between earth stations located at

TABLE 7-3 SATELUTE BANDWIDTHS

AVAILABLE IN THE UNITED STATES

Frequency band
(GHz)

Down- Bandwidth
Band Up-link link (MHz)

C 5.9-6.4 3.7-4.2 500

X 7.9-8.4 7.25-7.75 500
Ku 14-14.5 11.7-12.2 500
Ka 27-30 17-20
30-31 20-21
V 50-51 40-41 1000
Q - 41-43 2000
V 54-58 3900
(lSL) 59-64 5000

Orbital Classifications, Spacing, and Frequency Allocation 277

 fixed geographical points on earth), broadcast (wide-area coverage), mobile (ground-to-
aircraft, ships, or land vehicles), and intersatellite (satellite-to-satellite cross-links).

RADIATION PATTERNS: FOOTPRINTS

The area of the earth covered by a satellite depends on the location of the satellite in its
geosynchronous orbit, its carrier frequency, and the gain of its antennas. Satellite engi-
neers select the antenna and carrier frequency for a particular spacecraft to concentrate the
limited transmitted power on a specific area of Earth's surface. The geographical represen-
tation of a sat¥llite antenna's radiation pattern is called afootprint (Figure 7-10). The con-
tour lines represent limits of equal receive power density.
The radiation pattern from a satellite antenna may be categorized as either spot,
zonal, or earth (Figure 7-11). The radiation patterns of earth coverage antennas have a
beamwidth of approximately 17° and include coverage of approximately one-third of the
earth's surface. Zonal coverage includes an area less than one-third of the earth's surface.
Spot beams concentrate the radiated power in a very small geographic area.

Reuse

When an allocated frequency band is filled, additional capacity can be achieved by reuse
of the frequency spectrum. By increasing the size of an antenna (i.e., increasing the
antenna gain) the beamwidth of the antenna is also reduced. Thus different beams of the
same frequency can be directed to different geographical areas of the earth. This is called
frequency reuse. Another method of frequency reuse is to use dual polarization. Different
information signals can be transmitted to different earth station receivers using the same
band of frequencies simply by orienting their electromagnetic polarizations in an orthogo-
nal manner (90° out of phase). Dual polarization is less effective because Earth's atmos-
phere has a tendency to reorient or repolarize an electromagnetic wave as it passes
through. Reuse is simply another way to increase the capacity of a limited bandwidth.

Figure 7-10 Satellite antenna radiation patterns ("footprints").

278 Chap. 7 Satellite Communications

 Satellite
transponder

Figure 7-11 Beams: A, spot; B,

zonal; C, earth.

SATELLITE SYSTEM LINK MODELS

Essentially, a satellite system consists of three basic sections: an uplink, a satellite

transponder, and a downlink.

Uplink Model

The primary component within the uplink section of a satellite system is the earth station
transmitter. A typical earth station transmitter consists of an IF modulator, an IF-to-RF
microwave up-converter, a high-power amplifier (HPA), and some means of bandlimiting
the final output spectrum (i.e., an output bandpass filter). Figure 7-12 shows the block dia-
gram of a satellite earth station transmitter. The IF modulator converts the input baseband
signals to either an FM, a PSK, or a QAM modulated intermediate frequency. The up-
converter (mixer and bandpass filter) converts the IF to an appropriate RF carrier frequency.
The HPA provides adequate input sensitivity and output power to propagate the signal to
the satellite transponder. HPAs commonly used are klystons and traveling-wave tubes.

Transponder

A typicalsatellitetransponderconsistsof an input bandlimitingdevice(BPF),an input

low-noise amplifier (LNA), afrequency translator, a low-level power amplifier, and an
output bandpass filter. Figure 7-13 shows a simplified block diagram of a satellite
transponder. This transponder is an RF-to-RF repeater. Other transponder configurations

Satellite System Link M.odels 279

 To satellite
transponder
l
/'l/
Up-converter
r
1
' 1
1 '
1 1
Baseband in Modulator WI ~:
FDM or (FM, PSK, BPF I Mixer I HPA
1 1
PCMfTDM or OAM) 1 1
1 1
1 1

:
1
RF :
1
1 1
1 1

~ : MW Generator :
:
1
6or14GHz
1
:
I 1
I 1
1 1
L J

Figure 7-12 Satellite uplink model.

are IF and baseband repeaters similar to those used in microwave repeaters. In Figure
\ 7-13, the input BPF limits the total noise applied to the input of the LNA. (A common
device used as an LNA is a tunnel diode.) The output of the LNA is fed to a frequency
translator (a shift oscillator and a BPF) which converts the high-band uplink frequency to
the low-band downlink frequency. The low-level power amplifier, which is commonly a
traveling-wave tube, amplifies the RF signal for transmission through the downlink to
Earth station receivers. Each RF satellite channel requires a separate transponder.

Downlink Model

An earth station receiver includes an input BPF, an LNA, and an RF-to-IF down-converter.
Figure 7-14 shows a block diagram of a typical earth station receiver. Again, the BPF lim-
its the input noise power to the LNA. The LNA is a highly sensitive, low-noise device
such as a tunnel diode amplifier or a parametric amplifier. The RF-to-IF down-converter
is a mixerlbandpass filter combination which converts the received RF signal to an IF
frequency.

Frequency translator
,
I
,
I
I
' '
I

Low-noise
amplifier
LNA
RF:
1

i
- ~
I
Mixer
RF:

I LJ
BPF I

i
Low-power
amplifier

TWT
1 1
1 1
1
I
RF 1
1
I I
I I
I MW shift I

: oscillator :
:
1
2 GHz :
1

7
1
1
1 '
1
1
~
To earth station
From earth station 4 or 12 GHz
6 or 14 GHz

Figure 7 -13 Satellite transponder.

280 Chap. 7 Satellite Communications

 From satellite
transponder

~
Down-converter
,
1
,
1
1
' '
1

Low-noise
amplifier
LNA
~:
11
,
1
C ~ Mixer
F:

LJ
BPF I
1
1
1
Demodulator
(FM,PSK,
or OAM)
Baseband out
FDMor
PCM/TDM
1 1
I 1
1 1
1 ,
~ 1
1
,
,
: MW generator :
:
1
4 or 12 GHz :
1
1 1
I 1
I 1
' J

Figure 7-14 Satellite downlink model.

Cross-Links

Occasionally, there is an application where it is necessary to communicate between satel- ~

lites. This is done using satellite cross-links or intersatellite links (lSLs), shown in Figure
7-15. A disadvantage of using an 1SL is that both the transmitter and receiver are space-
bound. Consequently, both the transmitter's output power and the receiver's input sensi-
tivity are limited.

?
Cross-link
z
-~
~ Upldo~""k
Earth
Upld~"';"k r

Figure 7-15 Intersatellite link.

SATELLITE SYSTEM PARAMETERS

Transmit Power and Bit Energy

High-power amplifiers used in earth station transmitters and the traveling-wave tubes
typically used in satellite transponders are nonlinear devices; their gain (output power-
versus-input power) is dependent on input signal level. A typical input/output power

Satellite System Parameters 281

~
~ H'.j:;liil!!:~~i!I! Ji:mm. . !..":~.;~,
 characteristic curve is shown in Figure 7-16. It can be seen that as the input power is
reduced by 5 dB, the output power is reduced by only 2 dB. There is an obvious power
compression. To reduce the amount of intermodulation distortion caused by the nonlinear
amplificationof the HPA, the input power must be reduced (backed off) by several dB. This
allows the HPA to operate in a more linear region. The amount the output level is backed
off from rated levels is equivalent to a loss and is appropriately called back-off loss (Lbo)'
To operate as efficiently as possible, a power amplifier should be operated as close
. as possible to saturation. The saturated output power is designated Po (sat) or simply Pt.
The output power of a typical satellite earth station transmitter is much higher than the
output power from a terrestrial microwave power amplifier. Consequently, when dealing
with satellite systems, Pt is generally expressed in dBW (decibels in respect to 1 W) rather
than in dBm (q,ecibelsin respect to 1 mW).
Most modem satellite systems use either phase shift keying (PSK) or quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM) rather than conventional frequency modulation (FM). With
PSK and QAM, the input baseband is generally a PCM-encoded, time-division-multiplexed
signal which is digital in nature. Also, with PSK and QAM, several bits may be encoded
in a single transmit signaling element. Consequently, a parameter more meaningful than
carrier power is energy per bit (Eb). Mathematically, Eb is
Eb = PtTb (7-la)
where Eb = energy of a single bit Goulesper bit)
Pt = totalcarrierpower(watts)
Tb = time of a single bit (seconds)

or because Tb = l/fb, whereib is the bit rate in bits per second.

Eb-- Pt (7-lb)
ib

EXAMPLE7-2
For a total transmit power (P,) of 1000 W, determine the energy per bit (Eb) for a transmission
rate of 50 Mbps.

Maximum
compression
0
-1
- -2
~ -3
g -4
'g
:J -5
~ -6
:;; -7
~ -8
~:J -9
~:J -10
0 -11
-12

-12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0

Input back-otf (dB)

Figure 7-16 HPA input/output characteristic curve.

282 Chap. 7 Satellite Communications

 Solution

T ---
I I
- 0 0 Xl
_6
b - fb - 50 X 106bps - .2 0 s
(It appears that the units for Tb should be s/bit but the per bit is implied in the definition of Tin
time of bit.)
Substituting into Equation 7-la yields

Eb = 1000 J/s (0.02 X 10-6 s/bit) = 20 fLJ/bit

(Again the units appear to be J/bit, but the per bit is implied in the definition of Eb, energy per
bit.)

~
1000 J/s = 20 fLJ
Eb = 50 X 106 bps

Expressed as a log,

Eb = 10 log (20 X 10-6) = -47 dBJ

It is common to express P, in dBW and Eb in dBW/bps. Thus

P, = 10log 1000= 30 dBW

Eb= P, - 10logfb
= P, - 10log(50 X 106)

= 30 dBW- 77 dB = -47 dBW/bps

or simply -47 dBW.

Effective Isotropic Radiated Power

Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is defined as an equivalent transmit power and
is expressed mathematically as
EIRP = PrAt
where EIRP = effective isotropic radiated power (watts)
Pr = totalpowerradiatedfroman antenna(watts)
At = transmit antenna gain (unitless ratio)

Expressed as a log,
EIRP (dBW) = Pr (dBW) + At (dB)
In respect to the transmitter output,

Pr = Pt - 40 - Lbf

Thus

EIRP = Pt - 40 - Lbf+ At (7-2)

where Pt = actual power output of the transmitter (dBW)
Lbo = back-offlosses ofHPA (dB)
Lbf = totalbranchingandfeederloss (dB)
At = transmit antenna gain (dB)

Satellite System Parameters 283

 EXAMPLE 7-3
For an earth station transmitter with an output power of 40 dBW (10,000 W), a back-off loss
of 3 dB, a total branching and feeder loss of 3 dB, and a transmit antenna gain of 40 dB, deter-
mine the EIRP.

Solution Substituting into Equation 7-2 yields

EIRP = Pt - 40 - Lbf+ At
= 40 dBW - 3 dB - 3 dB + 40 dB = 74 dBW

Equivalent Noise Temperature

~
With terrestrial microwave systems, the noise introduced in a receiver or a component
within a receiver was commonly specified by the parameter noise figure. In satellite com-
munications systems, it is often necessary to differentiate or measure noise in increments
as small as a tenth or a hundredth of a decibel. Noise figure, in its standard form, is inade-
quate for such precise calculations. Consequently, it is common to use environmental tem-
perature (1) and equivalent noise temperature (Te) when evaluating the performance of a
satellite system. In Chapter 7 total noise power was expressed mathematically as
N = KIB
Rearranging and solving for T gives us
N
T= KB
where N = total noise power (watts)
K = Boltzmann's constant (joules per degree Kelvin)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
T = temperature of the environment (degree Kelvin)

Again from Chapter 6 (Equation 6-7),

NF=I+ Te
T
where Te = equivalent noise temperature (degree Kelvin)
NF = noise figure expressed as an absolute value
T = temperature of the environment (degree Kelvin)

Rearranging Equation 6-7, we have

Te = T(NF - 1)
Typically, equivalent noise temperatures of the receivers used in satellite transpon-
ders are about 1000 K. For earth station receivers Te values are between 20 and 1000 K.
Equivalent noise temperature is generally more useful when expressed logarithmically
with the unit of dBK, as follows:
Te (dBK) = 10 log Te
For an equivalent noise temperature of 100 K, Te (dBK) is
Te (dBK) = 10 log 100 or 20 dBK

284 Chap. 7 Satellite Communications

 Equivalent noise temperature is a hypothetical value that can be calculated but can-
not be measured. Equivalent noise temperature is often used rather than noise figure
because it is a more accurate method of expressing the noise contributed by a device or a
receiver when evaluating its performance. Essentially, equivalent noise temperature (Te)
represents the noise power present at the input to a device plus the noise added internally
by that device. This allows us to analyze the noise characteristics of a device by simply
evaluating an equivalent input noise temperature. As you will see in subsequent discus-
sions, Te is a very useful parameter when evaluating the performance of a satellite system.

EXAMPLE7-4
Conver1Jnoise figures of 4 and 4.01 to equivalent noise temperatures. Use 300 K for the envi-
ronmental temperature.

Solution Substituting into Equation 7-7 yields

Te = T(NF - 1)
ForNF = 4:

Te = 300(4 - 1) = 900 K
For NF = 4.01:

Te = 300(4.01 - 1) = 903 K

It can be seen that the 3° difference in the equivalent temperatures is 300 times as large as the
difference between the two noise figures. Consequently, equivalent noise temperature is a
more accurate way of comparing the noise performances of two receivers or devices.

Noise Density

Simply stated, noise density (No) is the total noise power normalized to a I-Hz bandwidth,
or the noise power present in a I-Hz bandwidth. Mathematically, noise density is

N,0-_N- or KTe (7-3a)

B
where No = noise density (W/Hz) (No is generally expressed as simply watts; the per
hertz is implied in the definition of No)
N = total noise power (watts)
B = bandwidth (herts)
K = Boltzmann's constant (joules per degree Kelvin)
Te = equivalentnoisetemperature(degreeKelvin)

Expressed as a log,
No (dBW/Hz) = 10 log N - 10 log B (7-3b)
= 10 log K + 10 log Te (7-3c)

EXAMPLE7-5
For an equivalent noise bandwidth of 10 MHz and a total noise power of 0.0276 pW, deter-
mine the noise density and equivalent noise temperature.

Satellite System Parameters 285

 Solution Substituting into Equation 7-3a, we have

No = N = 276 X 10-16 W = 276 X 10-23.J:!.-

0 B lOX 106Hz Hz

or simply, 276 X 10-23 W.

No = 10 log (276 X 10-23) = -205.6 dBW/Hz

or simply -205.6 dBW. Substituting into Equation 7-3b gives us

No =N (dBW) - B (dB/Hz)

= -135.6 dBW - 70 (dB/Hz) = -205.6 dBW

Rearran~g Equation 7-3a and solving for equivalent noise temperature yields

T = No
e K

276 X 10-23 I/cyc1e

.38 X 10 23IlK
= 200 K/cyc1e
= 10 log 200 = 23 dBK
= No (dBW) - 10 log K

= -205.6 dBW - (-228.6 dBWK) = 23 dBK

Carrier-to-Noise Density Ratio

C/No is the average wideband carrier power-to-noise density ratio. The wideband carrier
power is the combined power of the carrier and its associated sidebands. The noise is the
thermal noise present in a normalized I-Hz bandwidth. The carrier-to-noise density ratio
may also be written as a function of noise temperature. Mathematically, C/Nois
-C -C (7-4a)
No KTe
Expressed as a log,

~ (dE) = C (dEW) - No (dEW) (7-4b)

No

Energy of Bit-to-Noise Density Ratio

ErlNo is one of the most important and most often used parameters when evaluating a dig-
ital radio system. The ErlNo ratio is a convenient way to compare digital systems that use
different transmission rates, modulation schemes, or encoding techniques. Mathemati-
cally, ErlNo is

Eb = C/fb = CB (7-5)
No NIB Ntb
ErlNo is a convenient term used for digital system calculations and performance
comparisons, but in the real world, it is more convenient to measure the wideband carrier
power-to-noise density ratio and convert it to ErlNo. Rearranging Equation 7-5 yields the
following expression:

286 Chap. 7 Satellite Communications