Research and Development of Hydrogen-Fueled Intern

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http://pubs.acs.org/journal/acsodf Review
Research and Development of Hydrogen-Fueled Internal

Combustion Engines in China
Lijun Wang, Xiangyang Li, Chen Hong, Ping Guo, Shuman Guo, and Zhenzhong Yang*
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ABSTRACT: Energy shortages and environmental problems have

brought many challenges to China’s development. In the field of
transport, hydrogen energy has become a new type of energy that
people pay attention to due to its easy production and
nonpolluting generation. The use of hydrogen as a fuel in internal
combustion engines can be a good way to make a low-cost and
clean conversion of the current internal combustion engine, thus
realizing the application of hydrogen energy in vehicles. In this
study, hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines (HICEs) are
the focus. A review and analysis of the topical issues encountered
in the developmental research of HICE is presented, such as the
optimization control method of the combustion process,
mechanism and suppression method of abnormal combustion
(preignition, backfire, knock, and high pressure rise rate in early stages of combustion), influence regularity of hydrogen injection
parameters and hydrogen injection modes on the formation and combustion performance of H2−air mixture, emissions and control
of NOx, formation of H2−air mixture, and combustion cycle variation, among others. Multiyear studies in the hydrogen-fueled
engines clearly show that abnormal combustion, as preignition, backfire, and the blockage of intake pipe, is likely to occur at high
load, and the H2 injection parameters and the injection modes possess a prominent effect on the engine’s performance and the
blockage of the intake pipe, which has an important impact on the preignition and backfire, and the optimal control of the
combustion process is a valuable method for resolving the contradictions among inhibiting abnormal combustion, the blockage of
the intake pipe, and enhancing hydrogen-fueled engine power.
1. INTRODUCTION hydrogen combustion engine, which can be operated by simply

Energy and the environment are growing concerns today, and modifying existing combustion engine vehicles, is an ideal
energy resources are an important foundation for social solution at this stage and is expected to be an important part of
progress and economic development. China became a net the future energy system of a hydrogen society.2
importer of oil for the first time in 1993, a net importer of Hydrogen has many excellent properties when burned, such
natural gas in 2006, and a net importer of coal in 2009. Energy as fast combustion, flame propagation about 8 times faster than
shortage has affected China’s economic development. While that of petrol, and high thermal efficiency. The calorific value
fossil fuels have driven China’s rapid technological and of hydrogen fuel is only lower than that of nuclear fuel. The
economic development, they have also brought about a series low calorific value is 2.7 times that of gasoline, and the
of problems such as environmental degradation and the diffusion rate of H2 in premixed combustion is better and more
greenhouse effect. Under the double pressure of saving energy fully mixed.3 The autoignition temperature of H2 is higher than
and environmental protection, China’s automotive industry is that of natural gas or gasoline, which is conducive to higher
facing a huge challenge, and it is imperative to find a new clean compression ratios and a higher thermal efficiency of
energy source. Hydrogen energy has become one of the ideal combustion. It is suitable for ignition, but not for compression
energy alternatives in the transport sector due to the
nonpolluting nature of its generation and the simplicity of its
production method. There are two main ways to use hydrogen Received: July 25, 2023
energy as a power source: one is the hydrogen fuel cell, and the Revised: November 24, 2023
other is the hydrogen internal combustion engine.1 However, Accepted: November 24, 2023
the fact is that there is currently a large market for internal Published: December 14, 2023
combustion engines, and the conversion to hydrogen fuel cells
would result in a much greater economic loss. Therefore, the
© 2023 The Authors. Published by
American Chemical Society https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c05397
48590 ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612
ACS Omega http://pubs.acs.org/journal/acsodf Review
ignition.4 The ignition limit of hydrogen is wider, which is internal combustion engine and also plays an important role in
favorable to dilute combustion. The normal ignition energy of the hydrogen internal combustion engine; for example, the
H2 is very low. When used as a substitute fuel for internal Single-Zone Model is a commonly used model in research of
combustion engines, it is not easy to misfire, but is prone to the internal combustion engine, as it is the assumption of
abnormal combustion such as preignition and backfire. The uniform distribution of the work mass in the cylinder, and the
product of combustion of hydrogen is water. Its exhaust development of thermodynamic parameter is equal everywhere
pollutants also contain only nitrogen oxides, which are easily in the thermodynamic model. The Single-Zone Model has
resolved. Therefore, hydrogen would be very suitable as a fuel been adapted and extended in some studies to investigate the
for internal combustion engines. However, there are still many applicability of the Single-Zone Model for internal combustion
problems that need to be solved when replacing the fuel of engines fueled by hydrogen, and to evaluate the performance
internal combustion engine with hydrogen, such as premature of different types of hydrogen internal combustion engines.8,9
combustion, backfire, and other abnormal combustion However, in the research of the hydrogen internal
phenomena due to the calorific value of hydrogen and the combustion engine, the Single-Zone Model has difficulty
combustion speed.5 When hydrogen is used as the fuel of the taking into account the comprehensive parameters and is too
engine, corresponding improvements to the internal combus- ideal, so the Quasi-dimensional Combustion Model has
tion engine are necessary, such as structural improvements and gradually appeared, which takes into account the physical
the use of optimal control methods, etc. A large number of processes of combustion mass diffusion and flame propagation
scholars have researched these issues in the past decades and in the thermodynamic model and carries out the construction
produced corresponding research results. of the mathematical model by dividing the combustion
In this study, the current status of hydrogen energy in the chamber into more than two zones. By dividing the
field of automotive internal combustion engines (ICEs) is combustion chamber into more than two compartments, the
analyzed, starting with an introduction to the fundamentals of mathematical model can be constructed, through which the
HICEs, analyzing the theoretical foundations of HICEs as well model can be closer to the actual situation; therefore, in the
as the development of the main research methodologies, and research related to the hydrogen internal combustion engine,
the forms of HICEs that have a great impact on their the Quasi-dimensional Combustion Model is also one of the
application, so that the main forms of HICEs as well as their commonly used basic models of fuel theory. Through the
strengths and weaknesses are also described in section 2.2. development of the flame, the products of combustion, and the
Since the progress of hydrogen doped internal combustion consideration of the characteristics of the flow field, etc., the
engines in China in the last two decades has already been calculation accuracy of the Quasi-dimensional Combustion
summarized,6 in this section, pure hydrogen internal Model can be improved by flame development, combustion
combustion engines will be analyzed in a more focused products, and consideration of flow field characteristics.10,11
manner. In section 3, given that China is one of the major However, the Quasi-dimensional Combustion Model is
forces in HICEs research, Chinese research topics on HICEs difficult to generalize due to its specificity and consideration
are analyzed in this section, as are more detailed topics such as of subprocesses.
how to solve the anomalous combustion encountered in the With the development of computers, a large number of
development of HICEs, the effect of different parameters on multidimensional models have been gradually developed, and
HICEs, the emission characteristics of HICEs, and their the three-dimensional model of the internal combustion engine
optimal control. In each theme, representative research results is constructed by simulating the bases of thermodynamics, fluid
are discussed, and future trends are outlooked. In the final part, dynamics, heat and mass transfer, and chemical reaction
the developments of the hydrogen internal combustion engine kinetics, etc. It has become a trend to carry out the simulation
in China in the past 30 years are summarized, and the related of the internal combustion engine in the field of numerical
prospects are presented. simulation of all working conditions, and this kind of method is
more persuasive theoretically as a development of numerical
2. FUNDAMENTALS OF THE HICEs computation. However, the construction of a perfect multi-
2.1. Theoretical Foundations and Research Methods dimensional model is not an easy task, and it requires the joint
of HICEs. The earliest current record of a hydrogen internal efforts of specialists in the field of internal combustion engines,
combustion engine is the gas engine mentioned in the study by specialists in the field of mathematics, and specialists in
Rev. W. Cecil.7 The more systematic research on hydrogen programming, as well as the development of computers. Of
internal combustion engines (HICEs) comes from the last course, it is undeniable that such methods are already being
century and has reached a peak in this century. The operation applied with good results. Through numerical simulation, the
of a hydrogen internal combustion engine is a multiphysical various processes in a hydrogen combustion engine can be
field coupling process, and, similar to a conventional internal easily seen, such as the distribution of the temperature field in
combustion engine, the operation of a hydrogen internal the cylinder, the distribution of the concentration of the
combustion engine is also in accordance with the correspond- combustion mass, and the generation pattern of the
ing theoretical cyclic process; therefore, theoretically, the products.12,13 Meanwhile, in the foreseeable future, it will be
conventional internal combustion engine can be well adapted a trend to build digital twins based on such methods to achieve
to the application of hydrogen in the internal combustion the purpose of virtual testing, real-time monitoring, health
engine by making corresponding improvements to the operation, and maintenance of complex equipment. At present,
combustion characteristics of the hydrogen fuel. It can be in the field of the internal combustion engine, scholars have
seen that the main theories in the research of hydrogen internal already made attempts to build digital twins on internal
combustion engine also come from the development of the combustion engine sensors, internal combustion engine power
traditional internal combustion engine, as the combustion plants, and other objects.14,15 However, it has not yet been
model is an important part of the theoretical foundation of the reported in the field of HICEs.
48591 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c05397
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612
2.2. Structure Forms of HICEs. According to how

hydrogen is used in the internal combustion engine, HICEs
can be divided into a pure hydrogen internal combustion
engine and a hydrogen-blended internal combustion engine. In
view of the nature of hydrogen, the hydrogen internal
combustion engine is generally in the way of spark ignition
(SI); through the hydrogen and gasoline, alcohol or other fuels
can be doped to a certain extent to improve the performance of
the original internal combustion engine and emissions, or
through the use of compression ignition (CI) of fuels as a
carrier and mix with the hydrogen and then through the CI
method of ignition, the pure hydrogen engine due to the Figure 2. Trends in the number of articles on HICEs.
nature of hydrogen, so that the majority of the engine is the SI
engine.16 However, some scholars argued that premixed charge
limits the engine efficiency, power density, and safety, while
diesel injections give rise to CO2 and particulate emissions.
Therefore, they have attempted to design a pure hydrogen
compression-ignition engine.17 The structure of HICEs is
basically the same as that of a conventional internal
combustion engine, with the difference that a hydrogen
internal combustion engine has a separate hydrogen supply
system that includes a series of auxiliary components such as
hydrogen storage, hydrogen delivery, and hydrogen injection.
In Figure 1,18 the structure of a typical hydrogen internal
Figure 3. National/regional distribution of researchers in HICEs.
engines, and the trend of related publications is shown in

Figure 2. It can be seen that the research intensity of this field
is increasing, in which the research from China accounts for
28%, which has an important position in the field. The
distribution of research in various countries is shown in Figure
3, and China has the largest automobile market in the world, so
a review of the research on hydrogen-fueled internal
combustion engines in China is also of great significance for
the development of the field and the assessment of the overall
Figure 1. Structural arrangement of a typical hydrogen internal development of the status of the hydrogen combustion engines
combustion engine and accessories from the literature.18 Reprinted by other scholars.
with permission from ref 18. Copyright 2023 MDPI (Basel, The research on hydrogen as the alternative fuel for vehicles
Switzerland). in China originated from the end of the last century, but the
research institutions were extremely rare, as in-depth research
combustion engine test stand is shown. Although this is a was not enough either. Chinese researchers have made
single-cylinder piston engine, it can be adapted to other types unremitting efforts to study H2 as the fuel for vehicle internal
of engines by replacing the accessories on the stand and combustion engines since the 21st century and have made
making minor structural changes, such as different hydrogen considerable progress.
injection positions, different engine types, different fuel 3.1. A Study Related to the Structural Form of
types,19 different ignition positions and modes,20,21 etc. Different HICEs. As mentioned in section 2, there is no single
According to the structure of HICEs, they can be divided form of a hydrogen combustion engine, and scholars are always
into spark ignition (SI) engines and compression ignition (CI) looking for the most suitable form or exploring ways to study
engines, and, according to the form of engine movement, what works best in a particular form. The same is true for
hydrogen internal combustion engines for automobiles can be Chinese research.
divided into four-stroke engines, two-stroke engines, and rotary When hydrogen is used as the only fuel, its ignition timing
engines, etc. As a matter of fact, Ford, BMW, Mazda, has a great influence on the power characteristics of the
Volkswagen, Lexus, etc., have already had their hydrogen hydrogen internal combustion engine; improper ignition
internal combustion engine automobiles tested.22 timing will bring backfire phenomenon and even lead to
engine misfire in serious cases. In the study of Li et al., it was
3. CURRENT STATUS OF RESEARCH ON DIFFERENT found that the interval of injection timing and ignition timing
TOPICS OF HICEs IN CHINA should be controlled less than 0.05 ms for ensuring the engine
According to data on Web of Science, as of September 2023, can operate normally.23 Because of the nature of hydrogen, the
there are 3391 papers related to hydrogen internal combustion mixing ratio with air, the method of hydrogen injection, and
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612
stand-alone fuel, NOx control is still an issue that needs to be

addressed despite the absence of carbon compounds in the
emissions.26 The control of hydrogen embrittlement is also
limiting the development of pure hydrogen engines. Therefore,
while efforts are now being made to improve materials, much
research is also focusing on the application of hydrogen doping
of different fuels in internal combustion engines, where the
performance of most engines will be improved by doping
hydrogen in different proportions.6 The HICEs constructed by
some Chinese companies are shown in Figure 4, and the basic
parameters of the achieved hydrogen internal combustion
engine tests are shown in Table 1.
As early as 2007, Changan Automobile Group Co., Ltd.
developed China’s first hydrogen internal combustion engine
(Figure 4a) in cooperation with the Beijing Institute of
Technology.27 As of 2013, cars powered by this combustion
engine have been running steadily for more than 10 000 km,
they have released several hydrogen combustion engine
concept sports cars (Figure 4b), and the second generation
of the hydrogen combustion engine has already been
successfully ignited in 2023. FAW Hong Qi Group unveiled
their first hydrogen combustion engine in 2021 (Figure 4c),
developed a 20TD hydrogen−gasoline hybrid combustion
engine in 2023, and in addition their hydrogen combustion
engine was tested on a small aircraft (Figure 4d). The BAIC
GROUP, in conjunction with the Beijing University of
Technology, has further optimized a HICE (Figure 4e)
based on the Magic Core 1.5T engine, which uses key
technologies such as nozzles and rails adapted to hydrogen
fuel, a hydrogen-specific turbocharger, hydrogen-specific oil,
and wear-resistant and hydrogen-resistant valves and seats,
which are more than 40%. According to the Great Wall Motor
Company, they have developed a 2.0 L hydrogen internal
combustion engine (Figure 4f) based on the EN platform, in
which cold spark plugs and plating to prevent hydrogen
embrittlement have been used, ultimately guaranteeing a
combined engine thermal efficiency of 42%. In 2022, the
Dongfeng Motor Corporation, in conjunction with a number
of Chinese institutions, released two hydrogen internal
combustion engines. The hydrogen engine has a power of 80
kW/170 N m, with a thermal efficiency exceeding 45.04%,
more than 70% of the efficiency zone is greater than 40%, and
there is also a hydrogen−ammonia engine that is based on the
13 L DDi13 engine for retrofitting. The rated power is 338 kW
and the maximum torque is 2200 N m, and key technologies to
combat hydrogen embrittlement, hydrogen safety monitoring,
and other technologies have also been incorporated (Figure
4g). The Shanghai New Power Automotive Technology Co.,
Figure 4. HICEs from Chinese companies. (a) The first HICE in Ltd., a subsidiary of the SAIC Group, has developed a direct-
China. Photograph courtesy of Yuanbin Xu. Copyright 2007 (free injection hydrogen internal combustion engine (Figure 4h)
domain). (b) Hydrogen combustion engine concept sports cars of designed for a maximum horsepower of 480 PS and a high
Changan. (c) HICE from FAW Hong Qi. (d) A small aircraft thermal efficiency of 44%. Geely Power Research Institute
equipped with HICE. (e) A HICE based on the Magic Core 1.5T
announced that after two rounds of exploration and develop-
engine. (f) A 2.0 L HICE based on the EN platform. (g) A hydrogen-
ammonia engine based on the DDi13 engine. (h) A direct-injection ment, it has successfully raised the thermal efficiency of its self-
HICE from Shanghai New Power Automotive Technology. (i) A developed 2.0 L direct-injection supercharged hydrogen
direct-injection supercharged HICE from Geely Power Research internal combustion engine (Figure 4i) to 46.11%t, which
Institute. (j) A heavy-duty commercial vehicle cylinder direct- has reached an industry-leading level. In 2022, China’s first
injection HICE from FAW Jiefang. (k) YCK16 HICE. (l) X15H heavy-duty commercial vehicle cylinder direct-injection hydro-
HICE. (m) B6.7H HICE. (n) WP15 HICE. (o) A commercially gen engine, independently developed by the Faw Jiefang
available HICE heavy truck equipped with WP15. Group, was successfully ignited and operated stably (Figure
4j). Guangxi Yuchai Power Co., Ltd. has developed two
the cyclic behavior under different operating conditions are hydrogen internal combustion engines, including the YCK16
also important.24,25 In addition, when hydrogen is used as a (Figure 4k), currently the largest hydrogen internal combus-
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612
Table 1. Main HICE Products from Chinese Enterprises

release
corporations time engines fuels announced performance parameters thermal efficiency
Changan 2007 PFI HICE 2.0 L H2
Automobile
FAW Hong Qi 2021 20TD HICE H2 or hydrogen gasoline 42%
blend
BAIC 2021 Mohe 1.5T HICE H2 80 kW/170 N m more than 43%
Great Wall 2021 based on EN platform 2.0 L H2 maximum power 120 kW, peak torque 42%
Motor HICE 230 N m
Dongfeng 2022 DDi13 13 L HICE hydrogen−ammonia dual 338 kW/ 2200 N m more than 45.04%
Motor fuel
Shanghai New 2022 12.8 L GDI H2 480 PS 44%
Power
Geely Power 2023 2.0 L direct injection H2 maximum power 110 kW; maximum 46.11%
supercharged HICE torque 230 N m
Faw Jiefang 2022 13 L cylinder direct injection H2 or hydrogen− more than 500 PS more than 55% (indicative
HICE ammonia dual fuel thermal efficiency)
Cummins 2022 X15H H2 (easy fuel change) 395 kW /2600 N m 44%
2022 B6.7H H2 (easy fuel change) 216 kW /1200 N m
Guangxi Yuchai 2021 YCK05N H2 42%
Power
2022 YCK16H 15.93 L H2 or hydrogen− 560 PS
ammonia dual fuel
Weichai Power 2022 WP15 15 L HICE H2 390 kW/ 2500 N m 41.8%
cylinder head. The X15H (Figure 4l) has accumulated more

than 1000+ hours of test time and has brought the thermal
efficiency (44%), torque (2600 N m), average effective
pressure (22 bar), and other data to achieve China’s more
leading level, and its design of the B6.7H (Figure 4m) also
successfully ignited. Weichai Power unveiled their WP15
hydrogen combustion engine (Figure 4n) at the Hannover
Commercial Vehicle Show, which features flexible hydrogen
injection, efficient thin combustion, intelligent ignition start,
and Weichai ECU control. This combustion engine has now
been installed in China’s first commercially available HICE
heavy truck (Figure 4o).
In academia, research on different forms of hydrogen
Figure 5. Variations of indicated thermal efficiency with ignition internal combustion engines is more detailed; some scholars
advance angle. have carried out research on other aspects of reciprocating
piston hydrogen-fueled engines, such as idle performance,
energy distribution, and turbocharged hydrogen-fueled en-
gines. There have also been some scholars who have explored
other nonreciprocating piston hydrogen-fueled engines, such as
hydrogen-fueled rotary engines, free-piston hydrogen-fueled
engines, and hydrogen-fueled scramjet engines. The following
is a brief description of this research.
3.1.1. Other Research on Reciprocating Piston Hydrogen-
Fueled Engines. Ma et al.28 explored the performance of the
hydrogen-fueled engine using turbocharging technology at
idling conditions. Results had demonstrated that the decrease
indicated thermal efficiency, while the raised maximum
cylinder pressure and the increased NOx emissions could be
obtained with the increase of Φ. They also found that when Φ
remained constant, both NOx emissions and maximum
Figure 6. Variations of NOx emissions with λ. cylinder pressure increased with the increase of θig. He et
al.29 employed the same equipment and further studied idle
tion engine in China. Cummins has already produced characteristics of the engine. Results from the above-
hydrogen internal combustion engines of 15, 10, and 6.7 L mentioned study reported that the increased θig at MBT
displacements, and they are working on building a multifuel point, the raised indicated thermal efficiency, and the
engine platform with rapid iterative design through modula- decreased NOx emissions could be obtained after increasing
rization, which in a way enables rapid replacement of internal λ. They also pointed out that when λ remained constant, NOx
combustion engines with different fuels by replacing the emissions increased as θig increased.
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612
Figure 7. Abnormal combustion at the corresponding flow velocity (a) and forward combustion velocity (b).
exergy of the engine was raised with the increase of speed and
load. Both power output and economic ascended with
increasing Φ. They found that ignition timing close to TDC
would give rise to an increase in the proportion of exhaust gas
energy and a decrease in NOx emissions. They proposed that
reasonable adjustment of the coolant temperature could reduce
the energy of the whole system, but had little effect on the
brake thermal efficiency. Based on the mapping characteristics
experiment, Wang et al.32 employed the same equipment and
further investigated the distribution of energy and exergy of the
engine. The results revealed that all kinds of energies (exhaust
energy, cooling medium energy, intercooler energy, uncounted
energy, and effective work) increased as speeds increased and
Figure 8. Variations of preignition suppression degree with ignition they were not sensitive to the loads. They also found that the
timing. turbocharger could enhance ηet and the increasing amplitude
could reach 4.8%.
By investigating the variation trend of the polytropic
coefficient of a 2.0 L HICE, Luo et al.33 found that the
polytropic coefficient of the HICE was smaller than that of the
gasoline engine. Results from experiments also demonstrated
that the polytropic coefficient was decreased as Φ increased.
They also found that the polytropic coefficient increased from
1.3 to 1.35 with the increase of engine speed from 1000 to
4000 rpm, and then it decreased to around 1.34 at 5000 rpm.
Luo and Sun34 also found that the power output of the
turbocharged HICE could be increased and NOx emissions
could be controlled by using the Miller cycle, and then the
performance of the engine was optimized, especially at a low
engine speed.
Sun et al.35 carried out the investigation on the performance
Figure 9. Variations of backfire suppression degree with water
injection ratio.
of the HICE and vehicle. Results of the test showed that, while
the power and torque outputs were 40% lower than those of
the gasoline engine, the indicated and brake thermal efficiency
For a 2.0 L HICE, Zhao et al.30 studied the ignition energy
of the HICE could reach 40.4% and 35%, respectively. NOx
by the experiment, discussed the influence of ignition energy
on power, and then analyzed the correlation of minimum emission was mainly affected by the Φ value of mixed gas. The
ignition energy with equivalent concentration, speed, and load. system of the HICE and vehicle worked normally, and the
Results from experiments revealed that the influence of dynamic properties met the development requirements. In
ignition energy on hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine addition, Ma et al.36 predicted the comprehensive performance
power was slight. The minimum ignition energy decreased as of a HICE through numerical calculations and determined the
the speed increased, and first increased and then decreased as optimal cylinder diameter of the engine, and then verified the
the load increased. When the parameter Φ was smaller than possibility of the engine to achieve lean combustion. They
the value 1, the minimum ignition energy decreased with the found that the increased cylinder pressure and the reduced
increase of equivalent concentration. In addition, Luo and thermal efficiency could be obtained after decreasing λ. They
Sun31 made experiments to explore the distribution of energy also pointed out that the increase of the compression ratio
of a 2.3 L turbocharged HICE. Results had shown that the could enhance the performance of the engine, and the variation
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Figure 10. Variations of heating duration with hot surface temperature under various hot surface areas ((b) is a supplement to (a)).
Figure 11. Correlation between the critical ignition temperature, duration of heat, and area of hot surface ((b) is a supplement to (a)).
Figure 12. Variation trend of mixture uniformity coefficient with hydrogen injection flow rate (a) and variation trend of mixture uniformity
coefficient with hydrogen injection flow rate (b) (analyzed by the AHP−AHP entropy method).60 Reprinted with permission from ref 60.
Copyright 2023 Elsevier.
of the ignition advance angle had little impact on the indicated EGR could increase the intake charge temperature and
thermal efficiency, as shown in Figure 5. combustion temperature under partial load, and then lead to
Yang et al.37 proposed a radial basis function network model an increase in NOx emissions, while NOx emissions were
for predicting the output of power, consumption of fuel, and decreased with the increase of EGR rate under full load. They
emissions of a HICE with the engine operating parameters. found that the torque was changed slightly with the variation of
Through the training and test, they found that the model can EGR rate when Φ was less than 1, while the torque was
abstractly predict the output performance. reduced with the increase of EGR rate when Φ was greater
Sun et al.38 conducted experiments to explore the influence than 1. They also proposed that NOx emissions could be
regularity of hot EGR on torque and NOx emissions of a 2.0 L dramatically decreased after a three-way catalyst with a slight
HICE by adjusting the EGR rate to change Φ. The reduction in torque was adopted. Duan and Liu39 investigated
experimental results showed that the introduction of hot the hydrogen-fueled engine combustion performance and
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612
Table 2. Mechanism and Suppression Method of Abnormal Combustion in China
researchers experimental equipment main methods main contributions
Yang et the hydrogen-fueled engine used in the experiment is modified from a three-cylinder and two- signal processing wavelet analysis is effective for diagnosing abnormal combustion
ACS Omega
al.49 stroke engine; the cylinder × diameter stroke: 61 × 61.5, emission capacity 539 cc, half ball methods
(2008) firebox, compression ratio 6.9:1
Yang et a single-cylinder, four-stroke hydrogen-fueled engine; the engine is water-cooled horizontal type; its signal processing ignition timing and excessive air ratio were the essential factors affecting rate of pressure rise
al.50 displacement is 482 cm3, bore is 85 mm, stroke is 85 mm, compression ratio can be changed from and control
(2010) 4.8 to 7.93 hemisphere model
Yang et as the above control model the propagation speed of laminar flames is related to the state and operating parameters of hydrogen
al.52,53 method fuel engines; among them, temperature, pressure, boost rate, and excess air ratio have the greatest
(2012) impact on abnormal combustion
Qin et as the above CFD methods low-temperature combustion technology can reduce the rough working characteristics of hydrogen
al.58 internal combustion engines
(2017)
Gao et as the above, but using two valve intakes CFD methods the impact of different inlet ports on abnormal combustion
al.55
(2014)
Yang et as the above, but using a four-valve structure CFD and data pro- verified the applicability of AHP method in the study of hydrogen injection angle and flow rate on
al.60 cessing early ignition and tempering of hydrogen internal combustion engines
(2022)
Duan et a 4-cylinder, 1.998 L, PFI hydrogen internal combustion engine with intake port injection, with a CFD methods optimizing the angle of hydrogen injection can effectively suppress backfire and investigate the reasons
al.54 bore of 86 mm and a stroke of 86 mm for abnormal combustion in hydrogen internal combustion engines with different loads
(2013)
Liu et al.56 as the above experimental study experimental evidence on the causes of abnormal combustion in hydrogen internal combustion
(2014) engines with different loads
Luo et as the above experimental and in the PFI hydrogen internal combustion engine, the effects of ignition timing and backfire on
al.57 numerical model combustion knock were explained
48597
(2016) analysis
Yang et not mentioned experimental study explored the importance of the influence of various parameters on the hot spots of hydrogen internal
al.59 combustion engines
(2018)
Dang et a 539 cm3 hydrogen internal combustion engine with a hemispherical combustion chamber, with a neural network al- the SOM neural network can effectively detect abnormal combustion problems such as pre ignition,
al.61 cylinder diameter of 61 mm and a piston stroke of 61.5 mm gorithm backfire, and detonation in hydrogen engines, and propose a Multi Agent System to locate and track
http://pubs.acs.org/journal/acsodf
(2022) faults
Review
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612

https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c05397
Figure 15. Variations of uniformity coefficient of mixture with engine

speed under three injection modes.
HICE model to deal with the turbocharging match problems.

On this basis, they accomplished HICE turbocharging
matching and optimization of compression ratio and intake
Figure 13. Hydrogen distribution of different injection ends.62 valve opening timing. The results of performance prediction
Reprinted with permission from ref 62. Copyright 2008 Elsevier. showed that the maximum torque of turbocharged HICE was 2
times that of the natural aspirated HICE, the efficiency was
emission characteristics based on a PFI-HICE test system improved by 7−15%, and the specific emission of NOx tended
equipped with a hot EGR system. The experimental results to decrease.
showed that using hot EGR could significantly reduce Pmax and 3.1.2. Research on Nonreciprocating Piston Hydrogen-
Tmax and slightly increase the period of ignition delay and Fueled Engines. Su et al.41 designed and installed a control
duration of combustion. They also found that when the EGR system on a rotary engine to explore the idle performance of
rate was large enough at middle load, NOx emissions were the engine through changing the duration of hydrogen
reduced greatly, but only a moderate EGR rate was needed for injection and λ. Results had shown that the decreased fuel
NOx emissions control at high load, because an excessive EGR energy flow rate, the enhanced stability of engine, the dropped
rate would lead to significant reduction in power output and Tmax, and the reduced NOx emissions (as shown in Figure 6)
fuel economy. In addition, Sun et al.40 built the turbocharging could be obtained with the increase of λ. Besides, Meng et al.42
Figure 14. Analyses related to the on-time performance of hydrogen injectors. (a) Changes in opening area, pressure of the injector input, and
pressure sensor over time. (b) Pressure fluctuations under different pulse widths at 0.45 MPa. (c) Pressure fluctuations under different pulse widths
at 0.45 MPa. (d) Pressure changes with time under different supply pressures.64 Reprinted with permission from ref 64. Copyright 2013 Elsevier.
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612
proposed a combustion speed measurement method for the
the possibility of backfire mainly depends on the concentration of H2 residual at intake ports in a manifold
a series of studies have been conducted to illustrate the effects of different parameters on engine hydrogen
flow characteristics; a low supply pressure exhibits more effectively decreases on pressure fluctuation at a
backfire can be controlled effectively by optimizing hydrogen injection timing to reduce the concentration of
the opening time of the inlet valve and the closing time of the exhaust valve are different, and the timing of
injection, such as HIT, HIP, hydrogen injection quantity, position and diameter of noise hole, and different
the flow area between the armature and the seal was established to have the largest effect on the injector’s
injection H2ICE, and the leaner is the concentration of the residual, the lower is the possibility of the
the mixture gathering around the intake valve when the latter opens and the temperature of the high-
dual spark plug Wankel rotor engine (HWRE), and associated
greater contact area through turbulence and increased hydrogen diffusion rate result in better mixing
the flow rate and flame speed with abnormal combustion, and
then discussed their impact on the abnormal combustion
characteristics of HWRE. The results show that the flame
speed and flow rate of HWRE have a significant impact on its
hydrogen injection has different effects on the time when the inlet duct is blocked
abnormal combustion problem, both of which are positively
correlated with abnormal combustion, and the latter has a
more significant impact (Figure 7).
Yuan et al.43 established the CFD model of a free-piston
hydrogen-fueled engine, and then compared and investigated
the effects of pilot-ignition and spark-ignition on the
concentration mixture when it flows through the intake valve
main contributions
performance of the engine through numerical calculations.

They found that the raised combustion velocity of H2−air
mixture, the enhanced degree of constant volume combustion,
the improved output of power and ηet, and the increased NO
emissions could be obtained after adopting the pilot-ignition.
Yuan et al.44 then made simulations to investigate the
performance of a linear hydrogen-fueled engine (LHE).
Results from simulations revealed that the LHE had higher
thermal efficiency and indicated power under short stroke, but
modes of hydrogen injection
the postcombustion effect was serious. With the increase of

sufficient hydrogen flow
stroke length, the increased combustion velocity, the improved

engine efficiency, and the raised NO emissions could be
Table 3. Influence of Hydrogen Injection Parameters and Hydrogen Injection Modes on HICEs in China
obtained. With the further increase of stroke length, the

performance
combustion temperature was decreased and NO emissions

backfire
were reduced, but the thermal efficiency and output power of

the engine were lower at this time. Afterward, Yuan et al.45
employed the same equipment and further investigated the
LHE. They found that the uniformity of the hydrogen−air
experimental research and
and experimental analy-
numerical model analysis,

numerical model analysis
experimental analysis,
original design and nu-
mixture was raised with the increase of stroke length. They also
and CFD methods
main methods
proposed that the LHE with long stroke could achieve

merical analysis
CFD methods
CFD methods
CFD methods
homogeneous combustion.
Cao et al.46 analyzed the mode of combustion and operating
route of a hydrogen-fueled scramjet engine, determined the
sis
boundary of transition of combustion mode, and proposed the

optimal operating route for scramjet operation. In addition,
a DOHC V4 1.998 L PFI hydrogen internal combustion engine, with a bore of
a single-cylinder, four-stroke hydraulic fueled engine; the engine is water cooled

horizontal type; its display is 482 cm3, bore is 85 mm, stroke is 85 mm; using
Yang et al.47 established a model of a scramjet engine to

explore the mechanism of transition of combustion mode at
the assumption of inviscid flow. Zhang et al.48 developed the
system of thermal protection of the hydrogen-fueled scramjet
engine to ensure safety and cooling requirements of the engine
86 mm and a stroke of 86 mm; two injectors per cylinder
at high flight Mach number. Afterward, Yang et al.49 proposed

the constant static-temperature heating to solve the restriction
of combustion temperature limit on the performance of the
experimental equipment
as the above, but using different injection methods
hydrogen-fueled scramjet engine and conserve fuel. Results

dual injection mode for hydrogen injection
also demonstrated that the efficiency and thrust of the engine

were obviously enhanced after adopting this method without
overtemperature of the combustor.
3.2. Mechanism and Suppression Method of Abnor-
mal Combustion. Although hydrogen-fueled engines have a
series of advantages over a conventional petroleum-fueled
engine, such as wide ignition limit, fast combustion velocity,
running under lean mixture, and less harmful emissions, if the
working process is improperly organized, abnormal combus-
as the above
as the above
as the above
tion is likely to occur. Not only will the engine’s performance

decline sharply, but the engines cannot operate normally, and
even experience flameout. Therefore, it is necessary to explore
the abnormal combustion mechanism and influence factors of
Yang et al.69−73
Liu65 (2014)
Liu66 (2014)
Yang et al.67,68
Sun et al.63,64
(from 2015
hydrogen-fueled engines and strategy of eliminating abnormal

(2012 and
(2018 and
research
Liu et al.62
to 2018)
Duan and
Duan and
combustion. Abnormal combustion of hydrogen-fueled engines

(2008)
2013)
2022)
is mainly split into the following three categories: (a) the rate
of pressure rise is too high in the early stages of combustion
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612
Figure 16. Mass fraction of H2 on the section plane of x = 0 at different crank angles.74 (a) Mass fraction of H2 at 261 °CA. (b) Mass fraction of H2
at 320 °CA. (c) Mass fraction of H2 at 321 °CA. (d) Mass fraction of H2 at 330 °CA. (e) Mass fraction of H2 at 340 °CA. Reprinted with
permission from ref 74. Copyright 2010 Elsevier.
and knock; (b) preignition of the combustion process; and (c) diagnose abnormal combustion. They found that wavelet
backfire of the intake manifold. transform is effective for diagnosing abnormal combustion.
These three kinds of abnormal combustion can sometimes Yang et al.51 then discussed the mechanism of abnormal
transform and promote each other. For example, the combustion of hydrogen-fueled engines, analyzed the correla-
continuous advance of preignition can eventually cause tion between preignition and rate of pressure rise, and further
backfire; an excessive pressure rise rate tends to create hot investigated the approach of diagnostic on preignition. They
spots in the cylinder, which cause preignition and backfire. found that wavelet analysis could be employed to diagnose the
Yang et al.50 transformed the pressure signals of normal timing and severity of preignition at various rates of pressure
combustion and preignition by wavelet to investigate abnormal rise. Results from experiments also revealed that ignition
combustion of hydrogen-fueled engines. Through investigating timing and excessive air ratio were the essential factors
and comparing the spectrum feature of wavelet transform, the affecting the rate of pressure rise. By controlling these key
wavelet energy of different scales was computed and used to parameters, the abnormal combustion of the engines can be
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612
the CFD method is very effective for studying the state of the mixture in hydrogen internal
hydrogen concentration in the cylinder has found that installing the spark plug away from
CoVIMEP is the best characteristic parameter for evaluating the cyclic variation characteristics
mixture concentration, throttle opening, and initial hydrogen injection angle on the cyclic
combustion efficiency of pure hydrogen engines decreases with an increase in excess air
combustion engines; in this example, the mixture quality is much better than other two
the hydrogen concentration in the two characteristic positions far from the nozzle in the
cylinder is more stable than that near the spark plug; research on the distribution of
through experimental research, the effects of rotational speed, ignition advance angle,
due to the decrease in fuel combustion speed during lean burn, the constant volume
variation of PFI hydrogen internal combustion engines were studied
the nozzle is more conducive to ignition and combustion
main contributions
of PFI hydrogen internal combustion engines

circulations, which was injected at 260 °CA
Figure 17. Variations of CoVimep with ignition advance angle.
coefficient under idle conditions

fundamentally restricted. Yang et al.52 then investigated the
mechanism of preignition and backfire of hydrogen-fueled
engine through analyzing the correlation of the following four
factors: state parameters, operating parameters, the reaction of
chain, and rate of combustion and velocity of propagation of
flame. They established the model of optimum control with
various variables, objectives, and constraints, and then carried
out the solution by GA. They proposed an effective strategy,
periment and
main methods
CFD methods
which was to adjust λ and ignition timing through weighting
CFD meth-
Schlieren ex-
experimental
experimental
experimental
coefficients to optimize the output of power and suppress the
analysis
analysis
analysis
abnormal combustion. In addition, Yang et al.53 pointed out
ods
that the delay of ignition timing could contribute to decrease
the degree of occurrence of preignition (as shown in Figure 8),
cylinder × diameter stroke: 61 × 61.5, emission capacity 539 cc, half ball firebox, compression ratio 6.9:1; injector
the spark plug is located in the center of the cylinder, with a 12-hole nozzle installed on the side, relatively close to
a 1.6 L pure hydrogen engine modified from a gasoline engine with a cylinder diameter × piston stroke: 77.4 × 85
the hydrogen-fueled engine used in the experiment is modified from a three-cylinder and two-stroke engine; the
and the inclination of backfire could be suppressed by water the spark plug; case 1 is to have a spray hole facing the spark plug; case 2 involves rotating the nozzle 15° to
is fixed in the center position of cylinder cover, injection valve turns on controlled by rocker arm through
injection into the inlet (as shown in Figure 9). However, they
found that excessive delay of ignition would lead to a reduction
Table 4. Formation of H2−Air Mixture and Combustion Cycle Variation in China
in the output of power and brake thermal efficiency.

Furthermore, water injection would also cause a reduction in
the output of power and make the cylinder suffer more severe
a V4 1.998 L PFI hydrogen internal combustion engine, bore is 86 mm, stroke is 86 mm
corrosion and deteriorate the performance of lubrication.

Therefore, they put forward an optimal control method in
which the delay of ignition was unified with water injection, mm, with electronically controlled hydrogen injection through the intake port
which not only eliminated backfire, but took into account the
output of power and economy.
Duan et al.54 built a CFD model with an inlet and cylinder
camshaft, and the camshaft keeps the same rotating speed as crank
experimental equipment
to explore the mechanism of backfire of HICE under

conditions of different speeds and loads. They pointed out
that the low-temperature and low-concentration mixture could
enter the cylinder first to reduce the temperature of exhaust gas
or hot spots in-cylinder by adjusting the timing of the H2
position the spark plug between two jet streams
injection, thereby controlling the occurrence of backfire. Gao

et al.55 then analyzed the inhibiting effects of two types of
intake ports, elbow pipe port and tangential intake port, on
preignition and backfire through using the 3D numerical
simulation method. The results indicated that there was a
back-flow elbow pipe port and tangential intake port. Backflow
raised the temperature in the intake port, which easily ignited
the H2−air mixture in the intake port and caused backfire.
They also found that the elbow pipe port was prone to cause
as the above
preignition, while the tangential intake port helps to restrain

preignition. In addition, for investigating the situation of
backfire in port injection hydrogen-fueled engines at different
loading conditions, Liu et al.56 carried out an experimental
investigation on a 2.0 L four-cylinder hydrogen-fueled engine.
(2010)
(2010)
(2013)
(2013)
(2011)
et al.25
research
al.77,78
and Ji
Yang et
Liu75
Sun et
Sun et
al.74
al.76
Wang
Wang
and
Results from experiments revealed that when the engine

worked at low load condition, the rate of burning of the
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612
simulations revealed that the duration of heat could be reduced

as the temperature and area of the hot surface increased, but
the decreasing amplitude was gradually reduced, as shown in
Figure 10. When the temperature of hot surface exceeded 1200
K, the area of the hot surface had little effect on the duration of
heat. Furthermore, they proposed and defined the critical
ignition temperature, which is exclusively controlled by the
duration of heat within the scope of the investigation, and then
explored the relationship between the critical ignition temper-
ature, duration of heat, and area of the hot surface (as shown in
Figure 11). Finally, they reported that eliminating hot spots
and controlling the temperature below 800 K before the spark
plug ignited were two ways to effectively avoid preignition.
To better investigate the relationship between hydrogen
Figure 18. Variations of NOx emissions with excessive air ratio. injection parameters and anomalous combustion in hydrogen
internal combustion engines, Yang et al.60 applied the AHP
decision tree to the research of abnormal combustion of
hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine for the first time,
and proposed and defined the “abnormal combustion risk
coefficient” based on the AHP-entropy method. Through the
comprehensive analysis method, the accuracy and reliability of
abnormal combustion diagnosis and control are improved, and
the development law of abnormal combustion risk coefficient
under different working conditions is deeply revealed, such as
the variation trend of mixture uniformity coefficient with
hydrogen injection flow rate (Figure 12a) and the variation of
temperature of the hot area with hydrogen injection flow rate
(Figure 12b). They found that, on this basis, the possibility of
abnormal combustion can be reduced by changing the angle
Figure 19. Variations of NO emission concentrations with EGR rate. and flow of hydrogen injection, which provides a new idea for
the diagnosis and control of abnormal combustion.
Dang et al.61 established a fault diagnosis model for
hydrogen−air mixture was rather low, and a large amount of abnormal combustion by integrating the SOM neural network
unburned hydrogen remains, leading to the occurrence of and multiagent system (SOM-MAS) to identify four different
backfire. While at high load conditions, the high temperature types of combustion: normal combustion, slight early
fraction of residual gas or hot spots in cylinder ignited the combustion, medium early combustion, and heavy early
hydrogen−air mixture and caused backfire. combustion. It is found that the SOM-MAS method can not
Luo et al.57 employed a 2.0 L hydrogen-fueled engine and only diagnose and identify different combustion types, but also
established the corresponding model to investigate combustion find the location of abnormal combustion faults, which
knock of the engine. Results had shown that combustion knock provides a new method to solve the problem of abnormal
was more likely to occur when the engine speed was higher. combustion of the hydrogen-fueled internal combustion
Results from the study also reported that combustion knock engine.
interacted with other phenomena of abnormal combustion The working process of the hydrogen-fueled engine is
such as preignition or backfire. On account of combustion extremely complex, and the generation mechanism of
knock, the cylinder components were heated, which could abnormal combustion determines its instantaneity and
generate hot spots and eventually cause preignition and uncertainty. Abnormal combustion will not only reduce the
backfire. In addition, to effectively suppress the preignition and performance of the hydrogen-fueled internal combustion
harsh combustion in hydrogen-fueled engines, Qin et al.58 engine, but also cause irreversible damage to the hydrogen-
attempted the application of a low-temperature combustion fueled internal combustion engine in serious cases. The control
technique to a hydrogen-fueled engine, established the of abnormal combustion of hydrogen-fueled internal combus-
prediction model for low-temperature combustion, and tion engines may be the key to determining whether the
analyzed the characteristics and implementing mechanism of hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine can make break-
low-temperature combustion in hydrogen-fueled engines. They throughs in the future, so finding an effective way to solve the
pointed out that low-temperature combustion, which was problem of abnormal combustion of the hydrogen-fueled
achieved through enhancing high specific-heat components internal combustion engine is the goal of researchers in the
and reducing oxygen concentration of in-cylinder charge, can future. The important research on the mechanism and
effectively control the combustion reaction velocity, suppress suppression method of abnormal communication from China
the preignition and harsh combustion, and reduce NO and their main contributions are summarized in Table 2.
pollutant in hydrogen-fueled engine. To explore the 3.3. The Influence of Hydrogen Injection Parameters
preignition of HICE caused by hot spots in depth, Yang et and Hydrogen Injection Modes on HICE. As analyzed in
al.59 investigated the influence regularity of feature parameters the previous section, hydrogen injection parameters are one of
of a hot surface (especially temperature and area of the hot the important influencing factors for abnormal combustion.
surface) on the duration of heat of a hot surface. Results from When hydrogen fuel is supplied to a HICE by means of intake
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612
Table 5. Study on NOx Emissions of HICEs in China
research experimental equipment main methods main contributions
Xu et a 1.6 L pure hydrogen engine modified experimental during the cold start period, NOx emissions that obviously raise at lean combustion conditions could efficiently reduce by rich H2 combustion strategy; moreover, the
ACS Omega
al.79,80 from a gasoline engine with a cylinder analysis emitted HC and CO emissions found in the exhaust manifold increase with the decrease of l due to the evaporated lubricant oil
(2018 diameter × Piston stroke: 77.4 × 85
and mm, with electronically controlled hy-
2019) drogen injection through the intake port
Bai81 as the above experimental under rich combustion conditions, neither too early nor too late ignition is conducive to improving the cold start performance of a hydrogen internal combustion
(2019) analysis and engine; with an excess air factor of 0.72, when the ignition angle is delayed from 25 °CA BTDC to 10 °CA ATDC, the cold start time of a hydrogen internal
CFD meth- combustion engine is shortened and then lengthened, and the peak in-cylinder combustion pressure is also shown to be increasing and then decreasing, and the
ods shortest cold start time and highest peak cylinder pressure are found at an ignition angle of 15 °CA BTDC; at an ignition angle of 15 °CA BTDC, the hydrogen
internal combustion engine has the shortest successful cold start time and the highest peak cylinder pressure
Liu82 a V4 1.998 L PFI hydrogen internal experimental increasing the amount of hydrogen injected in the cycle and increasing the mixture concentration can effectively increase the output torque of the hydrogen engine
(2012) combustion engine, bore is 86 mm, analysis and shorten the start-up time, but at the same time, the NOx emission will increase rapidly
stroke is 86 mm
Wang et a cylinder with a 120 mm inner diameter experimental increasing dilution level could achieve zero NO emission in the final product; for low diluent fractions, EGR has a more significant effect on reducing NO; it should
al.83 and 200 mm length analysis be noted that the unburnt H2 fraction sharply increases when the EGR fraction exceeds 40%
(2022)
Li et not mentioned CFD methods the use of EGR technology to achieve ultralow NO emissions from hydrogen-only engines requires the use of larger EGR ratios or a combination of EGR and
al.84 external purification
(2021)
Duan et a 2.0 L, four cylinders, and four strokes, CFD methods NO is the main component of NOx emissions, accounting for more than 97% of the total high load NOx emissions; N2O concentration increases sharply during the
al.85 naturally aspirated, spark ignition engine combustion period; the final N2O concentration is less than 1 ppm; NO2 emissions increase rapidly during the fast combustion period, and the increase slows after
(2017) the fast combustion period; the final concentration is 30−60 ppm, which accounts for 2% of the total NOx emissions
Zhu et as the above CFD methods the combustion of hydrogen in the cylinder undergoes two stages: ellipsoidal flame stable propagation and rapid turbulent combustion
al.86
(2019)
48603
Duan et as the above CFD methods the most important reaction that affects the combustion of hydrogen; the generation of NO depends not only on the combustion process of hydrogen, but also on
al.87 the three most important paths: the thermal NO, NNH, and N2O route
(2019)
Luo et a 2.3 L, four strokes, PFI hydrogen engine experimental increasing equivalence ratio can not only ascend the power, but the BTE also increases within a certain equivalence ratio range (such as 0.6−0.8) because the
al.88 with a turbocharger was installed into a analysis equivalence ratio can speed up the combustion velocity and improve the gas exchange process at low engine speeds of turbocharged hydrogen engines
(2019) hydrogen engine test bench
Luo et as the above experimental the turbocharger affects the trend of combustion duration with engine speed; when the turbo fails to absorb enough exhaust gas energy, the residual gas fraction
al.89 analysis increases and combustion slows, resulting in equal combustion durations at 1500 and 2000 rpm; the results at 2500 rpm, λ = 0.55, and at different loads also
(2019) support this conclusion; this is a clear difference in combustion characteristics between turbocharged and naturally aspirated engines
Sun et an inline four-cylinder 1.998 L PFI experimental at different equivalence ratios, the NOx generation increases with the increase of ignition advance angle, but the torque increases first and then decreases; in the case
al.90 hydrogen combustion engine, bore is 86 analysis of lean combustion, it is possible to increase the torque while meeting the NOx emission requirements by choosing a suitable ignition advance angle
(2011) mm, stroke is 86 mm; two injectors per
cylinder
Duan et as the above experimental the use of EGR can significantly reduce NOx emissions, and the higher is the EGR rate, the more significant is the effect of EGR in reducing the peak NOx emissions
al.91 analysis and the range of high concentration zones; the larger is the EGR rate, the more significant is the effect of EGR in reducing the peak and high concentration areas of
(2014) NOx emissions; the lower is the speed, the more significant is the effect
Review
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612

combustion, and the raised NOx emissions could be obtained

under various equivalence ratios after applying dual injection,
especially spaced dual injection. They proposed that
reasonable optimization of the diameter of the nozzle could
raise the uniformity of the mixture and improve the power and
economy of the HICE. Furthermore, the spaced dual injection
would lead to a rise in the temperature of the cylinder, an
expansion in high temperature area, and a reduction in residual
hydrogen mass in inlet. Although the engine was more prone
to preignition, it could suppress backfire.
At the same time, on this basis, the relieving effect of single-
way injection and dual-way injection on the inlet blockage of
the hydrogen-fueled engine is further studied, and a new
Figure 20. Principal diagram of two kinds of control modes. injection method, the other side spacing along the inlet shaft
(SH injection), is proposed. The results show that, as
manifold injection, the blockage of the intake pipe could occur. compared to single-way injection, dual-way injection can not
Especially, when the engine runs at high load, it has to face the only improve the space−time distribution of the mixture in the
contradictions between the blockage of the intake pipe, the inlet, increase the effective flow area, and ease the inlet
abnormal combustion, and the decline of the power output of blockage, but also improve the charging coefficient, increase
the engine. The hydrogen injection parameters and the the uniformity of the mixture, and improve the combustion
hydrogen injection modes have a great influence on the process.
blockage of the intake pipe and the formation of H2−air In addition, the group of Yang69−73 has carried out relevant
mixture, which has an essential effect on the abnormal research on the combustion process and formation of the
combustion, engine’s performance, and NOx emissions. hydrogen−air mixture of HICE in different parameters of
Therefore, it is essential to reveal the influence law and the hydrogen injection, such as HIT, HIP, hydrogen injection
formation of the hydrogen−air mixture. quantity, and position and diameter of nozzle hole, and various
Liu et al.62 made numerical and experimental investigations modes of hydrogen injection, such as single pipe injection and
on a PFI-HICE and then proposed a limited injection end dual injection with symmetric and spaced distribution.
timing of the HICE to rotating condition of the engine for With increasingly in-depth research on hydrogen-fueled
preventing backfire (Figure 13). Sun et al.63 combined injection parameters and methods of hydrogen-fueled engine,
experiment with simulation to explore the characteristics of researchers found that the flow rate and injection mode of
the hydrogen injector of the HICE. They established an area of hydrogen-fueled injection have a great impact on alleviating
circulation between sealing elements and armature to possess the inlet blockage of the hydrogen-fueled engine and
the greatest impact on the flow characteristics of the injector improving the output power of the hydrogen-fueled engine.
and obtained greater flux through adjusting the correlative Therefore, researchers can start from these two aspects to
parameters of the injector. They then pointed out that the achieve the ultimate goal of improving the comprehensive
raised range of pressure fluctuation and the increased decay performance of hydrogen-fueled engines. The important
time of pressure could be obtained after increasing the supply research on the influence of hydrogen injection parameters
pressure. They also reported that the pulse-width of injection and hydrogen injection modes on HICE from China and their
had the least effect on pressure fluctuation. The parameter main contributions are summarized in Table 3.
correlation is shown in Figure 14.64 3.4. The Formation of H2−Air Mixture and Combus-
Duan and Liu65 investigated the impacts of hydrogen tion Cycle Variation. Good formation of H2−air mixture is
injection pressure (HIP) and timing (HIT) on H2−air mixing the prerequisite and necessary condition to ensure the normal
velocity and uniformity, and put forward the nonuniformity combustion of HICE and is also the basis to improve the
coefficient to evaluate the mixing condition of the hydrogen− performance of HICE. However, in the research of hydrogen
air mixture. They optimized the injection timing and pressure internal combustion engines, due to the lack of corresponding
of different engine speeds and equivalent ratios according to equipment, it is difficult to directly study the fuel concentration
the nonuniformity coefficients. Duan and Liu66 employed the distribution and evolution characteristics of the H2−air
same equipment and made experiments and simulations to mixture. The visualization analysis method based on CFD
investigate the impacts of HIT and HIP on backfire. They has gradually become one of the main research methods for
proposed that reasonable optimization of HIT and HIP could HICEs with the development of computers.
enhance the output of power of the engine and suppress Yang et al.74 proposed that the adoption of the CFD model
backfire at high speed. In addition, the maximum torque could was conducive to investigate the formation rule of the H2−air
come up to 132 N m when HIT and HIP were optimized, mixture of hydrogen-fueled engine. They pointed out that the
which was 31.49% higher than that of the original engine. hydrogen injection timing had an essential effect on the
Yang et al.67,68 have carried out detailed research on the formation of the mixture. Properly advancing the hydrogen
hydrogen injection mode. They compared and analyzed single injection timing could enhance the quality of the mixture
injection (SI) and dual injection with symmetric (SY) or (Figure 16). In addition, Wang and Liu75 made the simulative
spaced (SP) distribution through simulation, and then pointed study on the distribution of mixture and position of ignition in
out that the adoption of dual injection could enhance the a direct-injection HICE. They analyzed the characteristics of
problem of inlet blockage of the PFI-HICE. Results from the hydrogen concentration distribution for several special
simulations demonstrated that am enhanced uniformity of positions in the cylinder and found that the hydrogen
mixture (as shown in Figure 15), an increased velocity of concentration in the two characteristic positions away from
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612
Table 6. Study on the Optimization Control Method of the HICEs Combustion Process from China
research experimental equipment main methods main contributions
Yang et a 165F petrol engine with a capacity of 126 cm3 experimental the ignition timing, injection timing, and hydrogen injection amount of an engine have a significant impact on engine performance, abnormal combustion, and
ACS Omega
al.4 analysis NOx emissions

(2001)
Yang et the test engine was modified by a water cooled, experimental the use of electronic control system has advantages for achieving the purpose and improving the performances of hydrogen-fueled engine, FNN controller is a
al.92 4-cylinder, 4-stroke diesel engine with 96 mm analysis promising alternative as compared to the many man-hours of work required to develop the algorithms and look-up tables of a conventional system
(2002) bore, 102 mm
Yang et as the above experimental the fuzzy neural network system for optimizing the control of ignition advance angle has less experimental workload as compared to the conventional MAP
al.93 analysis control method and has more advantages when considering that the control variable ignition advance angle is a function of multiple variables (multiple
(2003) influencing factors); in addition, this network topology structure also has advantages in reflecting the nonlinear relationship between output (ignition
advance angle) and input (engine speed and load, etc.)
Yang et as the above experimental the combustion mechanism of engines is very complex, and the high nonlinearity and imprecision of engine modeling make it difficult to establish analytical
al.94 analysis and expressions in the state space; fuzzy mathematics, artificial neural networks, and computational science may be more suitable
(2003) mathematical
models
Yang et a single-cylinder hydrogen-fueled engine, which mathematical propose a fully automatic optimization control algorithm that combines Pareto improvement with local decision-making; the multiobjective parallel
al.95 is modified from a gasoline engine; the cylinder model analy- optimization process in the optimization process can effectively achieve the combination of single optimization and combined performance optimization; in
(2008) diameter × stroke is 84 × 90 mm, and the sis the fitness function, add the weighted sum of multiple objective values to the fitness function; the weighting function of each objective varies with changes in
combustion chamber is half ball, and the operating status; therefore, the optimization process of hydrogen fuel engines develops toward dynamic optimization of hydrogen fuel engine performance
compression ratio is 8.5 based on the operating status of the engine
Yang et as the above experimental propose an optimization control algorithm that combines genetic algorithm to unify the control of variables, objectives, and operating conditions into a
al.96 simulation multiobjective integrated optimization control technology
(2008)
Wang et as the above experimental by adding genetic algorithms, the MAP calibration process can be simplified, the calibration speed and accuracy can be improved, and the global optimal
al.97 simulation solution can be obtained
(2010)
48605
Wang et as the above experimental a state space model for the nonlinear combustion control system of hydrogen fuel engines has been established, achieving an equivalent transformation from
al.98 simulation the state space model to the optimal control model represented by the main operating parameters and performance indicators; this lays the foundation for
(2012) improving performance indicators and eliminating abnormal combustion by optimizing control operating parameters
Wang et as the above control method an optimization model and method based on genetic information fusion algorithm have been proposed; by optimizing the operating parameters of excess air
al.100 model and coefficient and ignition advance angle, the economy and power performance of hydrogen engines will be improved; the experiment shows that the method
(2017) genetic algo- used in this Review is reliable and practical
rithm
Wang et a single-cylinder, four-stroke hydrogen-fueled control method a hydrogen fuel engine ignition timing optimization model based on L−M neural network algorithm was constructed to achieve calibration and optimization
al.99 engine; the engine is water-cooled horizontal model and control of hydrogen engine ignition timing under all operating conditions
(2016) type; its displacement is 589 cm3, bore × neural net-
stroke: 94 × 85 mm work
Yang et as the above control method with the delay of hydrogen injection timing and ignition timing, the indicated power and indicated thermal efficiency first increase and then decrease; in terms
al.101 model and of emissions, the NO emissions at medium loads are significantly higher than those at high and low loads; in addition, with the delay of hydrogen injection
(2022) improved ge- time, the NO mass fraction first increases and then decreases at low and medium loads, and continues to increase at high loads; with the delay of ignition
netic algo- time, the NO mass fraction decreases
rithm
Review
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612

the nozzle in the cylinder was more stable than the gradually. The peak and average NOx emissions are the highest
concentration of H2 near the spark plug, and the installation at λ = 1.41.
of spark plug away from the nozzle is more conducive to Moreover, Liu82 carried out the starting experimental
ignition. research with equivalent fuel air ratio 0.2−0.6 on a four-
Hydrogen can form a leaner combustible mixed gas than cylinder, 2.0 L HICE through using the different methods of
gasoline, which is beneficial for hydrogen-fueled engines to control fuel air ratio. The experimental results showed that the
exploit lean combustion to improve fuel economy and start-up time decreases with the increase of fuel flow for
emissions. Nonetheless, the application of lean mixture qualitative control. However, the NOx emissions would
increases the combustion cycle variation, which affects the increase significantly. With increasing throttle value, the air
combustion efficiency and emissions of hydrogen-fueled flow would increase that reduced the pumping losses and
engines to some extent. Hence, it is obligatory to research increased the volumetric efficiency, consequently decreasing
the cycle variation of hydrogen-fueled engines. the start-up time to a certain extent, but NOx emissions would
Sun et al.76 proposed that the optimum parameter to reflect increase in a small amount.
cycle variations of HICE is CoVimep. On this basis, Sun et Wang et al.83 studied and analyzed the combustion behavior
al.77,78 employed the same equipment to further verify the of the hydrogen-fueled−air mixture with a dilution ratio of 0−
above conclusion and then studied the cycle variation of the 50% under EGR and lean combustion strategies. Furthermore,
engine. They pointed out that the increase of idle speed, H2− the influence of water vapor in EGR on the combustion of the
air mixture concentration, and throttle opening (0−20%) hydrogen-fueled−air mixture was further studied. The results
would lead to the decrease of CoVimep of the HICE. When the show that the formation of NO can be inhibited by increasing
H2−air mixture concentration was high, the impact of θig on the water vapor fraction in EGR. However, the unburned H2
CoVimep became weaker, and θig that corresponded to emission in the final product will increase with the increase of
minimum CoVimep decreased with the increase of Φ, as water vapor fraction. Therefore, within the test range, when the
shown in Figure 17. In addition, Wang and Ji et al.25 proposed EGR rate is 30% and the water vapor fraction is 20%, the NO
that when the hydrogen-fueled engine was running at idle emission can be controlled while taking into account the actual
speed, the combustion duration was gradually prolonged with combustion efficiency. In addition, Li et al.84 used Chemkin
the increase of λ, and the cyclic variation was also slightly Pro software to simulate and compare the combination of
raised, but it could still remain at a relatively low level. EGR, EGR technology and lean combustion, as well as the
The important research on the formation of the H2−air internal selective noncatalytic reduction technology. The
mixture and combustion cycle variation from China and their results show that the internal selective noncatalytic reduction
main contributions are summarized in Table 4. technology has a better NOx emission control effect than do
3.5. NOx Emissions. Hydrogen-fueled engines have the EGR technology and EGR−lean combustion technology.
incomparable advantages over conventional petroleum fueled Only a 10% ammonia ratio can reduce the NOx emission of
engines in terms of the harmful emissions. The only harmful pure hydrogen-fueled engine by 96.32%, while a 15% ammonia
emission is NOx (the harmful emissions of CO, HC, and soot ratio can achieve zero NOx emission of a pure hydrogen-fueled
produced by the lubricating oil entering the combustion engine without the participation of EGR or lean combustion
chamber, which are negligible, can be ignored). Although it is technology.
relatively simple to control single harmful emissions than Duan et al.85 made simulations to explore the NOx
several harmful emissions at the same time, it is not easy to formation mechanisms of the HICE under high load. Results
effectively suppress NOx emissions without sacrificing other from simulations demonstrated that NO emissions were the
performance indexes. primary components of NOx emissions, which were chiefly
Xu et al.79 explored the impacts of λ on the cold start of a generated by thermal NO, NNH, and N2O, in which thermal
hydrogen-fueled SI engine. Results had shown that NOx NO accounted for the largest proportion. They pointed out
emissions were raised (as shown in Figure 18) and the that NO was generated in large quantities with the increase of
temperature in the exhaust manifolds was declined with the temperature during the rapid combustion period, and then the
increase of λ when the engine was started for 6 s. They also production of NO was decreased to a stable level when the
found that the engine speeds increased with the decrease of λ temperature in the cylinder dropped below 2200 K. On this
in the first 6 s. They80 then employed the same equipment and basis, Zhu et al.86 built a CFD model of the HICE to
made further experiments under cold start condition and investigate the combustion process and NO generation
various timings of ignition (IT) when λ was 0.7. They found mechanism. Results had shown that the peak mass of NO
that the shortest successful start time and the highest Pmax was raised with the increase of Tmax. The fast reduction of
could be obtained in the first cycle at 15 °CA BTDC. In temperature in-cylinder could restrict the decomposition of
addition, NOx emissions were lowered by 90.2% on average in NO. They also found that EGR could reduce the peak
the first 6 s with the postponing of IT. Bai81 also changed the temperature in the cylinder, thereby reducing NO emissions, as
pulse width of hydrogen-fueled injection λ. The combustion shown in Figure 19. Duan et al.87 also simplified the
and emission characteristics of the hydrogen-fueled internal hydrogen−air detailed reaction mechanism and studied its
combustion engine at cold start were studied. The results show applicability in a wide range of λ values. They pointed out that
that when λ is gradually reduced from 1.54 to 0.72, the peak the instantaneous cylinder pressure and NOx emissions of the
starting speed gradually rises within 6 s before the cold start of CFD model with the simplified mechanism could be accurately
the hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine. At the same predicted.
cycle number, the flame development period and rapid Luo et al.88 pointed out that when the hydrogen-fueled
combustion duration are λ. The decrease of the ratio of the engine adopted turbocharging technology, the power output
two shows a trend of gradual shortening; NOx emission shows was dramatically increased and the stability of combustion was
a change rule of rising slightly at first and then decreasing effectively improved under low engine speeds and various
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equivalence ratios. They also found that the NOx emissions operating conditions, and it should be given consideration to
were almost reduced to below 20 ppm, and the engine other performance indexes.
comprehensive performance was enhanced after using the Yang et al.92 researched the performances of a hydrogen-
strategy of H2+TWC. Luo et al.89 employed the same fueled engine through changing ignition and injection timing.
equipment and further investigated the combustion velocity They applied a control system composed of a FNN controller
and NOx emissions of the engine. They found that the and an ignition adaptive controller to the engine to effectively
combustion duration (CA10−90) was equal to or much longer regulate ignition and injection timing, and the mass of H2
than that of the other loads at 0.27 MPa BMEP and various supplied per cycle. Finally, the comprehensive performance of
engine speeds of 1500 and 2000 rpm. Moreover, NOx the engine was dramatically enhanced under various operating
emissions increased and even reached 7000 ppm after the conditions. On this basis, Yang et al.93 applied the established
engine speed was increased. fuzzy-neural network (FNN) control system to control
Sun et al.90 made experiments to probe the characteristics of optimization of the ignition timing, and adopted an improved
combustion and NOx emissions of a 2.0 L HICE, and FNN system as a substitute for the traditional ignition timing
examined the correlations between NOx emissions and both map obtained by experiments for optimization of the ignition
equivalence ratio Φ and ignition timing. Experimental results timing. The calculating results with the FNN system were in
showed the following: at Φ = 0.88, the NOx emissions reached good agreement with the experimental measurements.
maximum value; when Φ was below 0.88, the NOx emissions Based on the experiments, Yang et al.94 put forward the
increased with Φ increasing, and when Φ was in the range of strategy of an optimal control on HICE, and set up an optimal
0.88−1.2, the NOx emissions decreased quickly with increasing control model, in which timing of spark, injection timing, and
Φ. For a lean mixture, the effect of ignition timing on NOx duration of injection were selected as mutable variables, and
formation was relatively small. Duan et al.91 conducted tests to power output and specific fuel consumption were selected as
explore the impacts of Φ, ignition advance angle, exhaust gas the functions of performance indicators, and then we proposed
recirculation (EGR), and engine speed on the NOx emission the idea and method to calculate the optimal control model.
from a four-cylinder PFI-HICE. Results from the tests Furthermore, based on the established model of the engine,
demonstrated that Φ was the key factor to the formation of they also set up a control system, which connected fuzzy-neural
NOx. When Φ was larger than 0.5, the NOx emissions network (FNN) controllers to an adaptive controller for
increased quickly with Φ and reached its peak (10 000 × 10−6) ignition time to implement open loop or closed loop control
at a Φ value of around 0.9; when Φ was in the range of 0.5− mode by gradually adjusting timing of spark, to realize optimal
control of the combustion process. The principal diagram of
0.7, the retard in ignition angle leads to the great reduction in
two kinds of control modes is shown in Figure 20. Eventually,
NOx emissions, and the lower was the engine speed, the
they ingeniously designed the FNN system to figure out and
greater was the reduction in NOx emissions. The adoption of
predict the laws of optimal control for the model of optimal
hot EGR also resulted in an obvious fall in NOx emissions.
control and to realize the optimal control of the combustion
Furthermore, the lower was the engine speed, the greater was
process. The results also revealed that the computational
the decrease in NOx emissions. strategy with the FNN system had higher superiority.
The important research on NOx emissions of HICEs from Yang et al.95,96 established a model with an optimal control
China and their main contributions are summarized in Table 5. strategy, which was about the relationship between the power,
3.6. The Optimization Control Method of the economy, emission performances, and operating parameters of
Combustion Process. It is well-known that the optimization HICE, and combined decision partiality with the operating
control of the combustion process is an important means of conditions of the engine through the multiobjective
improving the performance of the internal combustion engine. optimization algorithm, which was unified with Pareto rank
It is also an effective means to inhibit or eliminate the and decision partiality. That is, decision partiality introduced in
preignition and backfire especially for the hydrogen-fueled the Pareto method was endowed the characteristic that realized
internal combustion engine. The optimization control of the dynamic adjustment according to the operating parameters of
combustion process is generally achieved by the optimization the engine, and the optimization procedure of the multi-
control of the ignition timing, fuel injection timing, and objective was conducted in the optimization procedure to
injection quantity of the engine. obtain optimality of the solution’s Pareto. It solved the
Conventional engines generally take operating parameters, problem of solving the model and improved the efficiency of
such as ignition timing, injection timing of fuel, and quantity of the solution. The control’s response speed and controlling
injection, as the basic control parameters, and take power, precise were further improved through integrating segmental
economy, and emission performance as the optimal objectives multiobjective optimal control of the combustion process into
to carry out open-loop control of the engine. However, the optimal control of a single target. It developed a novel way to
influences of operating parameters on the performance indexes figure out the control problems of multiplication and
of the engine, as power, economy, and emission performance, complexity of the optimized targets for the engines.
etc., are generally different and even contradictory under all Wang et al.97 pointed out that optimal control of the
operating conditions of the engine. Therefore, it is impossible combustion process is the most valuable method for figuring
to achieve the optimum performance of all performance out the conflict of inhibiting abnormal combustion and
indexes under all operating conditions at the same time. Yang enhancing output of power for the hydrogen-fueled engine.
et al.4 proposed the optimal ideas that some should be selected This method combined the strategy of nonlinear programming
as the optimal objectives from the performance indexes with genetic algorithm (GA). They used the method to
according to the different conditions of the engine. That is establish a mathematical model of full work conditions, which
to say, the corresponding performance indexes are selected as took into account the enhancement of comprehensive
the main goal to achieve the optimum under different performance and inhibition of abnormal combustion, then
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612
proposed a novel way to precisely and promptly calibrate MAP valuable method for resolving the contradictions among
at various conditions, which successfully figured out the inhibiting abnormal combustion, the blockage of intake pipe,
conflict mentioned above. Thereafter, Wang et al.98 further and improving hydrogen-fueled engine power. Besides, with
investigated the optimization control method of a system of the gradual maturity of hydrogen production technology, the
nonlinear combustion for hydrogen-fueled engines by combin- continued perfection of hydrogenation infrastructure, and the
ing ways of thermodynamic analysis with ways of state space consistent breakthrough in the area of investigation on HICE,
analysis. They established the model of optimal control for the technology of Chinese HICEs will be increasingly
hydrogen-fueled engines and utterly revealed the inner logical advanced.
relation through optimally controlling operating parameters,
adjusting state parameters, enhancing indicators of perform- 5. CONCLUSION
ance, and inhibiting abnormal combustion. This laid a method As a form of hydrogen energy application in the field of
foundation for the optimization control of the combustion transportation, at this stage, HICEs have the advantage of
process. being difficult to replace in a short time in some aspects. In
In addition, Wang et al.99 constructed the ignition timing addition to the supporting facilities of hydrogen, by reviewing
optimization model of hydrogen-fueled engines through the development of HICEs, we can see that with the
adopting the L−M neural network algorithm. As compared development of computer levels, more digital methods have
to the BP algorithm and Powell algorithm, the L−M algorithm been applied to internal combustion engines, such as more
had a better optimization effect. The calibration and mature CFD software and more intelligent body agent
optimization control of the ignition timing of the engines at calculation methods, which are also crucial for the develop-
full working conditions were realized. Wang et al.100 then ment of HICEs, and, in the future, the digital twin technology
proposed an optimization model and optimization method or some surreal parallel experimental methods will perhaps be
based on the genetic information fusion algorithm. The easily seen in the research of HICEs.
experiments showed that the economic and dynamic perform-
ance of the hydrogen engine would be enhanced through
optimizing two operating parameters of λ and θig.
In addition, Yang et al.101 used the multipopulation genetic
■ AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
algorithm to solve and analyze the comprehensive optimization Zhenzhong Yang − School of Mechanical Engineering and
model of the hydrogen-fueled engine, and further studied the Institute of Vehicles and New Energy Technology, North
optimization control method of the combustion process of the China University of Water Resources and Electric Power,
hydrogen-fueled engine. The results show that by optimizing Zhengzhou 450045, China; orcid.org/0000-0001-9512-
the ignition timing and hydrogen injection timing of the 2921; Email: yzzho@163.com
hydrogen-fueled engine, the goal of improving the combustion Authors
performance of the hydrogen-fueled engine can be achieved,
Lijun Wang − School of Mechanical Engineering, School of
which provides a new method for studying the combustion
Management and Economics, and Institute of Vehicles and
process of the hydrogen-fueled engine in the future.
New Energy Technology, North China University of Water
The important research on the optimization control method
Resources and Electric Power, Zhengzhou 450045, China
of the HICEs combustion process from China and their main
Xiangyang Li − School of Management and Economics, North
contributions are summarized in Table 6.
China University of Water Resources and Electric Power,
Zhengzhou 450045, China; orcid.org/0000-0002-4441-
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
8615
Since the beginning of the 21st century, Chinese researchers Chen Hong − School of Mechanical Engineering and Institute
have made great efforts and progress in the field of HICE. of Vehicles and New Energy Technology, North China
These advances mainly focus on the structural form of different University of Water Resources and Electric Power, Zhengzhou
HICEs, the mechanism and suppression method of abnormal 450045, China
combustion, the influence of hydrogen injection parameters Ping Guo − School of Mechanical Engineering and Institute of
and hydrogen injection modes on HICE, the formation of H2− Vehicles and New Energy Technology, North China
air mixture and combustion cycle variation of NO parameters University of Water Resources and Electric Power, Zhengzhou
and hydrogen injection modes on HICE, NOx emissions, and 450045, China
the optimization control method of the combustion process. Shuman Guo − School of Mechanical Engineering and
The hydrogen internal combustion engine has near zero Institute of Vehicles and New Energy Technology, North
emission (except NOx) and higher efficiency than the China University of Water Resources and Electric Power,
conventional fossil fuel internal combustion engine, which Zhengzhou 450045, China
make it have extreme widespread prospects. Yet, the multiyear
studies in the HICE of North China University of Water Complete contact information is available at:
Resources and Electric Power clearly show that abnormal https://pubs.acs.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c05397
combustion, such as preignition, backfire, and the blockage of
Notes
intake pipe, is likely to occur, especially when the engine runs
at high load, and the hydrogen injection parameters and the The authors declare no competing financial interest.
hydrogen injection modes have an essential effect on the Biographies
blockage of the intake pipe and the formation of H2−air Lijun Wang received a B.S. degree from the North University of
mixture, which has an important impact on abnormal China, Taiyuan, China, in 1993, an M.S. degree from Henan
combustion, engine performance, and NOx emissions, and Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China, in 2003, and a Ph.D.
the optimal control of the combustion process is the most degree from PLA Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou, in
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612
2010. Since 2010, she has been a Professor with the School of Pmax = maximum combustion pressure
Mechanical Engineering, North China University of Water Resources HICE = hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine
and Electric Power, Zhengzhou, where she is currently the Dean of
the School of Mechanical Engineering and the Director of the
Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Measurement and Control Technology
and Instrument. She has led approximately 20 important scientific
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ABSTRACT: Energy shortages and environmental problems have

1. INTRODUCTION hydrogen combustion engine, which can be operated by simply

2.2. Structure Forms of HICEs. According to how

Figure 3. National/regional distribution of researchers in HICEs.

engines, and the trend of related publications is shown in

stand-alone fuel, NOx control is still an issue that needs to be

Table 1. Main HICE Products from Chinese Enterprises

cylinder head. The X15H (Figure 4l) has accumulated more

ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612

Figure 15. Variations of uniformity coefficient of mixture with engine

HICE model to deal with the turbocharging match problems.

proposed a combustion speed measurement method for the

performance of the engine through numerical calculations.

the postcombustion effect was serious. With the increase of

stroke length, the increased combustion velocity, the improved

obtained. With the further increase of stroke length, the

combustion temperature was decreased and NO emissions

were reduced, but the thermal efficiency and output power of

experimental research and

experimental research and

and experimental analy-

numerical model analysis,

proposed that the LHE with long stroke could achieve

boundary of transition of combustion mode, and proposed the

a single-cylinder, four-stroke hydraulic fueled engine; the engine is water cooled

Yang et al.47 established a model of a scramjet engine to

at high flight Mach number. Afterward, Yang et al.49 proposed

as the above, but using different injection methods

hydrogen-fueled scramjet engine and conserve fuel. Results

also demonstrated that the efficiency and thrust of the engine

tion is likely to occur. Not only will the engine’s performance

hydrogen-fueled engines and strategy of eliminating abnormal

combustion. Abnormal combustion of hydrogen-fueled engines

of PFI hydrogen internal combustion engines

coefficient under idle conditions

in the output of power and brake thermal efficiency.

corrosion and deteriorate the performance of lubrication.

to explore the mechanism of backfire of HICE under

injection, thereby controlling the occurrence of backfire. Gao

preignition, while the tangential intake port helps to restrain

Results from experiments revealed that when the engine

simulations revealed that the duration of heat could be reduced

ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612

combustion, and the raised NOx emissions could be obtained

al.4 analysis NOx emissions

ACS Omega 2023, 8, 48590−48612

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