1990: As the Manitoba

Legislature moved to vote on

the issue of constitutional
reform, the honourable
member Elijah Harper sat
stoically holding an eagle
feather and steadfastly
refused to give the Manitoba
Legislature the vote it needed.

In March 1997, Melissa

Labrador, a Mi’kmaq girl from
Nova Scotia, was removed from
the House of Commons because
she carried an eagle feather. The
security guard who escorted her
from the House thought the
feather might be a weapon.

26
Chapter Two

Aboriginal
Spirituality
Examine the photos and captions on the opposite page and read
2
the introductory text below. Answer the following questions:

1. What evidence is there that the eagle feather is considered

important by Aboriginal peoples?
2. Describe the symbolism of the eagle feather. Identify a symbol that
you use in your life to represent connections to other things. Why
did you choose this symbol?
3. Write a headline that captures what happened to Melissa Labrador,
the Mi’kmaq girl from Nova Scotia, when she visited the House of
Commons in Ottawa.

Introduction

The eagle feather, a symbol of strength, gives the holder the power to represent
others. It is often presented as recognition to someone who defends, fights for, or
negotiates on behalf of Aboriginal peoples or people of native ancestry.
Some believe that because the eagle flies closest to the Creator, it can see over
all the land. When the eagle is flying overhead, it means that Mother Earth will pros-
per. Some Aboriginal peoples believe that the Creator loves the eagle the most
because it symbolizes the duality, or contradictions, of life—man and woman, light
and darkness, summer and winter. Even its feathers are divided in two parts—light
and dark—reminding humans of the duality of life. Some elders, or respected
members of the community, describe the eagle feather as a symbol of healthy rela-
tionships. The spine of the feather holds relationships together. It is widest at the
bottom symbolizing a relationship’s beginning, a time when learning is greatest.

27
Learning Goals
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• understand the differing views on the origins of Aboriginal peoples

• compare and contrast beliefs, practices, and rituals among Canada’s Aboriginal
cultural groups
• identify influential figures in the development of Aboriginal spirituality and explain
their contributions
• identify key passages from The Great Law and the Code of Handsome Lake, and explain
their meaning
• understand the role and influence of Indigenous oral teachings on Aboriginal spirituality
• identify and interpret important oral stories in Aboriginal spirituality
• examine the role and significance of symbols in Aboriginal spirituality
• understand and interpret the meaning of the supernatural in Aboriginal spirituality
• identify the origin and importance of Aboriginal practices, rituals, and festivals
• demonstrate an understanding of meditation, prayer, and fasting in Aboriginal spirituality
• examine the impact of key events in the development of Aboriginal spirituality
• interpret Aboriginal works of art
• use primary documents effectively
• communicate effectively through oral presentations

•1800 CE The code of

Handsome Lake is developed

•1815 CE Handsome
Lake dies, Aug. 10
•1000 CE The first •1830s CE Creation
recorded meeting between of residential school
Europeans (Norse) and system
•35 000– Aboriginal peoples in
15 000 BCE Newfoundland
Scientists theorize that
people migrated from
•1784 CE Under the
leadership of Joseph Brant,
Asia to North America
Mohawks settle on the
• Many Aboriginal peoples contend over the Bering land
Grand River after being dis-
that they have always inhabited North bridge
placed following the
America and offer a range of creation
American Revolution
stories

28
 •1999 CE The
new territory of Nunavut
is created
•1996 CE National
Aboriginal Day is instituted
on June 21
•1998 CE
Canadian government
Woodland Cultural Centre
expresses profound regret
•1990 CE Elijah to Canada’s Aboriginal
Harper stops Meech Lake peoples for past mistreat-
•1970 CE A residential
Accord process ment and issues Statement
school is turned into the
of Reconciliation
Woodland Cultural Centre in
•1990 CE The Oka
•1884 CE Potlatch Brantford, Ontario
Crisis explodes when
ceremonies are banned by plans for a golf course
the federal government clash with Aboriginal
sacred burial grounds
•1876 CE Indian Act
is passed

Timeline

29
30 EXPLORING WORLD RELIGIONS

Aboriginal
Spirituality Aboriginal spirituality around the
ORIGINS world has a long history. Some
It is impossible to pinpoint an origin Indigenous peoples, or Aboriginal
or a founder of Aboriginal spirituality. inhabitants of a region, believe that
Occasionally, a significant person rises they “came out of this ground,” a the-
to the forefront during a crisis and ory that essentially means their ori-
renews the faith, but there is no single gins are ancient beyond record. While
founder. there exists considerable disagree-
ment on origin, some archaeological
evidence supports a second theory
that Aboriginal peoples migrated from
Asia to North and South America by
crossing a land bridge over the Bering
Strait (situated between Alaska
and Russia) approximately 35 000
years ago.
Figure 2.1 Regardless of theory, Aboriginal
This wampum of parallel purple and white shells is made from Atlantic seashells. Used peoples have clearly been in the
by many different Aboriginal nations, it has been used to record history and sacred Americas longer than anyone else.
agreements dating back 400 years.
Archaeologists, who study human his-
tory, have found Aboriginal artifacts
dating back beyond 10 000 years. They
have discovered wampum, or beaded
belts (Figure 2.1), animal paintings on
rock outcrops (Figure 2.2), bones rep-
resenting different burial rites, and
wooden carvings all attesting to
Aboriginal spiritual practices and
beliefs from centuries ago. Aboriginal
traditional stories about genesis, or
origins, carry a great deal of spiritual
power. These creation stories are
important vehicles for conveying
Figure 2.2 Aboriginal beliefs.
Pictographs on rock outcrops depict Aboriginal beliefs and practices.
 ABORIGINAL SPIRITUALITY 31

Figure 2.3
World Distribution of
Indigenous Peoples. China,
Although we will be focusing in this India, Mexico, Peru,
chapter on North America, specifically Pakistan, and the Philippines
all have Indigenous
Canada, it is important to note that populations over five million.
there exists a huge diversity of
Aboriginal spirituality throughout the
modern world. Indigenous peoples live
in virtually every area of the globe.
Some are well known, such as the
Aboriginal groups of Australia, the
Maori of New Zealand, or the Guarani
of Paraguay, who were featured in the
film The Mission. Although some
Asia (80%)
groups are now extinct, such as the
Beothuks of Atlantic Canada, or the South America (7%)
Caribs of the Caribbean Islands, mil- North America (6%)
lions in the world still claim Africa (4%)
Indigenous status, even though they
Australia/Oceania (3%)
do not necessarily practise their
Indigenous religion. Today, 80 per cent Europe (0.1%)
of the world’s approximately 300 mil-
lion Aboriginal peoples live in Asia,
while 13 per cent live in North and
South America (Figure 2.3). Not all, but many Aboriginal peo-
Anthropologists, who study societies ples around the world still believe in
and customs, estimate that at the time and practise aspects of their tradition-
of Columbus about 100 million al religions. Aboriginal people of the
Indigenous peoples inhabited the Canadian Arctic, who in their lan-
Americas, which in 1500 CE would guage call themselves Inuit, share a
have accounted for one-fifth of cultural identity with two other large
the human race. Some lived in huge populations in Alaska and Greenland.
cities (present-day Mexico City had 250 Although most of the over 100 000
000), and others were farmers, or Inuit in these three jurisdictions prac-
nomadic hunters. To this day, twelve tise Christianity, a growing number
million still speak Quechua, the lan- are returning to their religious and
guage of the Incas of South America. In cultural heritage. For example, the
Central America, there are six million drumming and chanting with ancient
who speak the ancestral language of prayers that once accompanied official
the Maya, comparable to the number of occasions experienced a comeback in
French speakers in Canada. Currently, the recent celebrations surround-
over 800 000 Aboriginal people live in ing the proclamation of Nunavut,
Canada, some in every province. Canada’s new territory. OXFORD
World Religions
pie graph
2f/2.6
pc
 Whether Aboriginal peoples The Subarctic were nomadic hunters of deer and
migrated from Asia to the caribou.
The Subarctic region runs the
Americas and developed as First In the 1990s, Cree Grand Chief
breadth of Canada and includes
Nations, or were here from the Matthew Coon Come was instru-
the thick forests and mountains
earliest of times, the fact remains mental in persuading Quebec to
in the East, the Canadian
cancel plans for James Bay Project
that they developed into several Shield of rock and swamp, and
2 after he witnessed the harmful
large cultural groups in North the sparsely-wooded nor thern
environmental effects of Quebec’s
America. The geographical envi- Prairies with their many lakes and
James Bay Project 1. Coon Come
ronment in which they lived rivers. The Innu, the Montaignais,
is currently the National Chief of
defined them. Canada has at the James Bay Cree, and the Dene
the Assembly of First Nations.
least six distinct cultural groups of
Aboriginal peoples:
• Northeast Woodlands
• Great Plains
• Northwest Pacific Coast
• Plateau
• Subarctic
• Arctic
The Plateau
Each culture has several nations The Aboriginal peoples of the
in it. As a group they have similar Plateau live in the foothills of the
aspects of belief, although differ- Rocky Mountains, separate from
the Plains and Pacific Coast
ent practices of form represent
nations. The Kootenay mountain
those beliefs. For example, each chain takes its name from one of
culture has familial clans repre- the many Plateau nations. The
sented by animals who protect Plateau were once nomadic
them, such as the Raven or Wolf, hunters of elk, bear, and caribou.
but the animals vary and have dif- In 1995, at Gustafsen Lake in
ferent regional significance. British Columbia, several campers
Furthermore, a cultural group may used ranch land for a sun dance
share common characteristics ceremony. When the owner asked
that identify it with a specific envi- the campers to leave, they refused,
saying the land was unceded, no
ronment, but there is often great
treaty had been signed, and it was
diversity among nations within a sacred site. After a four-month
that large cultural environment. period, the standoff ended with a
The Northeast Woodlands, for negotiated settlement led by an
example, is divided into two lin- Alberta medicine man.
guistic groups, Algonquin and
Iroquois. The Algonquin and
Iroquois nations differ according
to their religious beliefs and
practices.

Figure 2.4
Aboriginal Cultural Groups in Canada

The Northwest Pacific Coast The Nor thwest Pacific Coast culture In 1998, the Nisga’a, a First Nation living
carved several totems in one long pole, in northwestern British Columbia, signed an
For generations, Haida, Tlingit, and Salish
commonly known as a totem pole. A totem historic agreement with the British Columbia
nations depended on the sea and lived in
is a protective entity, often in the form of an and federal governments. The Nisga’a Treaty
cedar plank houses on the beaches. They
animal, that is associated with a cultural was the first land claims treaty in British
harpooned whale and trapped salmon. They
group or nation. Today, magnificent examples Columbia since 1871. It granted land, a
used the cedar to make houses, baskets,
of totem artwork can be seen in parks and financial settlement, and a model for self-
and dugout canoes that could carry up to
museums throughout British Columbia. government to the Nisga’a nation.
seventy people.

32
Cultural Areas The Arctic Northeast Woodlands
ARCTIC The Inuit, which means “the peo- The Iroquois live along the St.
ple,” live in a region above the Lawrence River and the Great Lakes,
SUBARCTIC treeline that is snow covered for and were once farmer-hunters. They
eight months of the year. For gen- lived in longhouses in villages of
NORTHWEST PACIFIC COAST
erations, nations, including the approximately 1500 people and
PLATEAU Mackenzie, Labrador, and Caribou, farmed corn, squash, and beans,
hunted and depended on the seal. which they named “the Three
GREAT PLAINS Seal skin provided boots, bags, Sisters.” A typical Iroquois longhouse
kayaks, igloo linings, and clothing. was cigar-shaped, about fifty metres
NORTHEAST WOODLANDS Seal oil was used for heating, long and ten metres wide, and would
cooking, and light. hold several related families.
Today, many people in these The Iroquois formed a confederacy
groups live in a modern world, con- of Six Nations, including the
nected globally through technology Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga,
and educated in schools. Some Seneca, and Tuscarora nations.
Inuit refer to their traditional ways Displaced after the American
using the past tense. Revolution, the Six Nations, under the
leadership of Joseph Brant, relocated
to a reserve southwest of Brantford,
Ontario. Other well-known reserves
The Great Plains were used for almost everything. The are at Kanesatake, near Oka, north-
hide provided coverings for moccasin west of Montreal, and Akwesasne,
There are seven distinct languages
soles, for shields, and for their near Cornwall, Ontario.
and over thirty nations of the Great
homes, which were cone-shaped tents Today, the Iroquois practise the
Plains including the Sioux, the Cree,
called tipis. The buffalo ribs became Longhouse religion in a building that
and the Siksika, or Blackfoot. In the
sled runners. The skull was used for replicates a traditional longhouse.
past, these people generally depend-
the Sun Dance altar—a ceremony that Faithkeepers are community mem-
ed on the buffalo. In fact, when the
involves chants and purification, bers selected to maintain the spiritu-
buffalo numbered in the millions, they
which is still practised today. al traditions of the Iroquois.
The Algonquin of this region were
nomadic hunters who depended on
the forests, rivers, and sea for their
livelihood. The forests, in particular,
played an important role in their sur-
vival. They used the needles of the
white pine to make a tea that prevent-
ed scurvy and relieved colds. They
made another tea from dandelion
roots and leaves to treat heartburn.
Animals were an impor tant
resource for the maintenance of phys-
ical and spiritual needs. In many com-
munities, clans (family groupings)
were defined by the attributes of their
associated animal.
The Algonquin nations include the
Beothuk who are now extinct,
Mi’kmaq, Ottawa, Cree, and Ojibwa.
Collectively, there were no identifiable
spiritual movements. Instead, some
nations such as the Ojibwa were spiri-
tually united with the Grand Medicine
Society (Midewinin). Spiritualism
within Algonquin communities was
deeply personal and was defined by
the individual community.
Today, the connection to their nat-
ural environment continues to be a
source of their spiritualism.

Oxford
World Religions
Aboriginal Cultural Groups
2i NEW 33
Profile:
The Peacemaker
The nations of each North American cultural group nations of danger. He then delivered to them a mes-
have their own interpretation of how to live their sage called “The Great Law of Peace,” and the warring
lives. For some, the Creator gives directions for a nations were reconciled. The message included one
better way of life. The Iroquois of the Northeast hundred laws governing funerals, clans, adoption, and
Woodlands tell the story of the Peacemaker, a cen- emigration, among other things. One law said that the
rites and festivals of each nation shall remain undis-
tral figure to their culture and religion. Members of
turbed “...for they were given by the people of old
the Iroquois nation believe one should never say times as useful and necessary for the good of men.”
the Peacemaker’s name, Dekanawida, until the
end of the world when his name will be called.
The Peacemaker’s message can be broken
The Peacemaker was born of a virgin Huron maiden. down into three main parts. He said to the woman,
His grandmother was ashamed because there Jigonsaseh, or New Face, who was the first to
appeared to be no father, so she ordered her daughter accept what he proclaimed, “The message has
to drown the baby in icy water. The girl could not. three parts: Righteousness, Health, and Power.
When the grandmother herself tried to kill him without Righteousness means justice, Health means
success, she realized he was special and would grow soundness of mind and body, and Power means
to be a great man. The Huron people abused the the authority of law and custom, and religion, for
young boy. They beat him, kept him in isolation, and justice enforced is the will of the Holder of the
ridiculed him. As foretold in a dream, he went to live Heavens.”
with another Iroquois nation, the Mohawk.
The Iroquois nations were constantly feuding, and
the evil wizard, Tadodaho, seemed to be the instigator
of the lawlessness. The Peacemaker chanted songs of QUESTIONS
peace before the lodge of the crooked, snake-haired 1. What contributions did the Peacemaker make to
sorcerer. The moment the Peacemaker was able to the Five Nations?
touch Tadodaho, the wizard’s body became straight 2. Describe how the message of “righteousness,
and his mind healthy. With evil overcome, the health, and power” is a good rule by which to
Peacemaker gathered the Five Nations and planted the
live one’s life.
Tree of Peace in the Onondaga nation. He said its
roots would go north, south, east, and west. At the top 3. Is the story of the Peacemaker similar to other
he placed an eagle that would see afar and warn the stories you have been told? Explain.

34
 ABORIGINAL SPIRITUALITY 35

Check Your Understanding

1. Explain the disagreement concerning 3. List three things you learned about the
the origins of Aboriginal peoples. traditional culture of Aboriginal peoples.
Choose the one that impressed you the
2. Describe the six cultural groups in most and explain why.
Canada and their connection to their
environment.

BELIEFS sonified spirits who are less powerful

than the Creator, but also guide
human activity. The Inuit call the sea
Many adherents of Aboriginal spiritu- “Sea Woman”; the Iroquois call the
ality believe that everything in the sky “Sky Woman”; and the Algonquin
world is alive. All living things reside call the sky “Grandfather.”
in close connection and harmony Aboriginal spirituality turns to
with one another, and move in cycles many spirits because Aboriginal peo-
(Figure 2.5). Even in afterlife, their ple believe they have more than one
spirits return to the environment. specific need in nature or in life. For
Aboriginal peoples recognize the pow- example, a fisher strives to be on good
ers around them: in the heavens, in terms with the spirit of the sea; a
human ghosts and spirits, in animals farmer wishes to please the spirit of
and plants, and in the weather. the rain or the sun. A faith in super-
Aboriginal spirituality expresses a natural and natural forces that con-
belief in animism, which holds that all nect human beings to all other living
things, human and non-human, have things permeates the life of almost all
spirits or souls, and that the person or Aboriginal societies.
animal lives on after death through Black Elk, born in 1863, was a Sioux
the presence of that spirit. holy man from the Great Plains
Some observers have claimed that (Figure 2.6). He said, “We know that
Aboriginal spirituality is polytheistic, we all are related and are one with all
believing in many gods, rather than things of the heavens and the
monotheistic, believing in one. Most earth…May we be continually aware
Aboriginal peoples believe in a of this relationship which exists
supreme Creator. However, power in between the four-leggeds, the two-
the universe is also given to other per- leggeds, and the wingeds…”
36 EXPLORING WORLD RELIGIONS

Figure 2.5
Thunder Bay Art Gallery
houses a collection of
Creation stories, which were often
Aboriginal art as well as oral, play an important role in
creations like masks, Aboriginal cultures by offering a
baskets, and other natural
artifacts. Relationship to response to questions of existence,
Nature, this painting by such as where we come from, why cer-
Ojibwa artist Roy Thomas,
shows the interconnection of
tain things in the environment are the
humans to the environment. way they are, and where we go when
Note that it overlays several we die.
animals in an “x-ray” style
around a human figure. Can Each cultural group has their own
you identify the birds, fish, identity and creation stories. Some
bear, beaver, and tipis?
Explain animism in the
believe that they were born from a
painting. clam and were helped by the Raven or
some other animal. Many recount a
Figure 2.6 legend of a person falling from the sky
Black Elk, spiritual elder of (Figure 2.7).
the Sioux, 1863–1950

One Aboriginal creation story is

“Turtle Island” (Figure 2.8). The
people of the Northeast Woodlands
believe that after a great flood, water
covered the Earth. Several water ani-
mals and birds tried to bring some
mud to the surface of the water.
Eventually, a muskrat succeeded. Sky
Woman then spread the mud on the
back of a turtle and created North
America, or Turtle Island.

Figure 2.7
Birth of the Earth by Arnold A renowned Haida artist, Bill Reid,
Jacobs, an Onondaga artist.
depicted his culture’s creation story of
In this painting, a woman
falls from the sky and the Raven coaxing the original people
creates the earth, with the out of a clamshell onto the land
assistance of the animals. It
depicts the Aboriginal belief (Figure 2.9). The famous carving is at
that humans and nature the Museum of Anthropology at the
are connected.
University of British Columbia.
 ABORIGINAL SPIRITUALITY 37

Figure 2.8
Turtle Island by Stanley R.
A basic element of most religions is the Hill, a Mohawk artist. This
belief in the afterlife. Many Aboriginal wooden sculpture depicts the
legends recount stories of reincarna- creation of the world and
features the sacred Tree of
tion, or rebirth. The Sioux of the Great Peace. Notice the eagle,
Plains believe that four souls depart representing strength and
power, is at the top of the
from a person at death. One of them tree.
journeys along the “spirit path,” and it
is judged by an old woman. She deter-
mines whether the spirit should carry
on to reconnect with its ancestors or
return to Earth as a ghost. The other
souls enter fetuses and are reborn in-
to new bodies. In the Northeast
Woodlands, the Iroquois believe that Figure 2.9
souls or spirits can enter man-made The Raven and the First Men
objects like fishing nets or spears. by Bill Reid

Other groups believe the souls inhabit

the many stars of the Milky Way.

The Inuit pay homage to the souls of

killed animals by facing the animal in
the direction from which it came so
that its soul can return. Upon killing a
seal they give it a drink of water so that
its spirit can re-enter the sea. During
an annual festival, the Inuit collect all Figure 2.10
Peace Doe-dem (totem) by
the seal bladders caught the previous Blake Debassige. The
year and throw them back to the sea, Anishnawbek have different
so that the seals can reproduce. totems to which families
belong. One of these is the
seagull, which is the symbol
of peace.
Totems link Aboriginal peoples to their
mythical ancestors. Totems are protec-
tive entities—plant, animal, or mytho-
logical being—of a clan or individual.
The Ojibwa identify each totem group
by the name of a bird, fish, animal, or
reptile. Persons of the same totem are
considered to be close relatives and
may not marry.
38 EXPLORING WORLD RELIGIONS

Check Your Understanding

1. Explain animism in the following between the human and supernatural
sentence: “Some believed they should worlds.
walk on soft shoes or no shoes at all
during the spring because Mother Earth 3. Although there is tremendous variety
is pregnant and they must not harm her among Aboriginal cultures, describe
body.” three common beliefs in their religions.

2. Recount one story about creation or 4. Explain the importance of totems in

the afterlife that reflects the Aboriginal Aboriginal spirituality.
view of boundaries easily crossed

Figure 2.11
Powwows, Algonquin
PRACTICES, RITUALS,
for cultural SYMBOLS, AND FESTIVALS
gatherings, are
currently experiencing
a revival. Attendees
eat food of Sioux, Today, Aboriginal peoples are keeping
Iroquois, or Haida
their spiritualism alive by participat-
origin. They witness
traditional dancing, ing in traditional festivals and by
drumming, and depicting their beliefs through their
chanting, all integral
parts of many art and symbols. The willingness to
Aboriginal practices relearn the ancestral beliefs and prac-
and rituals.
tices illustrates the strength and pride
Aboriginal peoples gain from their cul-
tural revival.
Some religious practices, although
regional, over time have become com-
mon to all Aboriginal peoples. Many of
the rituals of the Great Plains people
have crossed cultural boundaries and
been adopted into Aboriginal spiritu-
ality. These practices provide a means
by which all cultural groups can
Figure 2.12 demonstrate their connectedness in
Aboriginal cultures spiritual ways.
communicate and tell stories
through dance. Many dances
interpret events or customs
from the past. Today,
Aboriginal peoples use dance
to rediscover their past, and
share with the world their
knowledge and their culture.
 ABORIGINAL SPIRITUALITY 39

perform this ritual because they

Every spring, the Ojibwa of southern believe that the body is the only thing
Ontario perform the Morning Dance, they control and can offer as a sacri-
also known as the Wabeno. The dance fice to the Creator. They believe that
pays homage to the “tree of the uni- by enduring pain, others will not have
verse.” All the participants fast and to suffer famine, war, or disease.
cleanse themselves beforehand, then a During the Sun Dance, prayers are
male elder plays a drum and leads the said for all peoples and vows are made
dance in a clearing around the select- to the Great Spirit.
ed tree. Children, adults, and the eld- This celebration of renewal and
erly dance from dawn to noon. As each reconnection with all creation, includ-
dancer passes the tree, the drummer ing the piercing dance, once again is
signals the dancer to touch the trunk practised today.
to give thanks. At midday, a huge feast
Figure 2.13
of meat and fish is served. Sun Dance on the Reserve
by Allen Sapp

The Great Plains nations hold an

important summer festival that takes
place over a period of eight to sixteen
days and includes the Sun Dance
(Figure 2.13). This festival of the
Great Plains is so powerful, and the
dance so symbolic a ritual, that the
Canadian government banned it in
the late 1880s.
The ceremony identifies the circle
as an important symbol, and acknowl- The Northwest Pacific Coast nations
edges and respects the sun as the practise the Potlatch ceremony
giver of life. Performed in early sum- (Figure 2.14), which the Canadian
mer, the participants dance for long government made illegal in 1884.
periods around a central cottonwood Government officials thought that the
pole, or “tree of the universe.” They Potlatch contributed to idleness and
face the sun and pay homage to the seemed “backward” and wasteful. The
sun’s life-giving powers. During the government lifted the ban in 1951.
ceremony some of the dancers embed Feasting, distributing wealth, and
sharp wooden hooks deep into their sharing songs and dances are all part
chest, then connect the skewers to of a Potlatch. The host gives a feast to
leather thongs that trail from the top celebrate an important event, such as
of the cottonwood pole. As they dance, a marriage, the naming of an heir, or
they pull back on the thongs and tear to atone for a humiliation. The more
their flesh. The resulting scars bear wealth the host gives away, the more
witness to their faith. The dancers that person gains in status and great-
40 EXPLORING WORLD RELIGIONS

ness. Thus, the hosting clan grows in sprinkled on the stones. The
prestige. Songs and dances are per- participants crouch and crowd around
formed to honour the Great Spirit. the stones in the confined space. The
Many of the early Potlatch tradi- intense heat and steam cause them to
tions, including dancing and singing, perspire profusely, thus cleansing the
continue today. body both physically and spiritually.
Usually prayers and a sacred pipe are
shared. An elder or a shaman assists
by coordinating the ceremony.

The shaking tent a ritual used by

Aboriginal groups fron the subarctic
to the Great Lakes region, represents
the beliefs and values of some
Aboriginal people about the supernat-
ural world and its close relationship to
the living. Through the shaking tent,
one can communicate with the spirits.
It is constructed using four to eight
poles, which are placed deep in the soil
Figure 2.14 to form a circle about a meter in diam-
The potlatch ceremony, an eter. A wooden hoop encircles the
important spiritual practice
among Aboriginal peoples, The sweat lodge ceremony, common poles at the top and sometimes at the
was banned in 1884. The among the Great Plains nations bottom. The cylindrical shape, left
Canadian government lifted
the ban in 1951.
renews the soul and helps to regain open to the sky to allow the spirits to
focus. The sweat lodge cleanses both enter, is wrapped in birch bark or
the physical and spiritual body. Under hide. The individuals who have
the direction of a shaman, who is both requested the ceremony make a trade
a medicine man and spiritual leader, with the shaman. He enters the tent
the participants make a sauna-like and intercedes with the spirits. He
construction, called a sweat lodge. The asks the spirits to solve problems such
sweat lodge is a dome made of as finding a lost object, communicat-
saplings. A covering of animal skins, ing with an ancestor, locating a miss-
cedar, or a tarpaulin make it dark and ing person, or predicting the outcome
airtight. Heated stones are placed in of an event. The ceremony always
the centre of the interior, and water is takes place at night.
 Symbols and Icons
The Tree of Peace
A central symbol for some Aboriginal religions is the tree, connecting Earth to Heaven. It is inte-
gral to some practices like the Sun Dance. The dance centres around a cottonwood pole to which
the dancers attach themselves with leather thongs.
The white pine is a key symbol for the Iroquois. The hero, Peacemaker, said that whenever the
Iroquois gathered by the Great Tree, they “...shall offer thanks to the earth...to the streams of
waters...to the maize and the fruits, to the medicinal herbs and trees, to the animals that serve
as food and give their pelts for clothing...to the messengers of the Creator who reveal his wishes
and to the Great Creator...ruler of health and life.”
For West Coast groups, the cedar tree is an important carrier of symbols since it is used in
the creation of totem poles.

QUESTIONS
1. The tree is a common global symbol. Academics call this the axis mundi, or core
of the world. Describe the attributes of the tree that make it an appropriate glob-
al symbol.
2. How does the tree reflect the central beliefs of some Aboriginal peoples?
3. Describe the role of the tree in any other religions of which you are aware.
Figure 2.15

Figure 2.16
The Northeast Woodlands
Iroquois have a series of
Ceremonies connected to the
agricultural cycle: The Mid-
winter Ceremony held in
January; The Maple Syrup and
Seed Planting Rituals held in
April; The Strawberry, Bean,
and Green Corn Celebrations
held in summer; and The
Thanksgiving or Harvest
Festival held one day in
November.
Pictured here are flint corn
and squash, foods associated
with The Thanksgiving Festival.
Iroquois regard the harvest
and food as gifts from the
Creator.

41
Profile:
Faithkeepers
“The Creator is watching and
listening and the people are
Figure 2.17
looking to you for help and
Dorothy Green
guidance.”
Traditionally, the Iroquois women have had great Dorothy Green is the oldest member of the
power in society. They lived in a matrilineal society Onondaga Longhouse and served as a Cayuga faith-
where the mother had control. The matriarch’s keeper for many years. She is also a member of the
extended family lived in the longhouse, and she Turtle clan. As a faithkeeper, she attended all the
nominated sachems, or clan chiefs. Other clan ceremonies, singing the songs and dancing the
mothers, or mothers of the same family group, dances, until arthritis stopped her. She keeps busy
would confirm the sachem’s appointment. today making moccasins, jackets, and leggings. She
Today the Longhouse clan mothers still appoint is called Kiduwitu, which means “Walking in
faithkeepers—three men and three women—to Gardens.”
assist with their ceremonies. The faithkeeper pre-
serves and passes on the spiritual belief system by
conducting the ritual ceremonies. Usually one man
and one woman are chosen for their leadership and QUESTION
their public-speaking ability. A chosen faithkeeper 1. Describe three ways in which Dorothy Green helps
of a Longhouse must accept the appointment. to keep her religion meaningful for the people.

42
 ABORIGINAL SPIRITUALITY 43

Check Your Understanding

1. Explain the procedure and the sig- 2. What are some “cyclical” festiv-
nificance of the Sun Dance and the als that you share with the Iroquois?
Morning Dance. Compare and contrast one festival.

MILESTONES instructs the youth to go to a place far

from the camp. The youth prays, fasts
from food and water, and endures the
The rite of passage to adulthood, often elements for several days while await-
ritualized in a coming-of-age ceremo- ing a “vision.” At the end of a period of
ny, includes the vision quest, or fasting and prayer, the seeker of the
dream. The vision quest is a ceremony vision hopes to receive a message from
common to most Aboriginal religions. a guardian spirit, who may appear in
The seeker of the vision quest is an animal, object, or other natural
first purified, which involves a confes- form. However, the person might not
sion, or at least a desire to atone. This see the vision, and would have to try
usually occurs at a sweat lodge again. Often the shaman helps to
(Figure 2.18). The medicine man then interpret the vision and its message.

Figure 2.18
An Aboriginal youth
participates in a sweat
lodge ceremony.
44 EXPLORING WORLD RELIGIONS

John Fire Lame Deer (1903–1976), a

Sioux holy man, described the vision soldier. I saw the blood dripping
quest he had as a young man. The from his chest. Then I understood
dream solidified the beliefs and values that he wanted me to take his name,
of his religion, as well as confirmed for Lame Deer, and it made me
him the balance and harmony extremely happy. I felt my soul
between Heaven and Earth. within me, and a power surge
through me like a flood. I knew then
that I would become a medicine
The old man left me on the top of the man and I wept with happiness.
hill. He had been with me in the Finally the old man was gently
sweat lodge and prayed, “Oh holy shaking me. He said I had been on
rocks, we receive your white breath, the hill for four days and nights. He
the steam. It is the breath of life. Let gave me water and food and I told
this young boy inhale it. Make him him what I heard and saw. He told
strong.” I was still lightheaded from me I was no longer a boy but that I
the purifying sweat bath and my had become a man. Now I was Lame
skin tingled. It seemed to make my Deer.
head empty but maybe that was
good...plenty of room for the vision.
Sounds came through the night but
suddenly I became aware of a huge
bird flying around me. I could hear Check Your Understanding
its cries and feel its feathers. All at
once I was up in the sky with the 1. What is the role of purification
bird. I heard a voice say, “We are the in preparing for a vision quest?
fowl people, the winged ones, the
eagles and the owls. You shall be our 2. Why is it important to have an
brother. You are going to under- elder or shaman involved in a
stand us whenever you come to this vision quest?
hill to seek a vision. You will learn
about herbs and roots and heal peo- 3. Who would you select to
ple. A man’s life is short. Make accompany you if you participat-
yours a worthy one.” ed in a vision quest?
I felt that the voices were good and
I was no longer afraid. I lost all
sense of time. Then I saw a person
coming out of the darkness and
swirling fog. It was my great-grand-
father who had been shot by a white
 ABORIGINAL SPIRITUALITY 45

SACRED WRITINGS The life of an Iroquois holy man of the

Seneca nation, Handsome Lake, coin-
In Aboriginal cultures, prayers are cided with the decline of Iroquoian
passed to new generations by the power after the American Revolution.
telling and retelling of events. He had been a warrior in the Turtle
Members, such as elders or shamans, clan but, after losing his homeland in
memorize the stories and become the New York in 1783, he suffered from
keepers who pass on the words. They several debilitating illnesses and
communicate their stories and lessons became an alcoholic. In 1799, he swore
by speaking fluently, listening, and off alcohol and returned to his sick
understanding, an ability known as bed. In June of that year, a remorseful
oracy. Sometimes the speaker uses an Handsome Lake experienced death
aid, like a necklace of beads or and was revived. Upon recovery, he
wampum, or even a totem pole, to explained that he had seen visions and
help retell the event. had received a Good Message, called
An effort was made in the early the Gaiwiio. It resulted in a reforming
part of the twentieth century to movement, with a renewed moral code
record the Aboriginal oral stories. designed to reverse the social decline
Handsome Lake, an Iroquois prophet, of the remaining Iroquois, who had
told six members of his nation about dwindled to approximately 4000.
his “Good Message,” or Gaiwiio. The Handsome Lake reported seeing
six holders memorized what Hand- four heavenly messengers from the
some Lake had taught them and twice Creator who said: “...four words tell a
a year would recite the message to great story of wrong, and the Creator
their people. It took three days to is sad because of the trouble they
recite all of the Gaiwiio. In 1912, A.C. bring, so go and tell your people.” The
Parker, an archaeologist, listened to a four words were alcohol, witchcraft,
holder and transmitted the words to black magic, and abortion. Other evils
text. he attacked were adultery, child and
wife abuse, and desertion.
Sacred Text
The Code of Handsome Lake
Handsome Lake’s teachings were recorded forty years after his death by his brother
Cornplanter, who in 1905 told them to a nephew, A.C. Parker.
The Good Message has two main themes. The first part contains a prophecy of
impending disaster if people do not mend their ways. The second part states that only
those who do not repent and change will suffer and perish and go to the House of the
Punisher, who is the brother of the Creator. There are over 130 “messages.”
The first word is one’ga (whiskey). It seems that you never have known that this word
stands for a great and monstrous evil and has reared a high mound of bones. Alas
many are too fond of it. So now all must now say, “I will use it never-more. I now stop.”
So must all say when they hear the message.
Section 1, The Code of Handsome Lake

The Creator has ordered that man and wife should rear their children well, love them
and keep them in health. This is the Creator’s rule.
Section 7, The Code of Handsome Lake

Now another message to tell your people. The married often live well together for a
while. Then a man becomes ugly in temper and abuses his wife. It seems to afford
him pleasure. Now because of such things the Creator is very sad. So he bids us to
tell you that such evils must stop. Neither man nor woman must strike each other.
Section 10, The Code of Handsome Lake

QUESTIONS
1. What message could you follow according to the Code of Handsome Lake, and where
would you find difficulty? Explain your answer to a peer.
2. Do you think a code of ethics is good for all time or should it be revised to change
with the times?
3. If you had to select four words that would be basic to your personal code of ethics,
what would they be?

46
Holy Places
Sour Springs Longhouse
Sour Springs, situated on the Six Nations Reserve, near Brantford, Ontario, received
its name because of the sulphurous taste in the water. The old squared-log construc-
tion has been a ceremonial centre since 1855. The followers practise the teachings of
Handsome Lake, and their ceremonies are conducted according to his influence.
The concept of “duality” guides the strict organization of the Longhouse and rep-
resents a symbolic view of the universe. There are two main clan groupings: the Turtle
and the Wolf. Those within a clan are brothers and sisters, and those of the other clan
are called cousins. When entering the longhouse, the members of the Wolf clan go in
through the west door, and the members of the Turtle clan enter by the east. Seating
changes according to the ceremony and depending on the longhouse. In one setting,
the women sit on one side opposite their clan men. Each side, or clan, then partici-
pates in the longhouse ceremony. For instance, a speaker of one clan may open the
proceedings and a speaker of the other clan may close, thus both contribute to the
community of the longhouse.

QUESTIONS
1. Explain the meaning of dual-
ity in the universe. How
does the longhouse repre-
sent the concept of duality?
2. Describe how the cere-
monies of Sour Springs
Longhouse reflect the con-
cept of community.

Figure 2.19

47
48 EXPLORING WORLD RELIGIONS

Check Your Understanding

1. What are the four words from 3. Explain the term “oracy.”
the messengers? Select one and
explain how Handsome Lake 4. How can a wampum or totem
addresses it in his Code. pole aid a speaker in retelling an
event?
2. Describe the development of the
Code of Handsome Lake.

GROUPS AND An elder is a man or woman who is

INSTITUTIONS recognized by his or her community to
be a wise person, full of knowledge
and experience (Figure 2.20). Elders
pass on practical, daily knowledge,
and are also the keepers of tradition.
“Knowledge was inherent in all They tell the stories of their religion,
things. The world was a library and and act as spiritual guides. For exam-
its books were the stones, leaves, ple, an elder might teach animism by
grass, brooks…” telling a young child not to kick an
Luther Standing Bear
animal, even if it is dead, because it is
food and must be given respect. They
might instruct young people about
natural herbs and medicines. Elders
Figure 2.20 are important touchstones to the past.
Today in Aboriginal They impart knowledge and skills for
communities, elders are the present and future, and are highly
helping young people
connect with their heritage. valued in their communities.

In Aboriginal communities, the role of

the elder is experiencing a cultural
rebirth. To meet the challenge of the
future, many Aboriginal people are
looking back to their past and to the
leadership, wisdom, and knowledge of
elders. The following demonstrates
the heightened interest in elders:
• Traditional Knowledge, the knowl-
edge of the elders, is now taught at
many Aboriginal schools and con-
 ABORIGINAL SPIRITUALITY 49

sulted by governments in Nunavut quizzical and grimacing masks that

and the Northwest Territories when
politicians make important decisions;
• In many communities, elders act
have been carved from living trees.
The masks represent powerful beings
that live in the forest. Many of the
Web
as counsellors and teachers to masks have bent noses, which reflect Quest

f
Aboriginal youths coping with the a legend in which the Creator causes
challenges of contemporary society. In the Great False Face to break his nose
If you are interested
Toronto, councils of elders serve as after a contest.
in reading more
courts for small-time offenders.
teachings of the eld-
These councils are concerned with
ers, the Internet is a
healing, not just punishment; The man-like being, Hadui, chal- modern vehicle to
• The Assembly of First Nations, a lenged the Creator to see who could access the teachings
powerful political organization of move a mountain. Hadui did move of the past. Visit
Aboriginal peoples in Canada, is it a little. Then it was the Creator’s Virtual Circle at
advised and guided by a council of turn. Hadui heard rumbling behind http//:www.
elders; him and when he turned, he hit his vcircle.com/elders
• Many Canadians, both Aboriginal face into the mountain, thus break- and click on “Current
and non-Aboriginal, engage in ing his nose. The Creator had more Elders Teachings.”
the preservation of teachings of power and moved the mountain that Consider how rele-
Aboriginal elders. They are busily fast and far. “I am beaten...but I still vant these teachings
taping, filming and recording elders’ have great power. I do not want to be are for your life
stories and advice. banished from this earth. If you let today.
me stay, I promise to help the people
who are still to come. Your people
The False Face Society is a respected will carve masks in my likeness to
Iroquois group whose members are remind them of this occasion and of
knowledgeable in the natural powers my promise to cure the sick and
of herbs, and who perform ritual drive out evil spirits.”
prayers. They are named “False
Faces” because the members wear
Community Study
The Woodland Cultural Centre

Figure 2.21 The Woodland Cultural Centre in reflect the renaissance of the Northeast
A wall mural created by Brantford, Ontario displays Aboriginal art
Six Nations artist, Bill
Woodlands cultures. Indeed, “...the Centre
Powless, for the by well-known artists, such as Tom Hill is the bridge from the past to today and
Woodland Cultural and Norval Morriseau. When one looks at poses questions for the directions of the
Centre. This scene
depicts an elder (right) the logo of the Centre with the two eagles future which will provide for the ‘Seventh
leading Aboriginal reaching for the star (see page 29), it is Generation,’ or those who will follow our
peoples who have fallen evident that animism and spiritualism are
away from their
generation’s generation; in other words, the
traditions into a never still strongly present in Aboriginal values. future for our children… The Centre vali-
ending circle where all The Woodland Cultural Centre, located dates the past, celebrates the present, and
are equal.
on reserve land, was once a residential seeks answers for the future from Elders
school. Since 1972, it has followed its and our children.”
mandate to preserve and promote the cul-
tural heritage of both the Algonquian and
Iroquoian nations. Visitors learn about the
QUESTIONS
1. Explain what the Woodland Cultural
history and heritage of the First Nations,
Centre’s logo means for spiritualism
contemporary lifestyles, and social and
and animism.
cultural issues of local and national First
Nations. The museum displays include an 2. Describe three ways the Woodland
Iroquoian village, a mystical evening forest Cultural Centre is maintaining Aboriginal
showing the typical environment of the heritage and religion.
Northeast Woodlands, and the interior of 3. The “Seventh Generation” refers to
a nineteenth centur y longhouse. The those generations that follow us. “What
research library currently maintains over we do in our lives should reflect our
6000 volumes. responsibility to future generations.”
Today, elders and speakers of the lan- Do you agree with this? What are you
guage work diligently on projects that doing to practise this belief?

50
Living My Religion
Chris Warner and Courtney Thomas tions is very important. Strict traditions rule the
L.E. Raths, an American Longhouse religion, like which door to enter, and
educator who studied where to sit.
values and beliefs, said The beliefs and values spoken at the longhouse
there are four steps or are the ones of the Peacekeeper and Handsome
phases in the process of Lake. But the longhouse is also the place for com-
believing. In the first munity socials such as weddings, funerals, raising
stage, we are “aware,” money for a special event, or sending someone off
and we know our beliefs; on a dance or drum competition. The Longhouse
in the second stage we offers support during rites of passage. Humour, as
“prize” our beliefs; in the well as a sense of community, provide guidance. At
third stage, we “choose” puberty, the community might warn the boy not to
them from among sever- swim or whistle, or his voice will never change. When
al others; and in the a girl first menstruates, there are those to help with
fourth stage we “act” on the “healing time.” One custom requires the girl to
Figure 2.22 them consistently and wash her hands in ashes to connect with the fire-
with integration. place so she can still cook. Chris is learning his lan-
Two Aboriginal students at Pauline Johnson guage—Cayuga—so he can pray and chant properly
Collegiate and Vocational School in Brantford, when, and if, he burns tobacco. Courtney has
Ontario, clearly have moved through Raths’ four learned that food must be covered to protect it and
stages. Courtney Thomas (19) and Chris Warner (20) keep its nourishment. Their sense of spiritualism
attend Longhouse ceremonies regularly on the Six and animism is strong.
Nations Reserve. They go to school in the city, but When asked what they get from their Aboriginal
try to maintain their religion, language, and culture religion, both say they get strength and energy. When
on and off the reserve. Courtney belongs to the they go to the longhouse, they must think good
Turtle clan, and Chris to the Wolf. They both say that thoughts, which purifies them. They certainly feel
members of the clans are their teachers and protec- that it is easier to communicate with fellow adher-
tors. ents, and that there is a bonding. If they didn’t have
Members of the same clan do not intermarry. They the religion and community of the Longhouse, they
believe that three or four guardian spirits, usually both feel their traditions would be lost, their lan-
ancestors, watch over them. Keeping clan connec- guage would suffer, and their identity would disap-

QUESTIONS
1. Identify three ways Courtney and Chris have integrated traditional beliefs and values
into their daily lives.
2. Explain which of Raths’ four stages Courtney and Chris would be in with regard to their
beliefs.
3. Describe a spiritual belief you have, and explain how Raths’ stages apply to you and
your belief.

51
 52 EXPLORING WORLD RELIGIONS

Web Check Your Understanding

Quest 1. Are museums and galleries impor- 2. Describe the importance of elders

f
tant factors in keeping Aboriginal spiri- and shamans in Aboriginal spirituality.
tuality alive? Explain.
3. How important are elders in your
If you are interested
social group?
in reading more
about the Woodland
Cultural Centre visit
www.woodland-
centre.on.ca
Click on “What’s CULTURAL IMPACT ples were self-governed. Over the cen-
Cool” to find out turies, their government has been
about upcoming weakened through policies of control
events. and assimilation. The Indian Acts in
There can be no question that the both 1876 and 1895 encouraged
Europeans and the Aboriginal peoples Aboriginal peoples to give up their cul-
had both positive and negative ture and adopt “white ways.” Policies
impacts on each other. The Aboriginal that established reservations or
peoples exposed the early explorers to encouraged assimilation have had
new agricultural techniques and new mixed results.
ways of coping with the challenges of
survival, while the Europeans provid-
ed tools that fostered the development By the mid 1800s, the Canadian gov-
of Aboriginal culture. ernment was funding a residential
In 1755, the British created the school system for the Aboriginal peo-
first Indian Department of Canada. ples. Children were removed from
Its purpose was to maintain good rela- their reserves and were placed, often
tions with the Aboriginal peoples and far away from their communities, in
to secure their support of Britain. boarding schools run mainly by
Their allegiance was crucial during Catholic, United, and Anglican reli-
the years when Britain was fighting gious orders. From the turn of the
against the French, or the Americans. century to the 1960s, Aboriginal chil-
By 1900, however, Indigenous cultures dren in Canada were often taught that
had suffered near extinction because it was wrong to practise their cultural
of the many years of warfare and dis- ways. Sometimes the punishments for
ease. Often smallpox, measles, and trying to maintain traditional ways
tuberculosis carried away the old and were severe, such as having a needle
the young—the past and the future. stuck in the tongue for speaking their
Before the Europeans’ arrival in Aboriginal language, or making a boy
North America, the Aboriginal peo- wear a dress if he tried to contact a
 ABORIGINAL SPIRITUALITY 53

female relative. The residential Figure 2.23

schools broke the connection between Oka, 1990: a Mohawk and
a Canadian soldier stand
children, parents, and their culture. face-to-face during a tense
Many children, isolated for years and stand-off.
instructed to forget their traditional
ways, often rejected their past.
The Assembly of First Nations
report, Breaking the Silence, claimed
there were seventy-seven residential
schools in 1909, and that sixty were
still open in the 1960s. The Mohawk
Institute, which is now the Woodland
Cultural Centre, closed its doors in
1970. In 1996, the Report of the Royal holes. The land they wanted was the
Commission on Aboriginal Peoples ancestral burial grounds, considered
pointed to residential schools as the sacred by the Mohawks. The courts,
major factor in the high rates of sub- however, had rejected the Mohawks’
stance abuse and suicide. At that time, claim. The Mohawks decided not to
however, many students had already stand by and let the land be taken.
begun the healing process by rediscov- They erected a barricade across the
ering their Aboriginal culture and tra- road, and the eleven-week armed
ditional spirituality. standoff began. During the standoff,
Throughout the 1990s, many the Mohawks drummed and sang
important changes occurred for around a sacred fire in order to gain
Aboriginal peoples in Canada. The strength from the ritual power of
decade began with a lands claim False Faces. One of the Mohawk pro-
standoff and ended with the birth of testers showed how Aboriginal spiri-
the new Inuit territory and homeland, tuality was involved: “...We had medi-
Nunavut. cine pouches that we wore around our
necks: the ashes from the sacred fire.
The guns were nothing. We didn’t
Sometimes, the cultural impact of have enough ammunition to stand off
mainstream society on Aboriginal life the army for ten minutes. It was all
erupts into violence. Where the symbolic.”
Ottawa River joins the Lake of Two
Mountains and the St. Lawrence,
there is a Mohawk reserve called Indigenous cultural revival is grow-
Kanehsatake, which borders the ing, and the surviving elements of
resort town of Oka. At the edge of Aboriginal religions play an important
town, in the woods called the Pines, role. In 1996, Canada declared June
some Oka businessmen acquired title 21 to be National Aboriginal Day.
to the land and in 1959 built a nine- Each year, Aboriginal people celebrate
hole golf course. In 1989, they wanted their past and future together in pan-
to expand the golf course to eighteen Aboriginal activities.
 54 EXPLORING WORLD RELIGIONS

recent territorial government in the

In 1998, the Canadian government eastern half of the region formerly
acknowledged its role in the cultural part of the Northwest Territories
and spiritual impact on Aboriginal cul- (Figure 2.24). Nunavut is home to a
tures. It issued the “Statement of population of over 27 000 which is 80
Reconciliation,” in which it formally to 85 per cent Inuit. It spreads over
expressed its profound regret for past almost two million square kilometres
actions. It also included an action plan of Arctic wilderness, passes through
to help with healing for residential three time zones, and is larger than
school students, to improve health con- any other territory or province in
ditions, and to speed up land claims. In Canada. In Inuktitut, the Inuit lan-
recent years, Christian Churches have guage, “Nunavut” means “Our Land.”
also accepted some of the guilt and The residents of Nunavut hope that
have made attempts to reconcile with by controlling their own affairs they
Aboriginal communities. can modernize their society while at
the same time maintaining the essen-
tial values of their Aboriginal culture.
For some Aboriginal groups, one way The government pledged to respect
to protect their heritage and religious and apply IQ (Inuit Qaujim-ajatuqan-
values is through self-government. git), or traditional Inuit knowledge—
With control over their own lands and the knowledge of the elders. In fact, in
laws, Aboriginal societies might have the legislature, unelected elders have
a better hope of protecting and pre- seats right behind the elected leaders
serving traditional values. On April 1, of the government.
1999, Canada established its most

Figure 2.24
Performers and Inuit Junior
Rangers carry the flags of
Canada’s ten provinces and
three territories at the
inaugural celebration in Iqaluit,
Nunavut on April 1, 1999.
Exploring Issues:
Smudging Ceremony
was allowing a law to be broken in favour of allowing
a ritual practice to occur.
The two guests put some tobacco and sweet grass
into a small bowl, lit the contents, blew gently on it
until fragrant smoke began wafting in the room. They
explained that this was a religious belief and practice
that they wanted to conduct before they began telling
their stories. They invited Aboriginal and non-
Figure 2.25 A Métis woman conducts a smudging ceremony. Aboriginal students to “smudge” by taking the bowl
A teacher who had invited two guest speakers to his and with one hand, drawing the smoke over their
Aboriginal Studies class worried when the guests took faces and bodies, and inhaling the smoke. There was
out some sweet grass and a smudge pot, and invited some nervousness about breaking the rules, but stu-
the class to participate in a smudging ceremony. dents said afterwards that they felt peaceful, more
There were explicit rules about no smoking on school empathetic to the speakers, and more unified with
property and yet this was a cultural ceremony of purifi- their classmates than ever before.
* The students at the university fought their suspension, used
cation and symbol of unity. (At a university in 1999,
the hearing to educate the officials about the beliefs and sym-
five students were banned* when it was discovered
bolism behind smudging, and got their ban overturned.
that they gathered weekly to purify themselves in the
smoke of sage and sweet grass. School officials AT ISSUE: Should a “smudging ceremony,” which
thought they were using marijuana or causing a fire is an Aboriginal purification ritual, be banned
hazard, and therefore banned it.) Clearly the teacher from schools?

Purification of the mind and spirit plays an impor- bylaws that state there can be no smoking on school
tant role in Aboriginal spirituality. Burning sweet property. Also, smoking poses a problem of addic-
grass and tobacco in a smudge pot and drawing the tion and health that educators and governments are
smoke ritually over one’s face, head, arms, and trying to address. Students can be suspended for
torso, and inhaling the smoke, is all part of a smudg- smoking on school property and certainly for start-
ing ceremony of cleansing. Tobacco is considered a ing fires, especially in classrooms. It is both a health
sacred plant and the smoke is a spiritual way to issue and a fire hazard. School administrators and
clear one’s thoughts, to wash away impurities, to teachers are liable by law if they allow smoking or
help focus on the task with freshness and with fires of any kind in schools.
renewed zeal, and to bond with co-smudgers.
Although the sweet grass ceremony and smudging
is a Great Plains cultural and religious act connect- QUESTIONS
ed to the vision quest, many Aboriginal peoples Which statement would you support? Explain.
have adopted the practice. 1. In a multicultural setting, Aboriginal practices
Every institution has rules of health and safety. are valid and allowable.
Schools are no different. There are anti-smoking 2. Students should be suspended for participating
in a smudging ceremony and the ritual should
be banned.

55
Skill Path Oral Presentations
The ability to make effective oral presentations • Listen to professional speakers, such as TV
is an important skill, particularly in today’s announcers, and note their pace and tone of
workplace, where many jobs involve public voice. Listen to yourself on tape.
speaking and presentations. • Use visuals strategically. They can help to
Making an effective oral presentation control and vary your pace.
requires planning, organization, knowledge of • Create cue cards that you can refer to during
the subject, and practice. The more presenta- your presentation.
tions you do, the easier this skill will become.
If you are prepared and enthusiastic, your audi- Step 3: Deliver the Presentation
ence will show interest and involvement.
The following are some helpful hints to get Do
you started: ✔ Arrive early to organize your pres- Tips to help you
entation and to ensure equipment remember
is available and in good working • Mnemonics is the
Step 1: Plan your Presentation order. skill of improving
✔ Ensure you have enough hand- memory by using a
• Choose a topic and subtopics. Conduct outs for all members of the formula, code, or
research to identify issues related to your associative artifact.
audience.
main topic. One such way is to
✔ Be well-rested so you can think on
• Create a written plan of the presentation. develop an acronym,
Start by identifying the main theme. Develop your feet.
✔ Have cue cards that you can refer where a word or
a powerful opening to catch the attention of
to occasionally. phrase is formed
your audience. Consider using a quotation, a
visual, an interesting statistic, or a moving ✔ Stand to make your presentation from the first letters
personal experience. Develop each subtopic so you can be both seen and of what is to be
individually. Your audience will be more inter- heard. remembered. For
ested in your presentation if you provide ✔ Speak clearly and loudly. example, in a presen-
examples and visuals. Create a summary ✔ Establish eye contact with mem- tation about the
that reinforces your message. You might use bers of the audience so that Aboriginal cultural
a quote, a question, or an interesting anec- everyone feels included. groups in Canada,
dote. ✔ Use carefully prepared visuals you might develop an
• Consider your audience. Who are they and acronym (THEN) to
(graphs, charts, pictures, etc.) to
how many will be in attendance? help you remember
enhance your presentation.
✔ Make use of memorization strate- the order of your
Step 2: Rehearse subtopics (today, his-
gies to help you avoid simply
reading from your cue cards. tory, environment,
• Rehearse your presentation in front of a mir-
ror. Use gestures that come naturally. ✔ Smile and be animated. nations).
• Time your presentation. Leave time for ques-
tions or discussion.

56
Skill Path Oral Presentations

Don’t Practise It!

✔ Arrive late and ask for additional time.
✔ Just read your presentation. Look away from Do some research, and prepare an oral pres-
your cue cards as much as possible. entation on one of the following:
✔ Look at the teacher throughout. The stu-
dents are your audience. • one of the six Aboriginal cultural groups in
✔ Speak in a monotonous tone of voice. North America
✔ Display poor posture. • an Aboriginal creation story, its meaning and
significance
✔ Chew gum or eat candies.
• an Aboriginal cultural centre
✔ Simply talk, with no visual references.
• The Peacemaker
• Handsome Lake
• developments in Nunavut since its creation
• the Oka Crisis
• the Statement of Reconciliation

Check Your Understanding

1. Describe one example of cul- future development of Canada’s
tural conflict related to Aboriginal peoples?
Aboriginal spirituality.
3. Which elements of Aboriginal
2. How can Aboriginal religious spirituality might benefit all
values play a positive role in the Canadians? Explain.

57
Activities
Check Your Understanding 9. Prepare an announcement or advertise-
ment that promotes the protection of an
1. Select five terms from the Glossary on Aboriginal sacred place, such as a burial
page 59 and explain the meaning and ground or disputed land or that recognizes a
importance to Aboriginal spirituality for sacred event, such as the death of
each. Handsome Lake.

2. Describe how each of the following con- 10. Explain the challenges for someone
tributed to Aboriginal spirituality: Handsome practising an Aboriginal religion today.
Lake, elders, Elijah Harper, shaman, Lame
Deer, The Peacemaker, animism, Melissa 11. Do some research on the medicine
Labrador. wheel and the dream catcher to identify
their significance as symbols in Aboriginal
3. What were the challenges to Aboriginal spirituality. Present your findings to the
spirituality for each of the following: class in an oral presentation.
Smudging, Potlatch, Sun Dance?
12. Conduct research on other Aboriginal
4. Describe what the following pairs have in groups, such as the Midewiwin Society,
common: which is an Ojibwa spirituality group.
• Handsome Lake–The Peacemaker
• Sun Dance–Morning Dance Apply Your Learning
Think and Communicate 13. Adopt an environmental issue, e.g., the
protection of an endangered species, the
5. Briefly describe one Aboriginal belief or preservation of green space, disposing toxic
practice that you feel might be essential to waste, logging, etc. Research the evidence
a balanced life in today’s society. surrounding the issue. Explain to an environ-
mental group, city council, or Member of
6. Describe an appropriate way to commem- Parliament, what action should be taken
orate June 21, National Aboriginal Day. Give using at least three Aboriginal spiritual
at least three reasons for your decision. references.
7. Interview or conduct research on one of 14. Explain how one world problem might be
the following to identify and analyze his or solved by applying an Aboriginal spiritual
her spiritual beliefs and practices: an elder, viewpoint.
someone who attended a residential
school, a faithkeeper, Matthew Coon Come. 15. If you or a friend were feeling “lost” or
Present your findings to a peer for editing “depressed,” what Aboriginal beliefs, prac-
and appraisal. tices, or values might help you deal with
your problems?
8. Develop a collage or poster that would
represent where and how Aboriginal spiritu-
58 ality fits in today’s world.
 ABORIGINAL SPIRITUALITY 59

Glossary
Aboriginal. Of Native ancestry, inhabiting polytheism [polly THEE ism]. The belief
or existing in a land from the earliest times in or worship of more than one god.
and before colonists.
powwow. A gathering of Aboriginal people
animism [ANNA mism]. The attribution of with ritual dances, drumming and chanting.
a living soul to plants, animals, inanimate
objects, and natural phenomena. reincarnation [re in car NAY sh’n]. The
belief in the rebirth of a soul in a new body
elder. A person (male or female) venerated or form.
for age and wisdom.
sachems [SAY chum]. The supreme chief
faithkeeper. Member of a nation selected of a clan.
to maintain the traditional ceremonies and
rituals. shaman [SHAY min]. Medicine man or
spiritual leader.
First Nations. An Aboriginal band, or a
community functioning as a band, but not smudging ceremony. A purification ritual
having band status. The term First Nations that includes the burning of sweet grass
does not include the Inuit or Métis. and drawing smoke ritually over body.

genesis [GENNA sis]. The origin, the tipi. Cone-shaped tent and dwelling found
beginnings, the formation of something. in the nations of the Great Plains.

indigenous [in DIDGE a nus]. Originating totem. A protective entity in the form of an
naturally in a region, belonging naturally to animal, natural object, or plant.
an environment (of people) born in a region.
totem pole. A long pole in which
longhouse. Iroquois home, cigar-shaped, several totems are carved, used to recount
about fifty metres long and ten metres history.
wide, a dwelling shared by several nuclear
families. vision quest. The process of purifying and
fasting in order to be sensitive to a vision
Longhouse. Religion of the Iroquois. or voices that might guide a person; a
sacred ceremony.
monotheism [monna THEE ism]. The
belief in one God. wampum [WOM pum]. A belt of coloured
beads used to confirm a treaty, or to help
oracy. The ability to express oneself fluent- with the skill of oracy.
ly in speech and to understand a spoken
language.