Bridges, M C, 1993.

Reformatted from a paper originally presented at the

International Mining Geology Conference, p243-253. Kalgoorlie, WA. Reprinted
with permission of The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.

Assessments of Ground Conditions for

Exploration Prospects and Mines
By M C Bridges 1

Abstract
Mining software systems have provided a basis for integration of resource, survey, and design
functions. They can similarly provide a basis for incorporating ground conditions into the process.

Exploration and mine geologists have a prime role to play in this process, extending their
responsibilities further across the geological spectrum, into exploration of ground conditions,
analyses of results, and assessments of their implications for mining. Ground conditions are as much
a part of the geology of a prospect or mine as its mineralisation, and can have critical implications
for mining.

Engineering/structural logging and mapping can be readily integrated into current site procedures.
Results may be incorporated into the same databases as other geological data, and the same mining
software systems used to process and present results. Processing and presenting results similarly
involves plots of data along drill paths or exposures, as histograms and annotations. Block models of
ground conditions may be constructed, using similar interpolation and statistical techniques,
including geostatistics. Results may be plotted on two dimensional plans and sections, and extended
to three dimensional wireframe and solid modelling of surfaces or blocks, with perspective viewing.

Geologists may need to expand their skills through specialist training and experience, including an
appreciation of the role of geomechanics and ground conditions in mining.

Successful integration of resources and ground conditions offers opportunities to enhance mine
planning and operations through: higher-quality data on ground conditions, arising from
standardisation and geological cross-fertilisation; wider coverage of mine sites, providing potential
for a full map of ground conditions to be developed; and efficient processes, based on mining
software systems, exploiting graphic three-dimensional visualisation..

Role of Ground Conditions Impact on mining

Ground conditions play an important role in open pit and
Relationship with mineral resources underground mining - hard-rock and coal. Few facets of mining
Ground conditions, stresses, and groundwater are as much a are untouched by ground conditions.
part of the development and operation of a mine as its mineral
resources. Moreover, they may be directly related to the Overall slope angles for open pit mines may span more than
occurrence of resources, especially where there is a 20° between poor and good rock conditions. At one end of the
stratigraphic, structural, intrusive, or supergene control on range, a pit in strong rock with few adversely-orientated and
mineralisation. Ground conditions and mineralisation may have located geologic structures may have an overall slope up to 55°.
mutual geologic controls and influences. At the other end, a pit in weak rock with a high density of
structures, ultramafic mineralogy, or hydrothermally altered
Integration of investigations, estimation, and assessments of rock may have an overall slope down to 35°. Weathered rock,
ground conditions and mineralisation is efficient and with a high percentage of clay minerals, including products of
productive. Exploration and mine geologists have a prime role leaching and hydrothermal alteration, may have an overall
to play in this process, extending their responsibilities across slope down to 30°.
the geological spectrum, to include investigations, analyses, and
assessments of ground conditions for mining. Yet, for a large deep pit, a 5° variation of slope angle can be
worth millions of dollars in operating costs. A major pitwall
failure may incur a substantial cost, delay production, cause a
loss of reserves, and pose a hazard for men and machines.
Besides pitwall stability, ground conditions influence
1. Principal Geomechanics Geologist, AMC Consultants Pty Ltd,
19/114 William Street, Melbourne Vic 3000
excavation and handling of pit materials, inflows of
Email: mbridges@amcconsultants.com.au groundwater, dilution of ore, crushing and comminution of ore,
Assessments of Ground Conditions for Exploration Prospects and Mines

location and construction of waste dumps, and siting of While domains usually correspond to rock units, they may be
infrastructure. subdivided according to alteration (weathering, hydrothermal),
or dissection by major structures (eg fold axial planes).
Underground, ground conditions have a role in the selection of Deformed zones (sheared, mylonitic) may be classed as
a mining method and operating variables, including stope sizes domains in their own right.
and shapes, sequences of extraction, rates of production,
support, drilling and blasting, inflows of groundwater, caving Domains are directly related to the geological model of a
and subsidence, and hazards for men and machines. Recovery prospect or mine. Therefore, exploration and mine geologists,
of a measured resource is dependent on the combination of rock with their geomechanical advisers, must accept a primary role
conditions and stresses that determine the location and size of in the identification and delineation of domains.
retained pillars, collapses that sterilise ore, and caving of
surrounding rock. Dilution, which may displace deliverable ore, Natural conditions
is dependent on rock conditions and stresses within wall-rock
and effectuality of support that may be applied. Falls of rock, Investigations are directed to estimating the natural or in situ
induced by geologic structures, high stresses, and vibrations, character of rock, before disturbance by exploration and
remain a major hazard within mines. Inflows of groundwater mining. Fractures and breaks due to drilling, handling, blasting,
may be a significant cost and a limitation on mining. or other disturbances should be either disregarded or recorded
separately. This approach provides a common basis to relate
one form of data to another, and one site to another. Some
Mine optimisation
standard procedures, notably Rock Quality Designation (RQD),
Optimisation of mining requires that the method, design, specify that only natural breaks be logged - although giving the
sequence of extraction, support, etc, be matched to the ground benefit of doubt to borderline cases.
conditions. It should exploit the strength of rock and its
geologic structures, within the natural and redistributed Disregard of blasting-induced breaks is self-evident. However,
stresses, without causing undue dilution, loss of reserves, and diamond coring is a relatively violent process for core, which
hazards. Consequently, investigation and assessment of ground may induce a significant number of breaks on weaker planes
conditions, groundwater, and stresses must be an integral part that were not naturally broken in situ, prior to drilling.
of mineral exploration, feasibility, and mining operations. Moreover, the degree of induced breakage depends on the angle
of intersection between a structure and core, as well as machine
Investigative Principles and operator factors. Taking account of the power law of the
distribution of natural breaks in rock, the safest course is to
Background disregard all breaks that are judged to be induced by drilling.

The Snowy Mountains Scheme, NSW, was one of the pioneers Distinguishing natural from induced breaks is often difficult,
of systematic investigations and assessments of ground especially where the breaks are along a pervasive planar
conditions for engineering works (Moye 1955). Particularly, structure, such as bedding, cleavage, foliation, or a vein. There
procedures for engineering logging of diamond drilled cores, may be a case in some circumstances to separately log breaks
laboratory measurements of properties of materials, and field induced on planar structures. Only experienced geologists or
measurements of groundwater/permeability were codified. geotechnicians should undertake engineering logging and
Their influence has endured into current practices (eg, Sharp mapping.
and Jordan 1982). The Geological Society [of England]
Engineering Group (1970) provided impetus to development of Standard procedures
standard procedures. All these logging and mapping techniques
were graphical. Standard procedures should be used wherever applicable, to
ensure consistency within and between projects. The
Computer-aided procedures and integration of geomechanics International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) has
with geological and survey processes developed impetus in the established standards for many geomechanical procedures,
1970s as computers became sufficiently powerful and practical. including logging and mapping (Brown 1981). These may form
Early developments occurred at the Mount Isa Mine (Quan the basis for standards that may be adopted within the mineral
Sing and Smith 1973), amongst others. These types of exploration and mining industry.
procedures are now widely adopted for mineral exploration and
mining operations (eg, Nordqvist 1985; Mathews and Database format
Rosengren 1986; McArthur and Kuipers 1990). Data is recorded in a digital database format, which is amenable
to computerised processing, analyses, and presentation. For
Application of geostatistical estimation techniques to ground logs of drilled cores, this contrasts with conventional graphical
conditions (Miller 1979; La Pointe 1980; Barla et al 1987; logs, like those pioneered by the Snowy Mountains Authority
Young and Hoerger 1988) provided further capabilities for (Moye 1955), and the subject of subsequent standard
integration of geomechanics and mineral resources. Now, the procedures. They are not readily amenable to computerisation.
widespread application of workstations and high-end PCs, In contrast, digital data may be readily presented in a graphical
running powerful mining software systems, can provide these format by mining and general software systems.
capabilities for every mineral prospect and mine.
A variety of computer-based techniques for direct entry of
Characterisation of domains digital data into a digital database are available:
Domains are regions or zones of reasonably uniform character,
allowing for natural variations of rock. They are the primary • Bar-code readers, attached to a hand-held or portable
unit, or subdivision, for a geomechanical characterisation of computer, which are becoming efficient and popular.
rock and soil. There are usually larger differences between rock
units and domains than within them.

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Assessments of Ground Conditions for Exploration Prospects and Mines

• Pen-based hand-held and portable computers, which On-site geologists can undertake surveys from direct sources,
are becoming practical field tools, where data can be particularly drilled holes, drilled cores, and exposures,
directly entered onto a formatted screen, equivalent to including materials, structures, and groundwater. Analyses and
manual logs. assessments for short-term planning and operations may be
• Palmtop/notebook/laptop computers, which remain a undertaken by either on-site geologists or specialists, depending
direct, efficient, and effectual technique. on experience and local resources.
One of these should be adopted at a field or mine site to replace Mining software systems, which already integrate resource
hand-written logs. Each can operate with prompts, validation, estimation, survey, and mine design functions, are readily
and limit-checking, minimising logging and transcription applied to incorporate ground conditions and groundwater in
errors. the process.

Role of Exploration and Mine Geologists Geomechanics specialists

As site geologists assume greater responsibility for
Integration investigations and analyses of ground conditions, geomechanics
By inclination and education, there is scope for exploration and specialists, whether in-house or consultant, will be more
mine geologists to accept responsibility for investigations and confined to support and specialist services, for which they are
assessments of ground conditions for mining, in parallel with educated and inclined:
exploration, estimation, control, and reconciliation of mineral
resources. • Support and advice to on-site geologists on the design
of investigative programs, analyses of results,
Site geologists are usually responsible for managing drilling, training, and review of programs. However, they may
handling and logging of cores, mapping of pit or underground assist with processing and analyses of results, as a
exposures, grade control, and locating supplies of groundwater. bureau service, depending on local and corporate
Supplementary drilling that may be required to extend coverage resources.
to pit walls and sites of mine infrastructure, such as a decline, • Provision of specialist capabilities that require
shaft, or crusher chamber, is also conveniently arranged by site particular skills, equipment, analytical techniques, or
geologists. laboratory facilities which are not generally available
on-site, such as measurements of stress, mechanical
Engineering logging and mapping can be readily integrated into properties of samples of cores, geophysical surveys,
this process. Results may be incorporated into the same or and modelling groundwater.
compatible databases, and the same mining software systems
used to process and present results. Similar statistical and • Assessments of results for development and mining,
estimation techniques may be applied. Monitoring of the particularly:
response of rock to mining, such as collapses, spalling, and ! preparation of reports and reference material for
inflow of groundwater, is a natural extension of grade control. tenderers for capital development, such as
Overbreak and dilution are an integral component of grade declines, shafts, or open pit mining contracts;
control and reconciliation. ! development of design criteria for open pit and
underground mines, such as pit slopes,
Likewise, a field investigation of groundwater is naturally and excavation characteristics, stope and pillar
efficiently integrated into an exploratory/developmental dimensions, sequences of extraction, support
program. It involves managing drilling, selecting test locations, requirements, and drainage/grouting of
and supervising installations and tests by drillers. Groundwater groundwater.
is usually intimately linked with ground conditions, and
possibly with mineralisation. • Design and implementation of monitoring of the
response of rock and soil materials to mining,
generally with survey and instrumental techniques.
Division of roles
Visual monitoring, on a day-to-day basis, may
In practice, investigations and assessments of ground conditions complement the role of on-site geologists.
for mining can be divided into two streams, based on a division
of responsibilities between on-site geologists and geomechanics The division of roles and responsibilities is not clear-cut, but
specialists. depends on circumstances at the site, requirements of the
project, and the experience of on-site geologists.
Exploration/mine geologists
Senior/Chief exploration and mine geologists are best-placed to Implications
integrate all components of geology at an exploration prospect The principle of the division of responsibilities boils down to:
or mine site, encompassing mineral exploration, estimation,
grade control, ground conditions, groundwater, and monitoring • on-site geologists being responsible for collecting,
of rock, using the same sources, systems, techniques, and staff. processing, and presenting all geological information
Their responsibilities can extend across the full span of that is relevant for mining; and
geological information that is required for mining, including
engineering/structural logging of cores and exposures, • geomechanics specialists being responsible for
geophysical surveys, laboratory measurements of properties of applying geological and mechanical data for mine
rock and soil materials, groundwater hydrology, and planning, and monitoring responses to mining.
measurements of stresses.
The cross-over point will vary according to the size of the
project and on-site facilities and staff - and perhaps on location.

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Assessments of Ground Conditions for Exploration Prospects and Mines

There is a direct analogy with estimation of mineral resources, that contribute to the response of a rock mass to mining, or any
where modelling and estimation will be done on-site if other disturbance.
sufficient expertise or facilities are available, or off-site if they
are unavailable. In any case, a specialist may review modelling Logging
and estimation. Logging comprises a log, or table, of text and numeric
information, usually from a linear source. Examples are a log of
Similarly, cross-over responsibilities of geologists and drilled cuttings, core, or a line along an exposure. Geological
geomechanics specialists will depend on whether specialists are and geomechanical features may be logged within intervals
engaged on-site and the experience of on-site geologists. along lines, equivalent to assay intervals, or as individual
Likewise, a specialist may review programs. structures and other features. Data is compiled into a database.
A tabular representation of typical engineering logs are shown
For projects where these principles have not already been in Figure 1.
implemented, the role and responsibilities of on-site geologists
may need to be expanded. As this will involve more activities Mapping
and expertise, more staff may need to be provided on-site. In
this way, site geologists should be appointed to provide a Mapping constructs a graphical representation of the location
complete coverage of geological factors that are relevant to and nature of geological structures, rock units, and other
mining. This may require senior company management and geological features, usually represented on a plan or section,
geologists to develop a sharper focus on the primary objective drawn to scale. Examples are maps of outcrops, pit faces, or
of optimised mining. underground development. Data may be compiled into a
digitised database.
Engineering Logging and Mapping Interval logging
Role Purpose
Engineering/structural logging of cores and exposures is the Interval logging of diamond drilled cores and lines along
prime source of information on ground conditions at the site of exposures is undertaken to estimate the mechanical and
a prospect or mine. During exploration and early stages of structural character of rock units (domains), and identify and
development, cores may be the only source of three- characterise large geologic structures or deformed zones.
dimensional coverage of mineralisation and ground conditions.
As a mine matures, open pit exposures or underground Procedure
development may become the prime source of information. Geologic features that may be relevant for mining are logged as
groups within each interval. Intervals are typically 1-3 m
Engineering logging and mapping is a direct extension or length, corresponding to assay intervals where appropriate, or
complement of standard geological logging of cores and to drill runs elsewhere. Such grouped data is less specific than
exposures. Whereas this type of logging is already an integral if every feature were logged individually, but logging is
part of many exploration and development projects, it needs to practical for the volume of rock that may impinge on mining.
become more universal, standardised, and comprehensive to As the aim of the logging is a broad characterisation of each
maximise its benefits. rock unit, all cores should be logged, along with other
geological information.
Terminology
Logged features are those that can reasonably be logged in a
Condition field environment and may contribute to a geomechanical
The ‘condition’ of rock is its fitness for the task. In this instance characterisation of each rock unit. Logged fields may vary
the task is mining; more generally it may be any excavation according to the geological setting and requirements of the
within or loading upon rock. Specifically, ‘condition’ includes: project/mine. A minimum list of fields (for most projects) is
specified in Table 1, divided into five basic groups.
• mechanical properties, such as shear strength, tensile
strength, and deformability, of soil and rock Supplementary drilling, development, or cuttings may be
materials, its structures, or the rock mass as a whole, needed to provide coverage of ground conditions and
including effects of time and water; groundwater at pit perimeters and underground service
development.
• physical properties, such as density and water
content;
Processed results may be graphically presented in two forms:
• hydraulic properties, such as permeability and • strip logs, as histograms, scatter plots and
storativity; and annotations, much like the conventional graphic log,
• petrologic properties, including mineralogy, texture, showing relationships amongst the various logged
and quartz content. fields (Figure 2);
• plots along paths of holes, typically on cross sections,
In practice, the ‘condition’ of rock is estimated by index in the form of histograms and annotations, showing
properties, such as point load strength of materials, degree of relationships with mineralisation or a resource model,
weathering, density and nature of structures, porosity, texture, rock units, major geologic structures, and mine
and mineralogy. layouts, actual and planned (Figure 3).
The term ‘condition’ may be extended to include stresses and Additionally, statistical characterisation of each domain or rock
porewater within a rock mass, which are each natural factors unit may be presented in tables, histograms, scatter plots, and
similar forms.

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Assessments of Ground Conditions for Exploration Prospects and Mines

Figure 1 – Representation of raw and processed digital data on rock conditions in a tabular form. An interval log
includes data on rock conditions within each interval of core or exposure, corresponding to assay intervals or coring
runs. A structural log includes data on the character of individual structures in a core or exposure.

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Assessments of Ground Conditions for Exploration Prospects and Mines

Table 1 - Minimum data fields for general purpose or wall in an open pit or underground development. Sampling
engineering interval logging of diamond drilled cores lines have directional bias, so that a range of directions of lines
and lines along exposures, assuming complementary should be included, where possible. Likewise, a minimum list
of logging fields is specified in Table 2.
geological logging.
Again, supplementary drilling or development may be needed
• Location: to extend coverage to pitwalls or underground service
! depth or distance from-to down-hole or along a development.
logging reference line, which locates each interval in
space. Table 2 - Minimum data fields for general purpose
• Integrity of core (which may be adapted to logging of an
detailed structural logging of diamond drilled cores and
exposure): lines along exposures.
! recovered core;
! fragmented core, whether natural or induced; • Location:
! Rock Quality Designation (RQD). ! depth or distance down-hole or along a logging
reference line, which locates each feature in space.
• Rock and Soil materials:
! rock unit or rock type, which is the basis for defining • Domain
domains; ! rock unit or rock type, which is the basis for defining
! texture of soil or rock material; domains
! degree of weathering or hydrothermal alteration, ! degree of weathering or hydrothermal alteration.
which is also the basis for defining domains;
! qualitative strength of soil or rock material; • Type of feature:
! field measurement of an index of strength, either: ! geologic structures (eg fracture, foliation, vein,
- Point Load index, or cleavage),
- rebound hammer index. ! ‘housekeeping’ features (eg survey point, gap in
sample).
• Geologic structures:
! three fields for each of natural fractures, natural • Orientation:
breaks on a layering or anisotropy, and veins: ! dip-direction and dip for planar structures,
- frequency of occurrence in interval, ! bearing/azimuth and dip for linear features.
- representative infilling materials, • Dimension:
- representative structure to core angles. ! Extent, or size, of the visible part of each structure.
• Comments: • Surface and infill characteristics:
! additional descriptive and judgmental information. ! .infilling/coating mineral(s),
! width of infill/coating materials,
! planarity of surfaces,
Structural logging ! type and orientation of lineations on surfaces.

Purpose • Comments:
Detailed structural logging of diamond drilled cores and ! additional descriptive and judgmental information.
exposures (outcrop, open pit, underground) provides
information on the distribution, orientation, and nature of
individual geologic structures in rock. It complements interval Analysis and presentation
logging. Particularly, it provides a basis to identify and The first analytical task is identification and characterisation of
characterise each natural group of structures, interpret their natural groups of structures, based on their relative orientations.
origins, and establish relationships amongst groups and their Results are presented as spherical projections (Figure 4), tables,
host rock units. and other types of plots.

Procedure Processed results may then be graphically presented in much

Diamond drilled cores will need to be reorientated from the same form as interval logs as plots along paths of holes,
orientation marks recorded during drilling, or a pervasive typically on cross sections, in the form of histograms, apparent
structure, such as bedding, whose orientation is known. traces, and annotations, showing relationships with geology and
mining.
Except where rock material is weak, such as weathered or
hydrothermally altered rock, geologic structures will usually Similarly, statistical characterisations of each orientation group
have a dominant influence on the response of rock to mining. in each domain may be presented in tables, spherical
Moreover, structures are frequently the dominant control on the projections, histograms, scatter plots, and similar forms.
occurrence of mineralisation. Therefore, sufficient logging
needs to be undertaken to establish a reasonably confident Structural mapping of exposures
picture of the groups of structures in each rock unit that are
Purpose
likely to affect mineralisation and mining.
Exposures in open pits and underground development are
As for interval logging, detailed structural logging is along mapped to construct a three dimensional picture of rock units,
cores or lines across an exposure. The procedure may be alteration, and geologic structures, as well as mineralisation. In
simplified for reconnaissance logging, especially of an outcrop engineering terms, the rock units and zones of alteration define

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Assessments of Ground Conditions for Exploration Prospects and Mines

Figure 2 – Graphical strip-log representation of rock conditions from an interval log, which can highlight
relationships amongst the logged variables.This form of presentation is equivalent to conventional graphic logs, but
all data is stored in a digital form.

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Assessments of Ground Conditions for Exploration Prospects and Mines

Figure 3 – Illustration of an integrated representation of ground conditions, geology, and mining layouts, using a
mining software system. Rock conditions are represented as histograms and annotations along paths of drilled holes,
drawn from interval or structural logs.

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Assessments of Ground Conditions for Exploration Prospects and Mines

Figure 4 – Identification of groups of geologic structures from a structural log of a core or an exposure, which is the
basis for characterisation of geologic structures in each domain of rock. Structures within each orientation group
have a common origin and similar character, allowing for natural variations.

domains of rock conditions, and geologic structures are the Table 3 - Minimum data fields for general-purpose
prime influence on the response of rock to mining. structural mapping of exposures.
Procedure
• Location:
Fractures, faults and similar types of breaks have an ! represented as an intersection trace of each feature
exponential distribution of size or extent, so that a convenient on the map.
minimum cut-off size can be adopted for mapping. The adopted
cut-off will depend upon the specific occurrence of structures, • Domain:
but a cut-off of 2-3 m will usually be appropriate. It should not ! Rock unit or rock type, represented as intersection
be more than 5 m because structures cannot be clearly observed traces of boundaries, and contained symbols.
beyond about 5 m. All structures that can be seen to extend ! degree of weathering or hydrothermal alteration, as
more than the cutoff are mapped; all those smaller than the cut- symbols.
off are ignored.
• Type of feature:
Intersection traces are mapped onto plans or sections, with line- ! represented by the style of line of intersection trace.
styles to represent each type of structure. The range of data that
is recorded on a map is similar to that for structural logging. • Orientation:
Again, while the actual data recorded may vary with the ! dip-direction and dip for planar structures,
geological setting, a minimum list of fields is listed in Table 3. ! bearing/azimuth and dip for linear features.
• Dimension:
Presentation ! Extent, or size, of the visible part of each structure,
Results are presented as consolidated maps of plans and represented by length of intersection trace.
sections, typically corresponding to the standard series for the
• Surface and infill characteristics:
prospect/mine. A separate series shows interpreted rock units,
! infilling/coating mineral(s),
mineralisation, and structures, with actual or planned mining.
! type and orientation of lineations on surfaces.

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Assessments of Ground Conditions for Exploration Prospects and Mines

Stress Field development program, maximising the amount of hydrologic

data. Field measurements may include:
Integration
• water levels, pressures, and flows;
Measurements and analyses of a stress field at a prospect or
• permeability, in holes pressurised between packers,
mine is a specialist function. However, measurements are
which is typically done progressively during drilling;
undertaken within diamond drilled holes, at locations dictated
by geological conditions, especially major geologic structures • pump-out and falling-head tests, in cased holes,
and contacts. Special drilling equipment, usually supplied by a typically undertaken immediately after drilling the
contractor, and a skilled drilling crew are required, operating holes, although air-lifted tests may be run
under fixed rates, rather than by meterage. progressively during drilling. An array of monitoring
holes may need to be established, utilising existing
Exploration and mine geologists are best-placed to assist with holes, or drilling and equipping special-purpose
the selection of sites and to manage a field program, in holes.
conjunction with a specialist contractor and consultant.
Samples of core may be taken for laboratory measurements of
Results and analyses hydraulic and other properties.

Results are incorporated into a separate database, and analysed Results

by special-purpose programs, which represent stresses as
orientations and magnitudes of principal stresses. Stresses may Measurements of water levels may be incorporated into the
then related to their geologic setting, taking account of host survey database. Measurements of permeability may be
rock units, major deformed zones, prevailing geologic incorporated into the database of interval logs. Results of
structures (eg fractures, cleavage, bedding/foliation), and the pumping and falling-head tests are stored in a separate
density of overlying materials, including effects of weathering, database. Results are plotted as log-time against head of water,
alteration, and sulphides. In some instances, stresses will be with other types of plots.
redistributed around excavations (stopes, chambers,
development, open pit, etc.) or within pillars. Assessments of groundwater hydrology may be incorporated
into a block model of ground conditions for a site.
The location, orientation, and character of geologic structures
has particular relevance for assessments of stress fields in Mining Software Systems
mines. In a natural, undisturbed state, stresses have a
mechanical equilibrium with structures. When disturbed by Database
mine excavations, stresses may be redistributed, with
accompanying sliding along structures or fracturing through Modern relational database and software systems provide a
rock, depending on their orientation and nature, manifest as foundation for integrated procedures. Digital database records
rock noise, rock bursting, spalling, displacements, and of geological logs can be readily extended to include fields for
collapses. engineering properties of rock and soils, such as fragmentation,
RQD, strength, fracture frequency, vein frequency, and core-to-
Orientations of principal stresses are presented on spherical bedding angle. Core recovery, rock type, and degree of
projections of the same form as geologic structures, and weathering, are usually already included in standard geological
magnitudes on statistical plots against depth, related to rock logs and databases.
units or domains. Stresses may be interpolated into surrounding
rock, based on their geological setting and natural statistical Processing and presentation
variations.
Plots
Groundwater Hydrology Processing and presenting representations of ground conditions
may be similar to those for resources, involving plots of data
along drill paths or exposures, as histograms and annotations,
Integration
identifying rock units and profiles of weathering, interpreting
Groundwater hydrology is another specialist field. Flows and major geologic structures, and defining perimeters of ‘grades’
amounts of groundwater (conductivity, storativity) are usually of ground conditions. Like resource perimeters, ground
related to weathering and geologic structures, which are conditions typically have underlying geological controls that
commonly interrelated with each other and their host rock unit. constrain interpretations, which are embodied in the defined
Groundwater is, therefore, directly related to the geological domains of rock. Relationships between domains, rock units,
model. major structures, mineralisation, and ground conditions are
identified and highlighted by such plots (Figure 3).
Measurements are typically done in exploratory holes, during
or immediately following drilling. Drilling contractors usually Block models
undertake installations and measurements for clients, but the
selection of holes and test intervals within holes is driven by Block models of ground conditions may be constructed, using
geological assessments of materials and their hydraulic similar interpolation and statistical techniques, including
characteristics. geostatistics. Costs of excavation or support, or overbreak, or
inflow of groundwater may then be assigned to blocks of
materials for mine planning and financial analyses. This may be
Scope
extended to mechanical characterisation of blocks for direct
Experienced on-site geologists are best-placed to manage and input to geomechanical modelling, particularly numerical
supervise measurements within drilled holes, integrating field modelling of open pit and underground mine stability.
installations and measurements into an exploratory or

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Assessments of Ground Conditions for Exploration Prospects and Mines

Figure 5 - Illustration of an integrated 3-Dimensional representation of major geological structures, a resource

model, and mining layouts, using a mining software system.

Wireframe and surface models Training and Standards

Graphical representations of results and interpretations may be
depicted by mining software systems, relating various Training and experience
geological and mining factors, such as rock units and structures, Many geologists need to extend their skills for engineering
weathering profiles, resource perimeters, and mine layouts. logging and mapping, processing results, and supervision of
Results may be plotted on two dimensional plans and sections, investigative programs, through specialist training and
with other geological and mining data, and extended to three experience. Those with experience of structural geology find it
dimensional wireframe and solid modelling of surfaces or a useful basis, but a majority have little background from their
blocks, with perspective viewing (Figure 5). Three dimensional university degree courses or on-job experience that is directly
representations are a particularly effective means for conveying applicable to ground conditions.
concepts to planners, managers, consultants, and other parties,
as well as being a valuable working tool. Training and experience need to develop an appreciation of the
role of geomechanics and ground conditions in mining - to
Geomechanical analyses understand why logging is done, and why it is done the way it
Special-purpose geomechanical analyses may be linked or is. Further, the technical basis for ground conditions and
integrated with a digital database or block model of rock investigatory processes, such as the nature of fractures in rock,
conditions. They may include analyses of pit slope stability, the nature of weathering, analyses of orientation data,
underground stope dimensioning and sequencing, ground application of rock classification systems, and concepts of the
support, and groundwater modelling. An example of an mechanics of rock and soil, need to be included.
integrated geomechanical modelling system for surface mining Standards
is outlined by Wade et al (1988). Specialist modelling packages Standardisation is a critical component of procedures. It
of this nature are incorporated in many of the major mining provides the basis for common logging techniques,
software systems. communications amongst people, and relating one site to
another. Benefits of standards for estimation and reporting of

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Assessments of Ground Conditions for Exploration Prospects and Mines

mineral resources are universally acknowledged; a similar Mathews K E and Rosengren K J, 1986. The integrated
approach is required for ground conditions. planning of geotechnical investigations for new mining
projects, in Proceedings of the Second Project Development
A basis for standards on logging and mapping ground Symposium, pp43-54 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and
conditions in the mining industry exists in the civil engineering Metallurgy: Melbourne).
industry. Standards for mining engineering must be compatible.
Miller S M, 1979. Geostatistical analysis for evaluating spatial
However, mineral exploration and mining have significant
dependence in fracture set characteristics, in Proceedings of the
differences from civil projects, so that variants of standards
16th Application of Computers and Operations Research in the
need to take account of unique geological and operational
Mineral Industry, (ed: T J O'Neil), pp537-545 (SME of AIME).
circumstances, including on-site geologists and facilities,
extensive drilling programs, continual development of new Moye D G, 1955. Engineering Geology for the Snowy
exposures in a mine, established mining software systems, and Mountains Scheme, Journal of The Institution of Engineers,
an extractive rather than a developmental role for excavations - Australia, Oct-Nov:287-298.
ie they become a liability rather than an asset.
Nordqvist A, 1985. Geomechanical characterisation of the
research mine, in Large Scale Underground Mining,
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