EVOLUTION

Evolution is a very complex and controversial issue. This lesson is

an introduction to the theory of evolution and natural selection as DARWIN’S FINCHES
presented by Charles Darwin. ● These are some of the finches that Darwin studied on his
voyage
CHARLES DARWIN (1809-1882) ● Though they are all finches, their beaks distinguish them
from one another
● He was an English Naturalist ● Some finches developed short, strong beaks that made it
● He traveled around the world on his ship, the Beagle possible for them to crack nuts
● Studied species and fossils in the Galapagos Islands and ● Some developed long, fine beaks to reach insect larvae in
around the world tiny holes
● Why did some species survive while others became ● This is an example of how these finches adapted to their
extinct? environment to survive (natural selection)
● Natural selection
● Published The Origin of Species in 1859 EXAMPLE OF NATURAL SELECTION
Peppered Moth: moths can camouflage with trees to avoid being
DARWIN’S THEORY eaten by birds.
➔ There were light moths and dark moths living near English
➔ Organisms have changed over time, and the ones living
industrial cities in the 19th century
today are different from those that lived in the past.
➔ The dark moths stood out on the light colored trees and
Furthermore, many organisms that once lived are now
were more likely to be seen and eaten by birds. Thus, there

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extinct. The world is not constant, but changing.
were many more light colored moths than dark colored
➔ Change is gradual and slow, taking place over a long time.
moths.
This was supported by the fossil record, and was consistent
➔ As English factories produced more and more soot, the
with the fact that no naturalist had observed the sudden
trees turned a darker color. This was able to camouflage
appearance of a new species.
the dark moths, but not the light moths. The light moths
➔ All organisms come from common ancestors by a process
stood out on the dark trees and were more likely to be seen
of branching. Over time, populations split into different
and eaten by birds.
species, which are related because they are descended from
➔ Thus, there were more dark colored moths than light
a common ancestor. Thus, if one goes far enough back in
colored moths.
time, any pair of organisms has a common ancestor. This
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explained the similarities of organisms that were classified
CAMOUFLAGE
together -- they were similar because of shared traits
inherited from their common ancestor. It also explained Many animals have evolved to resemble the environment around
why similar species tended to occur in the same geographic them.This makes it very difficult for predators to find them and eat
region. them, thus increasing their chance of survival. It also makes it easier
➔ The mechanism of evolutionary change is natural selection. for predators to sneak up on prey.

NATURAL SELECTION PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION

● “I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, ● Darwin believed that natural selection can ultimately lead
if useful, is preserved, by the term of natural selection.” – to the formation of new species.
Charles Darwin - The Origin of Species ● Sometimes many species evolve from a single ancestral
● Darwin's theory of natural selection holds that variation
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species.
within species occurs randomly and that the survival or ● Similarities in skeletal and muscular structure of Hawaiian
extinction of each organism is determined by that honeycreepers led scientists to conclude that the 23 species
organism's ability to adapt to its environment. of honeycreepers evolved from one ancestral species.
● Such an evolutionary pattern, in which many related
species evolved from a single ancestral species, is called
ON THE GALAPAGOS ISLAND
adaptive radiation.
● Darwin found mockingbirds that were similar to ones that
were native to Chile, but differed slightly from island to
island ADAPTIVE RADIATION
● He studied different species of finches and the slight
variations in their beaks Adaptive radiation most commonly occurs when a species of
● He noticed that the shapes of tortoise shells also varied organisms successfully invades an isolated region where few
slightly from island to island competing species exist. If new habitats are available, new species
● He found fossils of animals that had recently become will evolve.
extinct
● He kept a journal and collected fossils and specimens for
further study

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DIVERGENT EVOLUTION ● Long-term environmental trends- Scientists think that
dinosaurs became extinct because of a slow cooling of the
earth
Divergent evolution is the process of two or more related species ● Catastrophe- Volcanic eruption, dramatic change in climate,
becoming more and more dissimilar. tsunami, etc.
● Extinction or reduction of mutualistic population- If two
Example: The red fox and the kit fox species are dependent on each other, then the endangering
The red fox lives in mixed farmlands and forests, where its red color of one also endangers the other
helps it blend in with surrounding trees. The kit fox lives on the ● Competition- When a new species is introduced to a
plains and in the deserts, where its sandy color helps conceal it from habitat, then the stronger of the two species will be more
prey and predators. The ears of the kit fox are larger than those of the likely to survive.
red fox. The kit fox's large ears are an adaptation to its desert ● Predators-When the population of a species of predator in a
environment. Similarities in structure indicate that the red fox and the habitat suddenly increases, the population of their prey
kit fox had a common ancestor. As they adapted to different decreases
environments, the appearance of the two species diverged, or became ● Disease- If a particular sickness spreads quickly throughout
more and more different. a particular species, then many may die before they can
reproduce
● Hunting and collecting- Hunters have been largely
responsible for the endangerment of many animal species.
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION

Convergent evolution is the opposite of divergent evolution. DICHOTOMOUS KEY

In convergent evolution, unrelated species become more and more
similar in appearance as they adapt to the same kind of environment. ● A dichotomous key is a tool that allows the user to
determine the identity of items in the natural world based
Frogs and Chameleons are examples of convergent evolution because on the item's characteristics.
● "Dichotomous" means divided into two parts.

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although they are different amphibians, they have both developed
harpoon-like tongues to catch insects. ● Dichotomous keys always give two distinct choices in each
step, often they are opposites.
● Black/white; good/evil; pointed/rounded
CO- EVOLUTION

Co-evolution is the joint change of two or more species in close

interaction. Predators and their prey sometimes co-evolve; parasites
and their hosts often co-evolve; plant-eating animals and the plants
upon which they feed also co-evolve.
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One example of co-evolution is pollination of orchids by African
moths.
These species co-evolve because the moths depend on the flowers for
nectar, and the flowers depend on the moths to spread their pollen so
that they can reproduce.
The relationship between the moth and the orchids is mutually
beneficial because they help each other survive.

➔ Divergent, convergent and co-evolution are

different ways organisms adapt to the
environment. These are examples of how the
diversity of life on earth is due to the
ever-changing interaction between a species and
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its environment.

EXTINCTION
Extinction is the disappearance of an entire species. If a species does
not have the genetic traits to survive in its environment, then the
species will eventually become extinct forever.
Some examples of extinct animals are:Galapagos Tortoise,
Dinosaurs, Steller’s Sea Cow, Laughing Owl, Bali Tiger, Thylacine,
Quagga, Dodo Bird.

REASONS FOR EXTINCTION

● Rarity- when there are very few animals of a species left
(Galapagos Tortoise)
● Inbreeding- when animals mate too much within their own
group the offspring become less able to survive and adapt
in a healthy way
● Hybridization-When two animals from different
sub-species mate, they might pass on genes that are less
healthy (Quagga-half horse half zebra)
● Gradual loss of habitat- When an animal's habitat is slowly
destroyed and they have nowhere to live. (Bali Tiger)

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BACTERIA AND VIRUSES
HOW DO VIRUSES WORK?
BACTERIA
● Attach: The capsid of the virus binds to receptor proteins
● Bacteriology is the on the surface of a host cell, tricking the host cell into
study of bacteria thinking it’s not a foreign invader.
● Bacteria are ● Inject: The virus then injects its genetic material (DNA or
prokaryotic, unicellular RNA) into the host cell.
organisms containing ● Assemble: The viral genes are expressed, turning the host
DNA and ribosomes. cell into a virus-making factory.
● Bacteria have ALL the ● Repeat: The host cell eventually bursts, releasing the
characteristics of living
things. hundreds of newly formed viruses to infect
● Bacteria have the
greatest percentage of Viruses can cause a variety of diseases:
the biomass on Earth. -Common cold -Polio
-Hepatitis A, B & C -Influenza
3 DISTINCT SHAPES OF BACTERIA -Herpes -Mumps
● Spherical (cocci) -Mononucleosis -Measles
● Rod-shaped (bacilli)
● Spiral (spirilla) -Warts -Viral Meningitis
BACTERIA HAVE A VARIETY OF IMPORTANT USES: -Chickenpox -AIDS

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● Help make interesting food (buttermilk, yogurt, cheese,
sauerkraut, pickles, and olives, etc…)
● Decompose organic matter (recycle nutrients from dead There are a few big ways to protect yourself against pathogens
organisms; break down sewage into simpler compounds) (disease causing agents)
● Nitrogen fixation (chemically changes nitrogen gas, N2, ● Antibiotics (drugs to kill bacteria)
into ammonia, NH3, so plants can make amino acids) ● Antivirals (drugs to treat viruses)
● Human health (bacteria on skin help prevent infection & ● Vaccination (using your body’s own immune system to
bacteria in gut helps digest food & make vitamins) preemptively guard against attack)
● Biotechnology (used to make antibiotics, insulin, human
growth hormone, vitamins, and other drugs) ANTIBIOTICS
HOW DO PATHOGENIC BACTERIA WORK?
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● Antibiotics can only be used to treat bacterial infections.
Bacteria produce disease in one of two ways: ● Target specific structures on bacteria to kill them.
● First made from a fungus (penicillin), now most are made
● Using cells for food: The bacteria break down healthy cells artificially.
for food, destroying tissues ● Unfortunately, antibiotic resistance (where the antibiotic
● Releasing toxins: The bacteria produce a toxin (poisonous doesn’t kill the target bacteria anymore) is becoming a
protein) that is released into the bloodstream where it can major problem.
travel throughout the body, disrupting normal activity and
damaging tissues ANTIVIRALS
● Antivirals can only be used to treat certain viral infections.
Bacteria can cause a variety of diseases: ● Does not “kill” or disarm the virus permanently; only
shortens symptoms by 1-2 days.
-Food Poisoning -Scarlet Fever ● Usually only prescribed to patients with life threatening
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-Tuberculosis -Whooping Cough symptoms or those that have a greater chance of developing
complications (because of their age or they have a high-risk
-Cholera -Bacterial Meningitis medical condition).
-Syphilis -Pneumonia ● Just like antibiotics, there is evidence of antiviral resistance
too.
-Ulcers -Leprosy
VACCINATION
-Strep Throat -Tetanus
● Vaccines can only be used to prevent infections (both viral
and bacterial) from leading to disease.
VIRUSES ● “Trick” your immune system to make antibodies that
destroy foreign “bodies” or particles (such as bacteria and
● Virology is the study of viruses). Your body remembers how to make these
viruses antibodies when the real thing invades.
● Viruses are “biological ● Made from a weakened virus, inactivated virus, or by using
entities” containing only part of the virus/bacteria itself.
either DNA or RNA that
require another cell to
survive.
● Viruses have some, but
not all, of the
characteristics of life.
● Viruses seem to exist
only to make more viruses.
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS Uses energy (ATP and NADPH) from light reaction to
make sugar (glucose)
● Anabolic (small molecules combined)
● Endergonic (stores energy) LIGHT REACTION (ELECTRON FLOW)
● Carbon dioxide (CO2) requiring process that uses light
energy (photons) and that water (H2O) to produce organic ● Occurs in the Thylakoid membranes
macromolecules (glucose) ● During the light reaction, there are two possible routes for
electron flow:
6CO2 + 6H2O - C6H12O6 + 6O2
A. Cyclic Electron Flow
➔ Autotrophs can make organic molecules (glucose) from
inorganic molecules. B. Noncyclic Electron Flow
➔ They can also make their own food.
➔ PLANTS are known as producers.
➔ Leaf is the main site of photosynthesis specifically in the TERMS TO PONDER
chloroplasts.
● NADPH - source of energized electrons
● ATP - versatile energy currency of the cell
● PHOTOSYSTEMS - organization of chlorophyll, light
harvesting complex.
➔ Photosystem 1 - reaction center P700 - best in
absorbing light having a wavelength of 700 nm
➔ Photosystem 2 - reaction center P680 - beast in
absorbing light having a wavelength of 680 nm

CHLOROPHYLL MOLECULES
●

●
pigments.

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Thylakoid membranes have

Chlorophyll pigments
harvest energy (photons)
by absorbing certain
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wavelengths (blue - 420 nm
and red - 660 nm are most
important)
TYPES OF CHLOROPHYLL
LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTION / CALVIN CYCLE
● Chlorophyll a - blue green
● Chlorophyll b - yellow green ● Carbon Fixation
● Carotenoids - shades of yellow and orange ● C3 plants (80% of plants on earth)
● Occurs in stroma
FALL COLORS ● Uses ATP and NADPH from light reaction as energy
● USes CO2
● In addition to the chlorophyll pigments, there are other ● To produce glucose: it takes 6 takes 6 turns and uses 18
pigments present ATP and 12 NADPH.
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● During the fall, the green chlorophyll pigments are greatly
reduced revealing the other pigments. TERMS TO PONDER
● Carotenoids are red, orange or yellow.
● RUBP - Ribulose Biphosphate, 5 carbon sugar, CO2,
acceptor
● PGA - Phosphoglycerate, 3 carbon molecule
● G3P - Glyceraldehyde 3 Phosphate

2 PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Light Reaction or Light Dependent Reaction: produces
energy from the solar power (photons) in the form of ATP
and NADPH (chemical energy)
2. Calvin Cycle or Light Independent Reaction, Dark
Reaction: also known as Carbon Fixation or C3 Fixation.
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CYCLIC ELECTRON FLOW
● Occurs in the thylakoid
membrane
● Uses Photosystem 1
only
● P700 reaction center -
chlorophyll a
● Uses Electron
Transport Chain (ETC)
● Generates ATP only

C4 PLANTS
● Hot, moist
environments
● 15% of plants (grasses,
corn, sugarcane)
● Photosynthesis occurs

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in 2 places
● Light reaction -
mesophyll cells
● Calvin cycle - bundle
sheath cells

CAM PLANTS
●
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Hot, dry environments
● 5% of plants (cactus
and ice plants)
● Stomates closed during
day
● Stomates open during
the night
● Light reaction - occurs
during the day
● Calvin cycle - occurs
when CO2 is present
● Cam plants close their
stomata in the hottest
part of the day to
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conserve water

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CELLULAR RESPIRATION

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

● Carries less energy than glucose

● “A” in ATP refers to the majority of the molecule,
adenosine – a combination of nitrogenous base and five
carbon sugars.
● “T” and “P” indicate three phosphate
● Its energy can be used by the cell when it breaks apart into
ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) and phosphate, and the
ADP can be recharged to use new energy and build ATP.
● A single cell uses 10 million ATP molecules per second and
recycles all of its ATP molecules about every 20-30
ENERGY seconds.
Cellular Respiration – the process by which individual cells break
● Inside every cell of all living things, energy is needed to
down food molecules and release energy.
carry out life.
● It is required to break down and build up molecules and to Cellular respiration releases energy in glucose slowly, in many small
transport many molecules across plasma membranes. steps. It uses the energy that is released to form molecules of ATP.
● Cannot be recycled.

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● Life runs on chemical energy such as carbohydrates, fats, C6H12O6 + O6 > 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
etc. and in turn produces chemical wastes such as carbon
It occurs in cells of all living things, both autotrophs and
dioxide and water.
heterotrophs.
● Comes from food. Food consists of organic molecules that
store energy in their chemical bonds. GLUCOSE is a CELLULAR RESPIRATION
simple carbohydrate with the chemical formula of C6H12O6. STAGES:
● Glucose is carried in our blood. Cells undergo cellular
respiration to extract energy from chemical bonds of 1. Glycolysis
glucose and other food molecules. 2. Transformation of
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● Cells can store the extracted energy in the form of Pyruvate, the Kreb cycle (also
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). called Citric acid Cycle);
3. Oxidative
Phosphorylation
THREE STRAGES

1. GLYCOLYSIS
(10 reactions) – glucose is
broken down into two
pyruvate ions, requiring
10 reactions.
2. OXIDATIVE
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DECARBOXYLATION GLYCOLYSIS
of PYRUVATE
(1 reaction) – pyruvate ● Glycolysis means “glucose
converted into splitting”
acetyl-coenzyme and ● A glucose (six-carbon sugar)
CO2. undergoes a series of chemical
3. CITRIC ACID transformations. Then converted
or KREB CYCLE (8 into two molecules of Pyruvate
reactions) – (three-carbon organic molecule).
Acetyl-coenzyme A is ● In these reactions, ATP is made,
broken down into CO2. and NAD+ is converted to NADH
The Citric acid cycle is
RESULTS OF GLYCOLYSIS
also involved in the
breakdown of fats and ● Lost Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP
proteins, because these + 2Pi
substances are also ● Gained 2 Pyruvate + 2 NADH +
broken down into 4 ATP + 2 H2O
acetyl-coenzyme A. ● Net gain of 2 ATP

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TRANSFORMATION OF PYRUVATE INTO ACETYL-CoA RESULTS OF THE CITRIC ACID
(KREB CYCLE)
● In eukaryotic cells, the pyruvate molecules are transported
to mitochondria, which are sites for cellular respiration. If After the second turn of Citric Acid
oxygen is available, aerobic respiration will go forward. cycle, glucose is completely broken
● In mitochondria, pyruvate will be transformed into a down. All six of its carbon atoms
two-carbon acetyl group (by removing a molecule of have combined with oxygen to form
carbon dioxide) that will be picked up by a carrier carbon dioxide. The energy from its
compound called coenzyme A (CoA), which is made from chemical bonds has been stored in a
vitamin B5. The resulting compound is called Acetyl CoA total of 16 energy-carrier molecules.
and its production is frequently called oxidation or These molecules are:
Transformation of Pyruvate. 2 ATP
8 NADH
2 FADH2
6 CO2 (2 from transformation of
Acetyl CoA; and 4 from Citric Acid
Cycle)

OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

The final stage of aerobic cellular respiration.

CITRIC ACID CYCLE
2 Substages of Oxidative Phosphorylation:

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The second stage of cellular
respiration, Kreb Cycle, takes 1. Electron Transport Chain;
place on the matrix. 2. Chemiosmosis

The third stage, electron transport, In these stages, energy from NADH and FADH2 is used to create
takes place on the inner ATP.
membrane.
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN(ETC)

● ETC is a series of molecules that transfer electrons from

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RECALL OF THE LAST STAGES: molecule to molecule by chemical reactions.
● During this stage, high-energy electrons are released from
● Glycolysis produces 2 pyruvate molecules (pyruvic acid),
NADH and FADH2, and they move along the
which has three-carbon atoms, is split apart and combined
electron-transport chains found in the inner membrane of
with CoA, and the product of this is called Acetyl-CoA.
● These molecules (Acetyl-CoA) will enter the matrix of the the mitochondrion.
mitochondrion to start the Citric Acid Cycle. ● As electrons flow through ETC, some energy from
● The third carbon from pyruvate will combine to an oxygen electrons is used to pump Hydrogen ions (H+) across the
and becomes carbon dioxide, which is released as a waste inner membrane (from the matrix into the intermembrane
product. space).
● This ion transfer creates an electrochemical gradient that
STEPS OF CITRIC ACID CYCLE (KREB CYCLE) drives the synthesis of ATP.
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● The electrons from the final protein of the ETC are gained
by the oxygen molecule, and it is reduced to water in the
matrix of the mitochondrion.

1. Acetyl-CoA combines with a four-carbon molecule called

oxaloacetate (OAA), this produces citric acid, which has 6
carbon atoms.
2. Then it goes to a series of reactions that release energy.
This energy is captured in molecules of ATP and electron
carriers.
- The Kreb cycle has two types of energy-carrying electron
carriers: NAD+ and FAD.
3. The transfer of electrons to FAD produces a molecule of
FADH2. Carbon dioxide is also released as a waste product
of these reactions.
4. Final step is regenerating OAA. This molecule is needed
for the next turn through the cycle. Two turns are needed
because Glycolysis produces two pyruvate molecules.
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CHEMIOSMOSIS 2. Electron Microscope
- Used to observe very small objects: viruses, DNA, parts of
● The pumping of H+ across the inner membrane creates a cell
greater concentration of these ions in the intermembrane - Uses beams of electrons rather than light
space than in the matrix – producing an electrochemical - Much more powerful, duh.
gradient. This gradient causes the ions to flow back across a. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) – can magnify
the membrane into the matrix, where the concentration is up to 250, 000x
lower. The flow of these ions occurs through a protein b. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) – can magnify up to
complex, known as the ATP Synthase complex. 100,000x
● The ATP Synthase acts as a channel protein that helps H+
across the membrane. The flow of protons through ATP Guidelines for Using Light Microscope
Synthase is considered chemiosmosis.
● ATP Synthase also acts as an enzyme, forming ATP from ● Always carry with two hands
ADP and inorganic phosphate. The flow of H+ in ATP ● Only use lens paper for cleaning
synthase gives the energy for ATP synthesis. ● Do not force knobs
● After passing through the ETC, the low-energy electrons ● Always store covered
combine with oxygen to form water. Magnification – increase of an object’s apparent size.

- Light Microscope has three magnifications: Scanning, Low,

and High.

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Magnification Ocular Lens Total
Magnification

Scanning 4x 10x 40x

Low Power 10x 10x 100x

High Power 40x 10x 400x

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Resolution – power to show details clearly.
HOW MUCH ATP?
Focusing Specimen:
● Glycolysis produces 2 ATP
● Kreb Cycle produces 2 ATP 1. Always start with the Scanning Objective. Use the Coarse
● The Oxidative Phosphorylation produced 32 more ATP knob to focus until clear, the image may be small at this
● 36 ATP molecules in total in just one molecule of glucose magnification.
in the process of cellular respiration. 2. Switch to Low Power. Use the Coarse knob to refocus, then
fine adjustment until clear.
3. Now, switch to High Power. Only use the Fine adjustment
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knob to focus specimens.

MICROSCOPE
History of Microscopes

1590 – First compound

microscope
1591 – Robert Hooke used a
compound microscope to observe pores in cork. He called
them cells.
- Antoine Van Leeuwenhoek – first to see single-celled
organisms in pond water.

Types of Microscopes

1. Compound Light Microscope

- Most widely used
- Light passes through two lenses
- Can magnify up to 2000x
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PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Explanation

Psychological Disorders are patterns of thought or behaviors that Psychological View:

interfere with their lives or cause suffering.
- Learned in childhood
Culture-Bound Syndrome: what we consider a disorder may - A cover for forbidden urges
actually be considered normal in other areas. - Due to feelings of worthlessness
- A negative response to situations
Symptoms:
Biological View:
1. Typicality – is the behavior average of the rest of society?
2. Maladaptive Behavior – determines whether the behavior - Genetic – we inherit these obsessions and compulsions
is harmful to self or others. from our parents.
3. Emotional Discomfort – if a person suffers from extreme
or long-lasting feelings of hopelessness or helplessness.
4. Socially Unacceptable Behaviors – Actions that violate DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS
society’s norms.
- Refers to separation of personality components or mental
Classifying Psychological Disorders processes from conscious thought.
- Most common form of “normal” dissociation is
- Today, Psychologists use the DSM-IV to classify disorders. daydreaming.
- DSM-V: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental - Dissociation removes stress and lessens anxiety
Disorders; 5th Edition (1960).

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Types of Dissociative Disorders
ANXIETY DISORDERS
1. Dissociative Amnesia – a sudden loss of memory; may last
- A general state of uneasiness or dread that occurs in a few hours or several years.
response to a vague or imagined danger. - Often appears after a traumatic experience and returns with
- Characteristics: nervousness, inability to relax, concern little notice
about losing control - Usually it doesn't occur again.
- Physical Signs: trembling, sweating, rapid heart rate, 2. Dissociative Fugue – forget information and events,
shortness of breath, increased blood pressure, flushed face, relocate, and develop new identity.
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feelings of faintness. - Most common during wars and natural disasters.
Types of Anxiety Disorders 3. Dissociative Identity Disorder – also known as Multiple
Personality Disorder
1. Phobic Disorder – excessive/irrational fear of a certain - Two or more personalities exist in one person that are
subject or situation. different from each other.
2. Panic Disorder – A short period of intense fear/discomfort - A history of severe child abuse is common with most DID
with shortness of breath, dizziness, rapid heartbeat, patients (physical, sexual, or psychological).
trembling/shaking, sweating, nausea, choking, and more. 4. Depersonalization Disorder – detachment from one’s
- 1 out of 75 people have this disorder. mental processes and/or body.
3. Generalized Anxiety Disorder – an excessive and
unrealistic worry about life in general that lasts for six
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months or more. (Finances, work, relationships, accidents, EXPLANATION:
illnesses, etc.)
4. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder – sufferers usually know Psychoanalytic Psychologists
their obsessions and compulsions are unwarranted.
- Compulsions: repetitive, ritual behaviors; often involve - A response to inappropriate things
checking and cleaning. Learning Psychologists
- Obsessions: unwanted thoughts, ideas, or mental images
that occur over and over again; often senseless. - People have been taught not to think about disturbing
5. Compulsive Hoarding Syndrome – excessive collection events.
of items, along with the inability to discard them.
- Often creates cramped, living conditions, with only narrow *Most believe there is no link between dissociation and genetics.
pathways winding through stacks of clutter.
- Leads to limited interaction with others.
6. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – intense,
persistent feelings of anxiety caused by a traumatic
experience (rape, war, abuse, assault, accident, etc.)
- Symptoms: flashbacks, nightmares, numbness of feelings,
avoidance, increased tension, and jumpiness.

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GENDER IDENTITY DISORDER IMPULSE CONTROL DISORDERS

Symptoms: - Defined primarily by loss of control

- An inability to resist the impulse to perform an action that
Children – disgusted by their own body parts is harmful to one’s self or others.
- Are rejected by their peers, feel alone Types of Impulse Control Disorders
- Have depression or anxiety
- Say that they want to or will be the opposite sex. 1. Intermittent Explosive Disorder – inability to control
violent impulses
Adults – dress like or live the life of the opposite sex - Result in serious damage to either persons or property.
- Feel alone - The degree of aggressiveness is not in proportion to cause.
- Have depression or anxiety. 2. Trichotillomania – Hair loss caused by compulsive pulling
or twisting of the hair until it breaks off.
Cause/Diagnosis - Uneven appearance to the hair
- Bare patches or all around loss of hair
- The cause is unknown - Denying the hair pulling
- To diagnose, the feeling of being in the body of the - Patients say they have a sense of relief, pleasure, or
“wrong” gender must last for at least two years. gratification after the hair pulling.
- Usually seen in children.
Treatment
3. Kleptomania – involves compulsive stealing of items that
- Counseling – have the patient talk about the issues aren’t needed

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- Hormonal Therapy – give them the hormones that - There is usually a feeling of tension before stealing and a
correspond with the gender they were born with. sense of pleasure at the time of the theft.
- Sex Reassignment Surgery – your basic sex change. - A rare problem, more common in women.
4. Pathological Gambling – Uncontrollable impulse to
gamble
- Often results in disrupted relationships, financial problems,
SOMATOFORM DISORDERS and/or criminal behavior and yet the individual can’t stop.
- The expression of psychological distress through physical - Often are obsessed with gambling and need to increase the
symptoms amount of money gambled in order to experience the same
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- This disorder is not intentional rush.
- Some diagnosed cases are reversed because a medical 5. Pyromania – involves setting fires for pleasure
illness is found. - The individual usually has a significant fascination with
- Some cases are unreported because the focus is on medical fire
tests. - Experience a sense of relief or gratification from the
experience.
Types of Somatoform Disorders
Treatment
1. Conversion Disorder – experience a change in or loss of
physical functioning in a major part of the body with no - Behavior Therapy – reduce stress and help the patient
medical reason. develop other habits.
- Example, when a person cannot move their legs or see at - Antidepressants
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night. MOOD DISORDERS
2. Hypochondriasis – also known as Hypochondria
- A person’s unrealistic preoccupation with the fear they - Mood changes refers to being “up” or “down” depending
have a serious disease on life experiences
- Example, when a person is sure a belly ache is actually a - Becomes a disorder when changes are inappropriate or
stomach cancer. inconsistent

Explanation Types of Mood Disorders

- A person converts psychological stress into actual medical 1. Major Depression – one of the most common disorders
problems - Affects over 100 million people worldwide
- Example, a pilot afraid to fly since September 11th may - Symptoms: depressed mood, loss of interest in activities,
develop problems with their vision. weight loss or gain, sleeping more or less, faster/slower
reactions – physically and emotionally, loss of energy,
feeling worthless or guilty, an inability to concentrate or
make decisions, and thoughts of death or suicide.
2. Bipolar Disorder (Manic Depression) – dramatic ups and
downs; changes quickly for no reason at all
- Characteristics are similar to major depression
- Five Characteristics of Manic Stage:
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 1. Inflated self-esteem Types of Personality Disorders
2. Inability to sit still or sleep
3. Racing thoughts 1. Paranoid – distrustful and suspicious of others, see others
4. Pressure to talk to switch topics as harmful and evil, threatening and insulting.
5. Difficulty concentrating 2. Schizoid – no interest in relationships with others, lack
normal emotional responses.
3. Antisocial – show disregard for others and violate the
rights of others with no guilt or remorse
4. Avoidant – want relationships, but are afraid; act shy and
Explanation withdrawn.
5. Borderline – have unstable relationships and an unstable
Psychological Views: self-image
6. Dependent – clingy and submissive
- Learned helplessness
7. Histrionic – excessively emotional; always need attention
- Simply a person’s habit
Explanation
Biological Views
- Were rejected by adults as children; severely punished
- Heredity
- Reinforced negative behaviors
- A chemical imbalance; due to low levels of serotonin
- Genetics
SCHIZOPHRENIA
Psychological Diseases

D
- Most serious disorder
1. Anxiety Disorders
- Very rare; 0.5% to 1% suffer from this disorder
- Phobic Disorder
- Loss of contact with reality
- Panic Disorder
- Can develop gradually or very quickly
- Generalized Anxiety Disorder
- Worsen over time
- Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
- Very difficult to treat
- Compulsive Hoarding Syndrome
- 20% with Schizophrenia will attempt suicide; 10% of the
- Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
attempts are successful.
2. Dissociative Disorders
- Often starts between 18-25 years old
- Dissociative Amnesia
M
Symptoms: - Dissociative Fugue
- Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality
- Hear voices Disorder)
- Hallucinations (can be visually or auditory) - Depersonalization Disorder
- Delusions: believe things to be true that aren’t; often 3. Gender Identity Disorder
believe they can do things they can’t and that they’re better 4. Somatoform Disorders
than they are. - Conversion Disorder
- Thought Disorders: Organization (skip around); Content - Hypochondriasis
(repetition) 5. Impulse Control Disorders
- Social Withdrawal - Intermittent Explosive Disorder
- Catatonic Stupor: an immobile, expressionless, coma-like - Trichotillomania
Y
state. - Kleptomania
- Pathological Gambling
Explanation
- Pyromania
- Genetics 6. Mood Disorders
- Injury or trauma at birth - Major Depression
- Birth during a winter month - Bipolar Disorder (Manic Depression)
- A viral infection during infancy 7. Schizophrenia
- A brain defect 8. Personality Disorders
- Paranoid
PERSONALITY DISORDERS - Schizoid
- Antisocial
- Patterns of inflexible traits that disrupt social life or work, - Avoidant
and/or distress the affected individual; are major - Borderline
components of a person’s personality. - Dependent
- Affects up to 10% of the population - Histrionic

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