G12 Chemistry NUG-MOE

Ministry of Education
National Unity Government of Myanmar
Grade 12
CHEMISTRY
March, 2024
IMPORTANT FEATURES
The High School Curriculum covers six main themes: Particulate Nature of Substances,
Periodicity, Chemical Calculations, Chemistry of Reactions, The Environment and Organic
Chemistry.
The Grade 12 Chemistry Text Book consists of eight chapters.
Chapter 1 CHEMICAL BONDING AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

Chapter 2 ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Chapter 3 CHEMICAL KINETICS: RATES OF REACTION
Chapter 4 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Chapter 5 ACID-BASE REACTIONS
Chapter 6 TRANSITION ELEMENTS
Chapter 7 CHEMISTRY AND GREEN ENVIRONMENT
After learning this course, students will be able to participate actively in all lessons through the
5Cs as important 21st century skills for learning:
Collaboration In lessons, students will be working in groups, to share

ideas with their classmates and find the solution
together.
Communication Students will develop verbal and non-verbal
communication skills in group work.
Critical thinking & problem-solving Students will be given interesting problems to solve –
finding and explaining solutions, and looking for
correction errors.
Creativity and innovations Thinking ‘outside the box’ is an important 21st century
skill. Students will be encouraged to explore new ides
and solve problems in new ways.
Citizenship Students will take part in the school community and
develop fairness and conflict resolution skills.
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CHAPTER CONTENTS PAGE
Chapter 1 CHEMICAL BONDING AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES 1

1.1 Basic Concepts to Understand Chemical Bonding 2
1.2 Ionic Bonding 8
1.3 Covalent Bonding 14
1.4 Intermolecular Forces 27
1.5 Metallic Bonding 35
Exercises 39
CHAPTER REVIEW 40
Chapter 2 ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS 41

2.1 Energy Changes 42
2.2 Enthalpy Changes in Chemical Reactions 50
2.3 Hess’s Law 59
Exercises 69
CHAPTER REVIEW 71
Chapter 3 CHEMICAL KINETICS: RATES OF REACTION 72

3.1 Reaction Rates 73
3.2 Collision Theory and Activation Energy 79
3.3 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates 85
Exercises 93
CHAPTER REVIEW 94
Chapter 4 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 95

4.1 State of Dynamic Equilibrium 96
4.2 Le Chatelier’s Principle and Factors Affecting the Chemical Equilibrium 102
4.3 Equilibrium Constants 112
Exercises 119
CHAPTER REVIEW 121
Chapter 5 ACID-BASE REACTIONS 122

5.1 Theories of Acids and Bases 123
5.2 Ionic Dissociation of Water and pH 129
5.3 Ionisation of Acids and Bases 136
5.4 Salt Hydrolysis 145
5.5 Buffer Solutions 150
Exercises 157
CHAPTER REVIEW 158
Chapter 6 TRANSITION ELEMENTS 159

6.1 The 3d Series Transition Elements 160
6.2 Characteristic Properties of the 3d Series Transition Elements 167
6.3 Uses of the 3d Series Transition Elements 174
Exercises 178
CHAPTER REVIEW 179
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Chapter 7 CHEMISTRY AND GREEN ENVIRONMENT 180
7.1 Our Environmental World 181
7.2 Pollutants and Impacts on the Environment 190
7.3 Radioactive Substances and the Environment 196
7.4 Chemistry for Sustainable Environmental Development 201
Exercises 209
CHAPTER REVIEW 210
Chapter 8 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND MACROMOLECULES 211

8.1 Organic Compounds 212
8.2 Determining the Fundamental Groups in Organic Compounds 227
8.3 Macromolecules 236
Exercises 247
CHAPTER REVIEW 248
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Grade 12 Chemistry Text Book
Chapter 1
CHEMICAL BONDING AND

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
1.1 Basic Concepts to Understand Chemical
Bonding
1.2 Ionic Bonding
1.3 Covalent Bonding
1.4 Intermolecular Forces
1.5 Metallic Bonding
Learning Outcomes
After completing this chapter, students will be able

to:
o indicate some basic concepts to understand
chemical bonding;
o classify the types of chemical bonding;
o describe the formation of ionic bonds and ionic
compounds, and the structures of ionic
compounds;
o describe the formation of covalent bonds and
Lewis structures of covalent molecules;
o predict the shape of covalent molecules using
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)
theory;
o distinguish between the polar and non-polar
molecules;
o describe the intermolecular forces such as van der
Waals forces and hydrogen bonding;
o explain the strength of metals based on metallic
bonding.
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Chapter 1 ► Chemical Bonding and Intermolecular Forces
Atoms of elements are rarely found by themselves in nature.

Everything around us is made up of elements, molecules, or
compounds. The millions of different chemical compounds that
make up everything on Earth are composed of 118 elements that
join together in different ways. The 118 known elements interact
with one another to create new, unique compounds that have
Table salt
entirely different chemical and physical properties from the
elements that make them up. This is because the forces of
attraction between the same or different atoms of these elements
form molecules or compounds. The attractive forces that hold
atoms together in compounds are also known as chemical bonds.
All the inorganic and organic materials we use are created with
the help of chemical bonding. Every day, the water we drink, the
Sugar
oxygen we breathe, the salt and sugar we use, the proteins we
need, the carbohydrates we eat, the fuels, the gas and plastics we
use, and the medicines we need to cure ourselves are all the results
of chemical bonding between atoms. Chemical bonds also play an
important role in all living things because they hold together the
cells in our bodies. Basic concepts of bond formation, such as ionic
Diamond bonds and covalent bonds between atoms and their physical
properties, have been introduced in Grade 10 Chemistry. This
chapter further explores different types of bonding, emphasising
their strengths and structures. In addition, how to depict molecular
structures of molecules and how to predict the shapes of molecules
are also included.
1.1 Basic Concepts to Understand Chemical Bonding
Lesson Objectives o To indicate some basic concepts to understand chemical

bonding
o To classify the types of chemical bonding
o To develop the skills of collaboration, communication,
reasoning, and critical thinking
Since the discovery of the electronic structure of atoms (refer to

the Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook), scientists have been able to
investigate the ways in which atoms of the same or different
elements can combine with one another. The outermost shell
electrons (valence electrons) of those atoms are the basis for
understanding the joining of atoms. This interaction of electrons
leads to the forces of attraction, chemical bonds, that hold atoms
together in substances.
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1.1 ► Basic Concepts to Understand Chemical Bonding
Electronic structure In order to explain the electronic structures of atoms, the principles
and energy levels of of filling electrons in the atomic orbitals, such as the Aufbau
electrons principle, Pauli’s exclusion principle, and Hund’s rule are
fundamental to understand.
In atoms, there are K, L, M, N,… main shells and each main shell
can be divided into s, p, d, and f subshells. Each subshell can be
filled with 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons, respectively. Each of these
subshells contains spaces for electrons called orbitals. In addition,
s subshell has only one spherical-shaped orbital. There are three
dumbbell-shaped p orbitals (px, py, pz) and the five d orbitals
have double dumbbell-shapes.
According to the Aufbau principle (Aufbau means building up in
German), electrons are filled in the lower energy atomic orbitals
before filling higher energy ones. The order of filling the orbitals
is given as 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p......
Moreover, to understand how many electrons can fit into an
orbital, one of the properties of the electron, known as spin, has to
be considered. Each electron spins on an axis, like a globe. It can
only spin in two directions, represented with arrows as ↑ or ↓. In
order to occupy the same orbital, electrons must have opposite
Aufbau principle spins (↑↓). That is, two electrons with the same spin cannot occupy
the same orbital. Pauli’s exclusion principle states that no more
than two electrons can occupy the same orbital, and two electrons
in the same orbital must have opposite spins.
Furthermore, Hund’s rule states that every orbital in a subshell is
singly occupied with one electron before any one orbital is doubly
occupied with opposite spins, and all electrons in singly occupied
orbitals have the same spin.
Figure 1.1
Description of Electronic
Configurations of Some
Elements
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Valence electrons and The electrons in the valence shells (outermost shells) of an atom
Octet rule are known as the valence electrons. For an atom, the number of
valence electrons is equal to its group number in the Periodic Table.
For example, carbon is in Group IV and has 4 valence electrons.
Oxygen is in Group VI and has 6 valence electrons.
Only valence electrons can take part in chemical bonding.
Whenever a chemical bond forms, atoms lose, gain, or share
electrons in order to achieve the stable electronic structures of
noble gases, i.e., eight electrons in the valence shell, which is
known as the octet rule. However, there are a few exceptions
found with elements of the second period of the Periodic Table
when there are an odd number of valence electrons, too few
valence electrons, or too many valence electrons. Additionally, the
octet rule does not apply to d-block elements.
To explain the chemical bonding and structures of atoms,
molecules, and ions, the chemically important valence electrons
occupied in s and p orbitals are represented using Lewis symbols
introduced by Gilbert Newton Lewis (1875–1946), an American
physical chemist. The Lewis symbols for some elements from the
second period of the Periodic Table are given below. The dots
represent electrons.
Chemical bonding is any of the interactions that allow for the

Electronegativity,
Electron affinity and association of atoms into molecules, ions, and compounds.
Ionisation energy Therefore, a chemical bond is formed when atoms are held
together by the attractive forces between them after sharing or
transferring the valence electrons. The strength of sharing or
transferring the valence electrons depends on the electronegativity
of the atoms involved in the chemical bonding. Since
electronegativity (EN) is a measure of the ability of an atom to
attract the shared electrons to itself, the greater an element’s
electronegativity, the stronger its attractive power to electrons will
be. In general, electron affinity (EA) is the amount of energy
released when an electron is added to a gaseous atom, and
ionisation energy (IE) is the amount of energy required to remove
an electron from a gaseous atom. Therefore, the elements having
high electron affinity easily gain electrons, resulting in the
formation of the anions, and the elements having low ionisation
energy easily lose electrons, resulting in the formation of the
cations.
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Generally, the higher the first ionisation energy of an element, the

greater is its electronegativity. The higher the value of the
electronegativity, the greater is the atom’s attraction to electrons.
Types of chemical The type of chemical bonding depends on the types of elements
bonding (metals or non-metals) that are involved. There are three main
types of chemical bonding, such as ionic bonding, covalent
bonding, and metallic bonding. Although the atoms within
molecules are kept together by strong forces, the forces between
molecules are weak. These weak forces, called intermolecular
forces, are hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces such as
ion-dipole interaction, dipole-dipole interaction, and London
dispersion forces.
The types of chemical bonding and intermolecular forces are
important because they can affect the structures and physical
properties of elements and compounds. In general, an ionic bond
is stronger than a covalent bond. The hydrogen bond is the
strongest intermolecular force followed by van der Waals forces.
Among van der Waals forces, London dispersion forces are the
weakest intermolecular forces that can be found in all substances.
Before we consider the details of ionic and covalent bond models,
it is important to emphasise that most bonds are not 100 % ionic
or 100 % covalent. Instead, most bonds have at least some degree
of both ionic and covalent character.
Suggestion for Practising By using a variety of activities set up by the teacher, students are
expected to complete learning indicated by the learning outcomes.
Two related activities are suggested to enhance students’
understanding of the ionic bonding and structure of the ionic
compound. Other relevant activities could also be applied.
Activity (1) Group work to develop students’ collaboration, critical thinking,

communication, and reasoning skills
Objective To draw the Lewis dot diagrams for the element, ion, and
compound
Instruction o Form students into groups of three.

o Encourage each group to revise the electronic structures of
atoms, and the principles of filling electrons in the atomic
orbitals such as the Aufbau principle, Pauli’s exclusion
principle, and Hund’s rule before doing the activity.
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o Tell each member to get any three elements as mentioned in

the support materials.
o Tell them to (i) describe the electronic configuration and (ii)
count the number of unpaired electrons for each element. (By
doing this activity, each group should develop critical thinking
skills with regard to the description of an electronic
configuration.)
o Ask 2 or 3 groups to share their answers with the class. After
the group has shared, make the class raise their hands if they
agree with the presentation. (If other groups have additional
information, they could discuss it with the class.) Monitor the
class and check their ideas and give feedback.
o Conclude by telling the students that every orbital in a subshell
is singly occupied with one electron before any one orbital is
doubly occupied with opposite spins, and all electrons in
singly occupied orbitals have the same spin.
Reflection on Learning o Summarise the lesson by asking students what they have
learned in the lesson.
o To reflect on their learning, assess each student’s
understanding by questioning as follows:
o Which guideline, the Aufbau principle or Pauli’s exclusion
principle, states that an electron occupies the lowest energy
orbital first?
o Which guideline, Hund’s rule or Pauli’s exclusion principle,
states that all orbitals of equal energy are occupied by one
electron before any single orbital is occupied by a second
electron?
o Which rule states that the occupancy of electrons in an orbital
must have opposite spins?
o Repeat explaining and questioning on the same topics, if
necessary.
Activity (2) Group work to develop students’ collaboration, communication,

and critical thinking skills
Objective To apply Lewis symbols to describe valence electronic

configurations of atoms
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o Encourage each group to revise the valence electrons and the
octet rule before doing the activity
o Tell each member to get any three elements as mentioned in
o Tell them to (i) mention the number of valence electrons and
(ii) draw the Lewis symbol for each element. (By doing this
activity, each group should develop critical thinking skills in
concern with the description of the electronic configuration.)
o Conclude by telling the students that Lewis dot structures
using valence electrons are supporting for understanding the
chemical bonding and structures of atoms, molecules, and
ions.
o To reach a stable electronic configuration how many electrons
need to be in the outermost electron shell?
o The number of dots in a Lewis electron dot structure is equal
to the number of valence electrons or core electrons. Which
one is the correct answer?
o In a Lewis dot model of beryllium, how many electrons should
be around beryllium?
necessary.
Review Questions 1. What are the lowest energies of main shell and subshell that
electrons occupy?
(A) K shell, 1s subshell (B) L shell, 2s subshell
(C) L shell, 2p subshell (D) M shell, 3s subshell
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2. What are the directions of the electron spins in the same orbital
of an atom?
(A) opposite direction to each other
(B) same to the upward direction
(C) same to the downward direction
(D) random direction
3. How many orbital(s) is/are there in the s subshell?
(A) one (B) two (C) three (D) five
4. What is the shape of p orbital?
(A) spherical-shaped (B) dumbbell-shaped
(C) double dumbbell-shaped (D) triple dumbbell-shaped
5. Describe the electronic configuration for 13Al.
(A) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 (B) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
(C) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 (D) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
Key Terms o Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell
of an atom.
o Aufbau principle states that electrons are filled in the
lower energy atomic orbitals before filling higher energy
ones.
o Pauli’s exclusion principle states that no more than two
electrons can occupy the same orbital, and two electrons
in the same orbital must have opposite spins.
o Hund’s rule states that every orbital in a subshell is singly
occupied with one electron before any one orbital is
doubly occupied, and all electrons in singly occupied
orbitals have the same spin.
1.2 Ionic Bonding
Lesson Objectives o To describe the formation of ionic bonds and ionic

compounds, and the structures of ionic compounds
observation, reasoning, and critical thinking
Ionic bonding (electrovalent bonding) results from the transfer of

electrons from one atom having small ionisation energy to another
atom having a large electron affinity, and the electrostatic
attractions between cations (positively charged ions) and anions
(negatively charged ions) are formed.
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1.2 ► Ionic Bonding
(a) Formation of Ionic Bond

Nature of ionic bonding Ionic bonding depends on the difference in electronegativity
between two atoms. Mostly it takes place when the difference in
electronegativity is greater than 1.8. It generally occurs between
reactive metals and reactive non-metals.
When an ionic bond forms, a metal loses electrons to form
positively charged ions (cations), whereas the non-metal atom
readily gains electrons to form negatively charged ions (anions).
The two or more oppositely charged ions are then attracted to each
other by strong electrostatic force, which is known as an ionic
bond. The number of lost or gained electrons by an atom during
ionic bonding is the same as the valency of that element.
For example, in the formation of sodium chloride, one electron
from a sodium atom is transferred to one chlorine atom to form a
sodium ion, Na+ and a chloride ion, Cl− because the difference in
electronegativity between Na (0.9) and Cl (3.0) is 2.1. As a result,
both ions, Na+ and Cl−, have the electronic configurations of noble
gases Ne and Ar, respectively. They differ, however, from neutral
atoms of Ne and Ar by carrying their respective ionic charges.
The electrostatic attraction resulting from the opposite charges
constitutes ionic bonds. The ions arrange themselves into a crystal
lattice. Since electrons loss always equals electrons gain in an
electron transfer process, ionic compounds are always neutral.
The ratio in which positive and negative ions combine is the ratio
that achieves neutrality of the resulting compound. The Na+ and
Cl− ions can be present only in a 1:1 ratio in the sodium chloride
compound, so the formula must be NaCl.
By using Lewis symbols of Na and Cl, the Lewis structure of NaCl
can be illustrated as below.
In the case of magnesium oxide (MgO), since the electronegativity

difference (2.3) between Mg (1.2) and oxygen (3.5) is greater than
1.8, Mg loses two electrons, and oxygen gains two electrons. It
results in Mg2+ and O2− ions with the electronic configuration of
stable noble gas (Ne). The formation of MgO can be described
using Lewis symbols of the elements as below.
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(b) Structures of Ionic In ionic compounds, the cations and anions are held together by
Compounds strong electrostatic attraction. In general, the greater the charge on
the ions, the greater the electrostatic attraction and the stronger the
ionic bond will be. So, the melting points of the ionic compounds
with the greater charge on the both ions are higher. In solid ionic
compounds, their ions are held in fixed positions and cannot move,
and hence they cannot conduct electricity.
In the crystalline state of ionic compounds, the oppositely charged
ions are held together in orderly three-dimensional arrangements,
forming giant structures.
The crystalline structure of an ionic solid is called a crystal lattice,
created by repeating unit cells. The unit cells can be of different
types, such as cubic unit cells. The cubic unit cell can have three
types: simple cubic (sc) unit cell, face-centred cubic (fcc) unit cell,
and body-centred cubic (bcc) unit cell, as shown in the
illustrations.
For example, sodium chloride (rock salt, NaCl), a white crystalline
solid, does not contain one Na+ ion and one Cl− ion, but a lot of
these two ions are arranged in a crystal lattice (Figure 1.2). It has
a cubic structure and is formed by repeating the face-centred cubic
(fcc) unit cell. So, each Na+ ion has six neighbouring Cl− ions,
and each Cl− ion has six neighbouring Na+ ions. The term
Figure 1.2 coordination number is used to express the number of ions
(a) NaCl Crystal and
(b) Crystal Lattice Arrangement
surrounding the central ion in the lattice. Since the coordination
in Its Unit Cell ratio of Na+ ion to Cl− ion is 6:6, the simple ratio of 1:1 gives the
formula unit of sodium chloride which is NaCl.
Two related activities are suggested to encourage students’
understanding of the electronic structure and energy levels of
electrons of an atom. Other relevant activities could also be
applied.
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1.2 ► Ionic Bonding
Activity 1 Group work to develop students’ communication, reasoning, and

critical thinking skills
Objective To draw the Lewis dot diagrams for the element, ion, and
compound
o Form students into groups of four.

Instruction
o Encourage students to revise the formation of ionic bonds
before doing the activity.
o Give each group any two metals and two non-metals as
mentioned in the support materials.
o Ask each group to draw the Lewis structure for:
o 1st member: atoms;
o 2nd member: cations;
o 3rd member: anions;
o 4th member: two ionic compounds using the results of 2nd
and 3rd members. (By doing this activity, each group
should develop reasoning and critical thinking skills to
understand the formation of ionic compounds.)
o Conclude by telling the students that ionic bonding generally
forms between metals and non-metals. The two or more
oppositely charged ions are then attracted to each other by
electrostatic forces.
o What types of elements are involved in an ionic bond?
o How many electrons does 15P need to gain to be stable?
o How many chloride ions are needed to cancel the 2+
charge of magnesium in magnesium chloride?
necessary.
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Activity 2 Group work to develop students’ collaboration, communication,

Objective To apply Lewis symbols to describe valence electronic

configurations of atoms

o Encourage students to revise the three-dimensional
arrangement of the ions in ionic compounds before doing the
activity.
o Tell each group to build up a cubic unit cell (model) as follows:
o 1st member: simple cubic (sc) unit cell;
o 2nd member: face-centred cubic (fcc) unit cell;
o 3rd member: body-centred cubic (bcc) unit cell; (By doing
this activity, each group should develop critical and
creative thinking skills to describe the structure of the
cubic unit cell.)
o Call on the group(s) randomly and ask them to share their
answers with the class. After the group has shared, the class
raises their hands if they agree with the presentation. (If other
groups have additional information, they could discuss it with
the class.) Monitor the class and check their ideas and give
feedback.
o Listen to the students’ conversations and coordinate their
responses by telling them that the ions in solid ionic
compounds are held in fixed positions and cannot move.
o To reflect on their learning, assess student’s knowledge by
questioning as follows:
o What is the smallest part of a crystal that, if repeated
regularly by translation in three dimensions, creates the
whole crystal?
o What is the name of the three-dimensional pattern that
forms when ions bond?
o What is the coordination number of a body-centred unit
cell?
o Take an informal poll about how many questions students
answered correctly.
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o 1.2 ► Ionic Bonding
Review Questions 1. What is the result of the transfer of electrons from one atom to
another atom?
(A) Formation of ionic bond
(B) Formation of covalent bond
(C) Formation of metallic bond
(D) Formation of coordinate bond
2. What is the necessary condition to form an ionic compound
between two atoms?
(A) Sharing of electrons between two atoms
(B) Moving of electrons within the electron cloud
(C) Mostly the difference in electronegativity between two
atoms must be greater than 1.8.
(D) Donating of electrons to an electron-deficient molecule
3. What type of bonding can occur between 19K and 17Cl?
(A) Ionic bonding (B) Covalent bonding
(C) Metallic bonding (D) Coordinate bonding
4. In a sodium chloride crystal lattice, how many chloride ions
are surrounding a sodium ion in a unit cell?
(A) 5 (B) 6 (C) 7 (D) 8
Key Terms o Electrostatic attraction is the attraction between a negatively

charged ion and a positively charged ion.
o Ionic compounds are compounds that consist of ions and
predominantly contain ionic bonding.
o Crystal lattice is a geometric arrangement of the points in
space at which the atoms, molecules, or ions of a substance
occur.
o Unit cell is the smallest repeating unit of a crystal lattice that
shows the three-dimensional pattern of the entire crystal.
o Simple cubic unit cell is a cubic cell with an atom in each
corner of the cube.
o Face-centred cubic unit cell is a cubic cell with an atom on
each corner, and an atom at the centre of each face.
o Body-centred cubic unit cell is a cubic cell with an atom on
each corner and another in the centre of the cube.
o Coordination number is the number of atoms or ions
surrounding a central atom in a crystal lattice.
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1.3 Covalent Bonding
Lesson Objectives o To describe the formation of covalent bonds and Lewis

structures of covalent molecules
o To predict the shape of covalent molecules using Valence
Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory
observation, reasoning, and critical thinking
Covalent bonding can occur between similar or even identical

atoms. The concept of electron sharing rather than electron
transfer explains bonding between similar or identical atoms. As a
result, a covalent bond is formed by sharing one or more pairs of
valence electrons between atoms. Thus, the covalent bond is the
electrostatic attraction between the nuclei of the atoms and the
shared electrons. Covalent bonding usually occurs between non-
metals. Many inorganic substances and millions of organic
compounds have covalent bonding.
(a) Formation of Consider the formation of a covalent bond between two hydrogen
Covalent Bonds atoms to form a diatomic molecule (H2) as an example. If two
hydrogen atoms are approaching one another, three forces act on
the atoms at the same time (Figure 1.3).
These three forces are (1) repulsive force between the electrons of
atoms since like charges repel, (2) attractive force between the
Figure 1.3 nucleus of each atom and the electrons of another, and (3)
Forces Acting on Two repulsive force between the two positively charged nuclei. The
Approaching Hydrogen
Atoms magnitudes of the attractive and repulsive forces between nuclei
and electrons depend on the distance between the atoms.
For instance, when the hydrogen atoms are isolated, the attractive
forces are small, and no bond is formed. When the hydrogen atoms
are too close to each other, the repulsive interaction between two
nuclei becomes so strong that it pushes them apart.
Consequently, there is an optimum distance between two nuclei
called the bond length where net attractive forces are maximised
and the most stable covalent bond is formed in the H-H molecule.
Nature of covalent In covalent bonding, the outermost orbitals of the atoms overlap
bonding so that unpaired valence electrons in each of the bonding atoms
can be shared, whereas the paired valence electrons are not
involved in bonding.
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1.3 ► Covalent Bonding
By overlapping orbitals, the outer shells of all the bonding atoms

are filled with valence electrons by following the octet rule. This
results in an attraction between the negatively charged electrons
and the positively charged nuclei, and this force holds the atoms
together in a covalent bond. The covalent bonding formed in some
simple molecules (HF, O2, and N2) is shown in Figure 1.4 as
examples.
The covalent bonds can be single bonds or multiple covalent
bonds, namely double bonds (e.g., O2, CO2, C2H2, etc.) and triple
bonds (e.g., N2, CO, etc.). In single covalent bonds, only one pair
of electrons is shared between two atoms. A double bond is
formed by sharing two pairs of electrons between two atoms,
whereas a triple bond is formed by sharing three pairs of electrons.
The length of the bond is determined by the number of bonded
electrons. The higher the number of bonded electrons, the stronger
the attraction between the two atoms and the shorter the bond
length.
So, the bond length of the single bond is the longest, followed by
the double bond and triple bond. In contrast, the bond strength of
the triple bond is the highest, followed by the double bond and
single bond.
Figure 1.4
Covalent Bonding in HF, O2,
and N2 Molecules
A coordinate bond, or dative bond, is a special type of covalent

Formation of bond. This bond is characterised by the fact that the two shared
coordinate bonds
electrons are both donated by one of the participating atoms. This
(Dative bonds)
is quite different from an ordinary covalent bond, where the two
bonded atoms each contribute an electron towards the formation
of the bond.
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A coordinate bond is formed when one of the participating atoms

possesses an unshared pair (a lone pair) of electrons. This lone pair
is donated to an atom needing them to build up, or complete, a
stable electron octet or duplet. A coordinate bond is expressed as
an arrow, → which indicates the direction in which the electrons
are donated.
The formation of NH4+ or H3O+ ions is an example of the formation
of a coordinate bond. The ammonia molecule possesses a lone pair
of electrons on the nitrogen atom; it can be donated to a hydrogen
ion to produce the ammonium ion NH4+ , forming a coordinate
bond. This bonding produces an electron duplet to the hydrogen
nucleus while the stable electron octet structure of the nitrogen
atom in ammonia still remains. As a result of the combination,
the positive charge on the hydrogen ion is carried over to give the
positively charged ammonium ion, NH4+ (Figure 1.5). The arrow
→ indicates the source of both electrons which constitute the
bond. Note that the nitrogen is bonded to four identical atoms of the
same element (H); and all four single bonds, once they have been
formed, are identical.
Figure 1.5
Formation of a Coordinate
Bond in the Ammonium Ion
Similarly, a water (H2O) molecule that possesses two lone pair

electrons on the oxygen atom can react with a hydrogen ion, H+,
through a coordinate bond, giving a hydronium ion, H3O+. In
addition, molecules with incomplete octets, called electron-
deficient molecules (e.g., BeCl2, BF3, AlCl3), can accept an
electron pair from a molecule bearing a lone pair. This leads to the
formation of a coordinate compound in which the central atom has
now gained an octet.
For example, an ammonia molecule can combine with boron
trifluoride, BF3 using a coordinate bond to form the H3N→BF3
molecule, as illustrated in Figure 1.6.
16
Figure 1.6
Formation of a Coordinate
Bond between NH3 and BF3
In carbon monoxide, the CO molecule has a triple bond that

consists of two covalent bonds and one coordinate bond where
both electrons come from the O atom. Figure 1.7 shows the
chemical bonding in the CO molecule, C≡O.
Figure 1.7
Chemical Bonding in Carbon
Monoxide Molecule
(b) Lewis Structures of Lewis structures are only two-dimensional representations of how
Molecules and the valence shell electrons are arranged around individual atoms
Polyatomic Ions in a molecule or an ion. In a Lewis structure, a covalent bond is
described by writing each shared electron pair either as a pair of
two dots between symbols of two atoms or as a line connecting
them.
Drawing Lewis structures The steps to draw the Lewis structures of covalent molecules are
as follows:
Step (1) Calculate the total number of valence electrons in all
atoms to be used in the structure of molecules or ions.
For ions, it is necessary to add electrons to account for
negative charges, and subtract electrons to account for
positive charges.
Step (2) Write a skeleton arrangement of the molecule or
polyatomic ion. Select the central atom, place the other
atoms surrounding the central atom, and connect them
with a single covalent bond (two dots).
Step (3) Subtract the number of electrons used in shared pairs
from the total number of valence electrons. Place the
remaining electrons into the skeleton as unshared pairs.
Use double and triple bonds only if necessary.
Step (4) Insert the unshared paired electrons (lone pairs) into the
skeleton to complete the octet of every element (except
H, which can share only 2 electrons).
17
For F2 molecule, Step (1) the total number of valence electrons

= 7 valence electrons (for F) × 2 = 14 electrons
Step (2) Skeleton of F2 is F–F.
Step (3) shared electrons between two F atoms = 2 electrons
the remaining electrons = 14 – 2 = 12
electrons, i.e., 6 lone pairs
Step (4) By inserting the 6 lone pairs around two F atoms to attain
a stable structure.
One single bond is formed between two F atoms.
For CO molecule, Step (1) the total number of valence electrons

= 4 (for C) + 6 (for O) = 10 electrons
Step (2) Skeleton of CO is C– O.
Step (3) shared electrons between C and O atoms = 2 electrons
the remaining unshared electrons = 10 – 2 = 8 electrons,
i.e., 4 lone pairs
Step (4) The 4 lone pairs are placed around C and O atoms to attain
stable structure.
So, the CO molecule contains a triple bond between C
and O atoms.
For PF5 molecule, Step (1) total number of valence electrons

= 5 (for P) + 7 (for F) × 5 = 40 electrons
Step (2) Skeleton is
Step (3) shared electrons = 10 electrons

the remaining electrons = 40 – 10 = 30 electrons, i.e.,
15 lone pairs
Step (4) The 15 lone pairs are placed around five F atoms to get
a stable structure. So, five single bonds are present in
PF5.
18
Example 1
Draw the Lewis structure of carbon tetrachloride, CCl4 molecule.

Solution:
total number of valence electrons = 4 (for C) +7 (for Cl) × 4
= 32 electrons
shared electrons = 8 electrons
the remaining electrons = 32 – 8 = 24 electrons,
i.e., 12 lone pairs
Example 2
Draw the Lewis structure for the carbonate ion, CO2−

3 .
Solution
total number of valence electrons
= 4 (for C) + 6 (for O) × 3 + 2 electrons
(from 2 negative charges)
= 24 electrons
the remaining unshared electrons = 24 – 6 = 18 electrons, i.e., 9
lone pairs.
Example 3
Draw the Lewis structure for the ammonium ion, NH4+ .

Solution
total number of valence electrons
= 5 (for N) + 1 (for H) × 4 – 1 electron
(for one positive charge)
= 8 electrons
19

the remaining unshared electrons = 8 – 8 = 0 electron, i.e., no lone
pair
Exceptions to the octet Some molecules that deviate from the octet rule, such as electron-
rule deficient molecules (e.g., NO, BeCl2, BF3, BCl3, AlCl3) and
expanded valence shell molecules (e.g., PF5, ICl3, SF6) can
occur. The central atom in an electron-deficient molecule has
valence electrons of less than 8, and that in an expanded valence
shell molecule has valence electrons of more than 8.
The Lewis structures of some molecules that deviate from the
octet rule are illustrated in the following figures:
Lewis structures of some

electron-deficient
molecules
Lewis structures of some

expanded valence shell
molecules
The Lewis structures provide a simple way to predict the

(c) Prediction of
Molecular Shapes distribution of valence electrons and bond lengths in a molecule.
(VSEPR Model) Covalent molecules take on definite shapes that depend upon the
number of bonds involved and the number of unshared electron
pairs around an atom. The molecular shape in which the atoms and
electron pairs exist in a three-dimensional arrangement can be
predicted by using the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
(VSEPR - pronounce vesper) theory. In modern days, the
description of the electronic structure of a molecule can be
explained using the molecular orbital theory (MOT).
20
Valence shell electron This theory is a model in chemistry used to predict the shape of
pair repulsion (VSEPR) covalent molecules. It is based on the idea that the three-
theory dimensional geometry of a molecule is mostly determined by the
repulsive interactions of the electron pairs around a central atom.
This model assumes that the electron pairs will arrange themselves
to minimise repulsion effects from one another. These pairs of
electrons may be expressed as lone pairs and/or bonding pairs that
can influence the molecular shape.
In the case of molecules containing multiple bonds (i.e., double
bonds and triple bonds), these bonding pairs behave as a single
unit.
The repulsive interaction of electron pairs increases in the order
of – bonding pair-bonding pair < lone pair-bonding pair < lone
pair-lone pair.
The lone pairs are localised on the central atom while each bonding
pair is shared between two atoms. These lone pairs of electrons in
a molecule occupy more space compared with the bonding pairs
of electrons. Thus, the repulsion between lone pairs of electrons is
greater as compared to the lone pair-bonding pair and bonding
pair-bonding pair repulsions. These repulsion effects result in
deviations from the idealised shapes and alternations in bond
angles in molecules.
Prediction of the To predict the shape of a molecule, the steps to be followed are
shape of a covalent shown below.
molecule Step (1) Draw the Lewis structure of the molecule.
Step (2) Count the number of electron pairs around the central
atom.
Step (3) Determine the geometry of electron pairs as linear or
triangular planar or tetrahedral.
Geometry of electron pairs

around the central atom
Step (4) Predict the shape of molecule.

All diatomic molecules represent two points in space and are
joined by a straight line, i.e., they are linear, e.g., H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2,
Br2, I2, and CO. There is no central atom in these molecules.
21
As shown in Table 1.1, a triatomic molecule (AX2 type) has a

linear shape. In this type, it has only two bonding pairs without
lone pairs. For example, in BeCl2, there are two bonding pairs (two
single bonds) without lone pairs. Thus, the shape of BeCl2 is
linear. In the CO2 molecule, there are four bonding pairs (two
double bonds) without lone pairs. These four bonding pairs (two
double bonds) are considered as two single units. Hence, the shape
of CO2 is linear.
Apart from AX2 molecules, the other types of molecules which
have bonding pairs without lone pairs around the central atom are
similar to the geometry of the bonding pairs. If the lone pair is
present in these types, the molecular shapes are not the same as
the geometry of electron pairs. It is due to the electron pair
repulsion between bonding pairs and lone pairs. For example, AX3
has a triangular planar and AX2E, where E represents a lone pair,
has a V-shape (bent).
The geometry of electron pairs and molecular shapes of different
types of molecules are summarised in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1
Geometry of Electron Pairs and
Molecular Shapes of Different
Types of Molecules
Note: Symbol E represents the

number of lone pairs.
22
Example 4
Predict the shape of a molecule of BF3 in terms of - (i) Lewis

structure and (ii) VSEPR model. What will be the bond angle of
F-B-F?
Solution
(i) Lewis structure of BF3 is
(ii) It consists of 3 electron pairs around the central atom B.

The geometry of electron pairs is triangular planar.
So, it has a triangular planner shape. The bond angle of F-B-F
is 120°.
Example 5
Predict the shape of a molecule of NH3 in terms of – (i) Lewis

structure and (ii) VSEPR model. What will be the bond angle of
H-N-H?
Solution
(i) Lewis structure of NH3 is
(ii) Four electron pairs are around the central atom N. Thus, the
geometry of the electron pairs is tetrahedral. There is a lone pair
on the nitrogen atom. Because of the electron pair repulsion
between this lone pair and the bonding pair, the shape of the
molecule is trigonal pyramidal. The bond angle of H-N-H will
be less than 109.5°.
(d) Giant Structures of Some elements occur in solids where the atoms are held together
Covalent Molecules by single covalent bonds, existing as giant structures. For example,
in a diamond, each carbon atom is joined to four other carbon
atoms by strong covalent bonds, and the carbon atoms form a
regular tetrahedral network resulting in a giant structure. There
are no free electrons.
23
In the case of graphite, it has a layer and planar structure formed

by joining each carbon atom to the other three carbon atoms by
covalent bonds. Each layer is formed with hexagonal rings of
carbon atoms. There are weak van der Waals forces between the
layers, which give rise to a giant structure. In contrast to diamond,
graphite has free-moving electrons in each layer. That is why
graphite can conduct electricity. Although diamond and graphite
are giant molecules, other synthetic allotropes of carbon, such as
fullerene (C60), carbon nanotubes, and graphene, do not exist as
giant structures. They are only bulky covalent molecules.
Silicon(IV) oxide, SiO2 (silica or quartz) is an example of a giant
covalent molecule. In quartz, each silicon atom is bonded to four
oxygen atoms, but each oxygen atom is bonded to only two silicon
atoms. The oxygen atoms are formed as bridges between the
tetrahedrally bonded silicon atoms. It has a similar structure to a
diamond. They also have similar properties. It does not conduct
electricity because it has no free-moving electrons.
understanding of the Lewis dot structure of covalent compounds
and molecular shapes (VSEPR model). Other relevant activities
could also be applied.

observation, reasoning, and critical thinking skills
Objective To model the Lewis dot structure of covalent compounds

o Give a set of samples as mentioned in the support materials.
o Give the name of a covalent compound to each group.
o Ask each group to do the following instructions:
o 1st member: draw a skeleton arrangement of the molecule
(select the central atom, and place the other atoms
surrounding the central atom);
o 2nd member: place other coloured stickers around the other
atoms to indicate their valence electrons;
24
o 3rd member: deduce the types of bonds between atoms

(single or double or triple bond). (By doing this activity,
each group should develop collaboration and problem
solving skills to describe the Lewis dot model of a covalent
molecule.)
o Coordinate their responses by telling them that a covalent
bond is described by writing each shared electron pair either
as a pair of two dots between symbols of two atoms or as a
line connecting them in a Lewis structure.
o To reflect on their learning, assess each student’s knowledge
by questioning as follows:
o In the Lewis dot model of carbon, how many electrons
should be around the carbon?
o Select which has two bonding pairs and two unshared pairs
of electrons. (NH3/H2S/ CO2)
o In the CO molecule, the coordinate bond is formed by
contributing a lone pair from (carbon/oxygen). Choose the
correct element.
necessary.

reasoning, and critical thinking skills
Objective To predict molecular shapes (VSEPR model) of covalent
molecules
o Give each group the cards of three packages as given in
support materials and let each member of the group randomly
collect one package.
25
o Tell 2nd and 3rd members to match their cards to the word(s) in
the card shown by the 1st member.
o Tell them to tabulate their answers. (By doing this activity,
each group should develop the knowledge to determine the
geometry of electron pairs and the molecular shapes of
different types of molecules.)
o Coordinate their responses to the structure of compounds and
explain that all diatomic molecules represent two points in
space and are joined by a straight line. There is no central atom
in these molecules.
o What is the VSEPR theory used to predict?
o How many electrons are shared in a double bond?
o What molecular shapes would have a bond angle of 180
degrees?
necessary.
1. Which of the following pairs can form covalent bond?

Review Questions
(A) Li and Cl (B) K and O (C) B and F (D) Na and I
2. Indicate the lone pair and bonding pair electrons in N2
molecules.
(A) Two lone pairs, three bonding pairs (one triple bond)
(B) One lone pair, two bonding pairs (two single bonds)
(C) Three lone pairs, one bonding pair (one single bond)
(D) No lone pair, three bonding pairs (three single bonds)
3. The correct Lewis structure for the simplest compound formed
from the pairs of H and S is:
•• •• •
(A) H – S – H (B) H – S• •– H (C)H – S – H (D)H – S•• – H
•
4. The total number of valence electrons of the CCl4 molecule is:
(A) 30 (B) 32 (C) 34 (D) 36
26
5. You are given two substances, AlF3 and AlCl3

(electronegativities, F=4.0, Al=1.5, Cl=3.0). Choose the
correct one.
(A) Only AlF3 is the covalent compound.
(B) Only AlCl3 is the covalent compound.
(C) Both AlF3 and AlCl3 are covalent compounds.
(D) Both AlF3 and AlCl3 are ionic compounds.
o A coordinate bond (dative bond) is a covalent bond that

Key Terms
consists of a pair of electrons donated by only one of the two
bonded atoms.
o Electron-deficient molecule is a molecule in which there
is an insufficient number of valence electrons to complete the
octet of the central atom.
o An expanded valence shell molecule is a molecule in which
there are more than 8 electrons in the valence shell of the central
atom.
o Molecular shape is the three-dimensional arrangement of
the atoms that constitute a molecule.
o Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory is
a theory used to predict the shapes of molecules and ions,
based on the repulsive interactions of the electrons around a
central atom.
o Molecular orbital theory is a method for describing the
electronic structure of molecules based on quantized energy
levels.
o Lone pair (unshared pair) is an electron pair that is not involved
in bonding with other atoms.
o Bonding pair is an electron pair being shared by the atoms.
o Bond angle is an angle between any two bonds that include
a common atom, usually measured in degrees.
o Giant structure is a three-dimensional structure of atoms
that are joined by a network of bonds.
1.4 Intermolecular Forces
Lesson Objectives o To distinguish between the polar and non-polar molecules

o To describe the intermolecular forces such as van der Waals
forces and hydrogen bonding
27
Molecules in a substance are formed by joining atoms together,

and there are attractive and repulsive forces that arise between the
molecules. These forces are known as intermolecular forces,
which are responsible for most of the physical and chemical
properties of matter.
A covalent bond within a molecule is described as a pair of
electrons shared between the atoms. If the atoms are not identical,
the electrons will not be equally shared. The atom with the greater
share of the electrons will be slightly negative and the other atom
will be slightly positive. This is known as bond polarity.
Thus, bond polarity within a molecule results in a separation of
charge over the molecule. Moreover, a dipole moment of the
molecule can be expressed numerically by taking into account the
magnitude of the charge and the distance separating the charges.
Different types of intermolecular forces can happen depending
on the polarity of the molecules in a substance. The
electronegativity of bonded atoms and the geometry of molecules
play an important role in determining their polarity.
(a) Polar and Non-polar Molecules

Polar and non-polar Depending on the difference in electronegativity between two
covalent bonds bonded atoms, covalent bonds can be polar or non-polar.
If two different non-metal atoms are bonded, then the atom with
the higher electronegativity will attract the shared electron pair
more strongly. It results in a polar covalent bond being formed
where one atom with higher electronegativity will have a partially
negative charge (δ−), and the other will have a partially positive
charge (δ+), known as a dipole. For example, since the
electronegativity of Cl (3.0) is higher than that of hydrogen (2.1),
the electron pair is unequally shared between Cl and H atoms. So,
the covalent bond formed in HCl is polar, and it can be described
as H δ − Clδ . The δ+ or δ− signifies a partial positive or a partial
+ −
negative charge that is less in magnitude than the charge

associated with a free proton (1+) or electron (1−).
The bond becomes more polar as the difference in
electronegativity values of the atoms in a covalent bond increases.
For example, the H−F bond is more polar than H−Cl, H−Br, and
H−I.
Difference in electronegativity: H−F > H−Cl > H−Br > H−I
Bond polarity: H−F > H−Cl > H−Br > H−I
28
1.4 ► Intermolecular Forces
In a covalent bond formed between two similar non-metal atoms,

the shared electron pair is equally attracted to the two atoms
resulting in a non-polar covalent bond, e.g., Cl-Cl as illustrated in
the figure. The direction of the dipole can also be shown by the →
sign. The direction of the arrow points to the negative end of the
dipole. For example, in the polar hydrogen chloride (HCl)
+ −
molecule, hydrogen is presented as H δ and chlorine as Clδ , and
+ −
it can be described as H δ − Clδ . So, any individual polar covalent
bond possesses a dipole moment. However, any non-polar
covalent bond has a zero dipole moment, e.g., the dipole moment
of Cl-Cl is zero.
Polar and non-polar Polar or non-polar molecules can be determined according to the
molecules total dipole moments of the molecules. All diatomic molecules
containing polar covalent bonds are polar molecules since they
have dipole moments.
In the case of polyatomic molecules, their dipole moments depend
not only on the individual bond dipoles but also on the shape of
the molecules. In such cases, the dipole moment of a molecule is
the vector sum of the dipole moments of various bonds.
For example, the H2O molecule has a bent shape. It is a polar
molecule. A net dipole moment of an H2O molecule will occur
from the total dipole moments of two O−H bonds as shown in
Figure 1.8 (a). In the case of the CO2 molecule, it is linear and the
two polar bonds are arranged symmetrically. The two equal bond
dipoles point in opposite directions and cancel the effect of
eachother. Thus, the dipole moment of CO2 is zero (Figure 1.8
(b)), and it is a non-polar molecule.
Figure 1.8
Bond Dipoles and Dipole
Moments of
(a) H2O and (b) CO2 Molecules
(b) van der Waals Forces Intermolecular forces are forces that act between a molecule and
another molecule. It can be classified as van der Waals forces and
hydrogen bonding. Van der Waals forces are weak forces which
include dipole-dipole interaction, ion-dipole interaction, and
London dispersion forces.
29
Dipole-dipole interaction Dipole-dipole interactions are formed when two dipolar molecules
interact with each other in space. When this occurs, the partially
negative portion of one of the polar molecules is attracted to the
partially positive portion of the second polar molecule as shown
in the following figure:
For example, polar molecules such as HCl, HCN, SO2, etc., are
held together by dipole-dipole interactions.
Ion-dipole interaction This type of intermolecular force is formed from the interaction
between an ion and a dipole molecule. It happens especially in
solutions where a negative ion will be attracted to the positive pole
of the polar molecule while a positive ion will be attracted to the
negative pole of the polar molecule. For example, it can be seen
when sodium chloride dissolves in water, as illustrated in
Figure1.9. Since sodium chloride is an ionic compound, and water
is a polar molecule, the ion-dipole interactions are formed between
−
the negative pole Oδ of a water molecule and Na+ cation, and also
+
between the positive pole H δ of a water molecule and Cl− anion.
Figure 1.9
Ion-dipole Interaction in
Aqueous Sodium Chloride
Solution
London dispersion forces The weakest intermolecular forces that can be formed between
atoms, as well as non-polar molecules, are known as London
dispersion forces, named after the German physicist Fritz London
(1900 - 1954). Because of the constant motion of the electrons, an
atom can develop a temporary (instantaneous) dipole when the
electrons are distributed unsymmetrically about the nucleus.
Then, this instantaneous dipole of the first atom can induce a
second atom to be distorted because electrons repel one another.
It leads to form a dipole in the second atom resulting in an
electrostatic attraction between these two atoms. This electrostatic
attraction is known as the London dispersion force, also called
induced dipole-induced dipole interaction. Figure 1.10 represents
the formation of the London dispersion forces between helium
atoms as an example.
30
Figure 1.10
Formation of
(a) Temporary Dipole of He
Atom and
(b) London Dispersion Force
between Two He Atoms
These London dispersion forces can occur between non-polar
molecules such as halogens, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane,
and noble gases. Due to these weak attractive forces, non-polar
substances can condense into liquids and can freeze into solids
when the temperature is lowered sufficiently, e.g., liquid nitrogen
and dry ice (solid CO2). Hence, London dispersion forces are
instantaneous dipole-dipole interactions that exist between all
atoms and molecules, non-polar as well as polar.
(c) Hydrogen Bonding The formation of hydrogen bonds between covalent molecules
requires: (1) the first molecule has hydrogen attached to a high
electronegative atom (F, O, or N) and (2) the second molecule
possesses a lone pair of electrons on a small electronegative atom
(F, O, or N). Because of the highly electronegativity difference
between H atom and bonded F, O, or N atom, the bond is very
highly polarised. The δ+ charge on the hydrogen atom is high
enough for a bond to be formed with a lone pair of electrons on
the F, O, or N atom of a neighbouring molecule.
Figure 1.11
Intermolecular Hydrogen
Bonds between (a) Water
Molecules and Acetic
Acid Dimer
Figure 1.11 (a) shows the formation of intermolecular hydrogen
bonds between water molecules, and Figure 1.11 (b) represents
the formation of acetic acid dimer by intermolecular hydrogen
bonds. Hydrogen bonding can occur as both intermolecular and
intramolecular forces. A hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-
dipole interaction that occurs between polar molecules and is
stronger than van der Waals forces. The hydrogen bond is weaker
than a covalent bond and is the strongest of all intermolecular
forces.
31
understanding of polar and non-polar molecules, and van der
Waals forces. Other relevant activities could also be applied.

Objective To predict the covalent molecule if it is polar or non-polar

o Give each group a set of covalent molecules as mentioned in
o Let each member of the group randomly collect three covalent
molecules.
o Tell them to mention each of the selected covalent molecules
in terms of- o the polarity of the bond (polar or non-polar) o
the net dipole moment of the molecule (zero or not zero) o the
polarity of the molecule (polar or non-polar)
o Tabulate their results. (By doing this activity, each group
should develop critical thinking and analysing skills for
examining the polarity of the covalent bond and covalent
molecule.)
class and check their ideas.
o Conclude by telling the students that polar or non-polar
molecules can be identified according to the total dipole
moments of the molecules.
Reflection of learning o Summarise the lesson by asking students what they have
o What is the dipole charge on the chlorine atom in the
molecule HCl? (δ+ or δ-)
o Which of the following molecules is the most polar? (H-F,
H-Cl, H-Br)
32
o What kind of bond is formed when two atoms with the

same electronegativity? (polar or non-polar)
necessary.

Objective To classify the different types of van der Waals forces between
molecules

o Give each group the chemical formulae mentioned in the
support materials.
o Tell each group to do the following instructions:
o 1st member: select the formulae in which dipole-dipole
interaction can be formed;
o 2nd member: select the formulae in which ion-dipole
interaction can be formed;
o 3rd member: select the formulae in which the London
dispersion force can be formed. (By doing this activity,
each group should develop reasoning and critical thinking
skills to describe the types of van der Waals force present
in the given formulae.)
o Coordinate their responses by telling them intermolecular
forces can be mainly classified as van der Waals forces and
hydrogen bonding.
Reflection of learning o Summarise the lesson by asking students what they have
o How do van der Waals interactions occur?
o Name the type of van der Waals forces that exists in the I2
molecules.
o Which van der Waals force is the weakest?
necessary.
33
1. You are given the following covalent bonds: C-Br, N-N, F-F,
REVIEW QUESTIONS
C-C. (electronegativities: C: 2.5, N: 3.0, Br: 2.8, F:4.0) Which
bond is polar?
(A) C-Br (B) N-N (C) C-C (D) F-F
2. Arrange the following bonds in the order of increasing
polarity. N-H, C-O, C-Br, O-H
(A) C-Br < C-O < N-H < O-H
(B) N-H < C-Br < O-H < C-O
(C) C-O < O-H < C-Br < N-H
(D) O-H < N-H < C-O < C-Br
3. You are given the covalent molecules: O2, HBr and SO2.
(electronegativities: H=2.1, O=3.5, S=2.5, Br=2.8). Which
molecule(s) can have a dipole moment?
(A) O2 only (B) HBr only
(C) SO2 only (D) Both HBr and SO2
4. Arrange the strengths of different types of intermolecular
forces in increasing order.
(I) Hydrogen bonding (II) Dipole-dipole interaction
(III) Ion-dipole interaction (IV) London dispersion forces
(A) IV < II< III< I (B) III< IV< II< I
(C) I< III< II< IV (D) I< II< IV< III
5. Which one of the intermolecular forces exists in aqueous KI
solution?
(A) Hydrogen bonding (B) Dipole-dipole interaction
(C) Ion-dipole interaction (D) London dispersion forces
o Intermolecular forces are the forces between atoms,

Key Terms molecules, and ions when they are placed close to each other.
o Polarity is a separation of charge, leading to one part of a bond
or molecule becoming positively charged and the other
negatively charged.
o Polar covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the bonding
electrons is unequally shared between two atoms.
o Dipole is a pair of charges that are equal in magnitude
and opposite in charge that is separated by a distance.
o Non-polar covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the
bonding electrons are shared equally between the two atoms.
o Dipole moment is a measure of the polarity of a covalent
bond.
o Polar molecule is a molecule in which one end of the
molecule is slightly positive while the other end is slightly
negative.
o Non-polar molecules are molecules that have an equal
distribution of charge.
34
1.5 ► Metallic Bonding
o van der Waals forces are weak intermolecular forces that

bind molecules together.
o Dipole-dipole interaction is an interaction that results when
two dipolar molecules interact with each other.
o Ion-dipole interaction is an interaction that results from the
electrostatic interaction between an ion and a neutral molecule
that has a dipole.
o London dispersion force is a temporary attractive force that
results from the temporary dipoles formed due to the occupying
positions of electrons in two adjacent atoms.
o Hydrogen bonding is the electrostatic attraction between a
hydrogen atom in one polar molecule and a small
electronegative atom (as of oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine) in
another molecule of the same or different polar substance.
o Intermolecular hydrogen bonds are the hydrogen bonds that
occur between two atoms of same or different molecules.
1.5 Metallic Bonding
Lesson Objectives o To explain the strength of metals based on metallic bonding

Most of the metals are solids at room temperature, and therefore,

there must be some sort of bonding between these metal atoms.
These metal atoms are held together in solid crystalline form by a
metallic bonding.
(a) Metallic Bonds In a metallic bond, the atoms do not share or transfer electrons to
bond together. The structure of a metallic bond is quite different
from that of covalent or ionic bonds.
In metallic solids, e.g., sodium, magnesium, and aluminium,
atoms of metals are present. They form metallic bonds. In a
metallic bond, the valence electrons of the atoms are very loosely
held, forming a common electron cloud. These valence electrons
move freely within this electron cloud. These mobile electrons are
often described as "a sea of electrons" which make the metals
easily conduct electricity. The positively charged metallic nuclei
are surrounded by free-moving electrons (Figure 1.12). The
bonding results from the interaction of these electrons with the
Figure 1.12 Metallic Bonding
various nuclei. Hence, they are held together by a strong
electrostatic attraction that results in low volatility of the metals.
35
(b) Strength of Metals consist of giant structures of atoms that are packed closely
Metallic Bonding together in a regular arrangement called a lattice. The strength of
metallic bonding increases with (1) the increasing positive charge
on the ions in the metal lattice, (2) the decreasing size of metal
ions in the lattice, and (3) the increasing number of mobile
electrons (valence electrons) per atom. However, the strength of
metallic bond is lower than that of an ionic bond. Consequently,
the melting points of some metals become lower compared with
the ionic compounds.
understanding of the nature of metallic bonding and the properties
of metal. Other relevant activities could also be applied.

Objective To describe the nature of metallic bonding and the properties of

metal
Instruction o Prepare a set of 8 questions and form students into groups of four.
o Give each group a set of statements and a set of questions.
o Tell each member to get any two questions of the following:
(1) How many delocalised electrons would each calcium atom
provide in metallic bonding?
(2) Why are metals good at conducting heat and electricity?
(3) What is the attraction of metallic bonding?
(4) Why does metallic bonding normally have high
melting/boiling points?
(5) How many delocalised electrons would each lithium atom
provide in metallic bonding?
(6) Which shell do the delocalised electrons come from in a metal
atom?
(7) What is the overall structure of metallic bonding?
(8) What can make the metals easily conduct electricity?
o Tell each member to match their questions with the relevant
answers from support materials.
o Tabulate their matching. (By doing this activity, each group
should develop reasoning and critical thinking skills for the
description of the nature of metallic bonding and metallic
properties.)
36
1.5 ► Metallic Bonding

o Coordinate their responses by telling them, in a metallic bond,
the atoms do not share or transfer electrons to bond together.
Reflection on learning o Summarise the lesson by asking students what they have
o In metals, the (inner/outer) electrons form a shared sea of
electrons.
o What does a metallic bond consist of?
o How do metallic bonds differ from ionic and covalent
bonds?
necessary.

Objective To describe the nature and strength of metallic bonding
Instruction o Form students into groups of four.

o Give each group a set of metal pairs as mentioned in the
support materials.
o Tell each group, for given metal pairs, to compare:
o 1st member: the positive charge of ions;
o 2nd member: the ionic size;
o 3rd member: the mobile electrons (similar or not);
o 4th member: the strength of the metallic bond. (By doing
this activity, each group should develop collaboration and
critical thinking skills to deduce the strength of metallic
bonding.)
37
o Coordinate their responses by telling them the strength of the

metallic bond is lower than that of the ionic bond.
Consequently, the melting points of metals become lower
compared with the ionic compounds.
o To reflect their understanding, assess each student’s
knowledge by questioning as follows:
o What does metallic bond strength depend on?
o Why does the melting point of metals increase across
Period 3, from sodium (Na) to aluminium (Al)?
o Does the strength of metallic bond increase down a group?
necessary.
1. Metals have _________ melting point and __________

Review Questions boiling point.
(A) high, low (B) low, high (C) high, high (D) low, low
2. Metals have _________ electrostatic force between
__________ ions.
(A) strong, negative (B) strong, positive
(C) weak, negative (D) weak, positive
3. What type of bond exiss in Aluminium.
(A) Ionic bond (B) Covalent bond
(C) Coordinate bond (D) Metallic bond
4. Which of the following substances will conduct electricity most
effectively?
(A) CCl4 (B) NaBr (C) MgCl2 (D) Zn
5. Which of the following metals has the highest melting point?
(A) Sodium (B) Lithium
(C) Magnesium (D) Aluminium
38
► Exercises
Chemistry in Society o Common salt, an ionic compound is used as a food seasoning and
preservative, in soap manufacturing, agriculture, water conditioning, wood
preservative, de-icing agent, and many other uses. Sodium fluoride can be
used in water fluoridation. Potassium iodide is added to “iodised” salt for
thyroid health.
o Sodium, calcium, potassium, chloride, phosphate, and magnesium ions are
all electrolytes that can be obtained from the foods we eat and the
electrolyte beverages we drink.
o Metal salts such as strontium carbonate (red), calcium chloride (orange),
sodium nitrate (yellow), barium chloride (green) and copper chloride (blue)
are used in fireworks.
o Hydrogen bonding can occur in liquid water, solid ice, many biological
structures of DNA and protein in our body, and cellulose in the tree trunk.
Two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonding.
o Spiders and geckos rely on van der Waals forces to walk up smooth walls.
o Dry ice (solid CO2) is used in cold grinding, freeze drying, in cooling
process for the chemical industry and the food industry. Liquid nitrogen is
also used as a coolant.
1. How many orbital(s) is/are there in the p subshell?

Exercises (A) one (B) two (C) three (D) five
2. What is the shape of s orbital?
(A) spherical-shaped (B) dumbbell-shaped
(C) double dumbbell-shaped (D) triple dumbbell-shaped
3. Describe the electronic configuration for 36Kr.
(A) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
(B) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5
(C) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
(D) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s1
4. Describe the valence electron(s) of 36Kr.
(A) 1 (B) 3 (C) 7 (D) 8
5. What is the Lewis symbol for Potassium (K)?
• •
(A)• K • (B) • K • (C) K • (D) • K •
SP P•
6. Which of the following is NOT the intermolecular forces?
(A) Hydrogen bonding (B) Electrostatic forces
(C) Ion-polar interaction (D) Dipole-dipole interaction
7. Which of the following pairs can form an ionic compound?
(A) H and O (B) N and H (C) Li and O (D) C and O
8. Which of the following compound is the strongest ionic bond?
(A) NaCl (B) CaCl2 (C) AlCl3 (D) MgCl2
9. Which of the following is not a giant covalent molecule?
(A) diamond (B) graphite (C) quartz (D) graphene
10. You are given the following covalent bonds: C-Br, N-H, O-H,
C-C. (electronegativities: H:2.1, C: 2.5, N: 3.0, Br: 2.8) Which
bond is non-polar?
(A) C-Br (B) N-H (C) O-H (D) C-C
39
CHAPTER REVIEW (Concept Map)
40
Chapter 2
ENERGY CHANGES IN
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
2.1 Energy Changes
2.2 Enthalpy Changes in Chemical Reactions
2.3 Hess’s Law
Learning Outcomes

to:
o explain how changes in energy during chemical
reactions;
o identify the reactions as spontaneous or non-
spontaneous, and exothermic or endothermic;
o use the concept of energy in bond breaking and
bond making;
o differentiate the enthalpy and enthalpy changes of
chemical reactions;
o discuss the types of enthalpy changes of reactions
and measure enthalpy changes;
o apply Hess’s law to construct enthalpy cycles and
calculate enthalpy changes of reactions;
o calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using
bond energy (bond enthalpy).
41
Chapter 2 ► Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
The burning wood in the air releases heat and light energies. The
fireworks display illustrates a spectacular release of energy (light
and heat) in a chemical reaction. There are some common
reactions and processes that are found in our daily life.
Burning woods Photosynthesis is the chemical reaction that occurs when plants
use energy from the sun, carbon dioxide, and water to synthesise
the food that the plant needs to survive. When we burn fossil fuels
for energy, chemical changes take place during the reaction and
Fireworks release huge amounts of energy, which we use for things like power
and electricity. Except for the energy produced from nuclear
reactors, all of man’s energy resources are chemicals or involve
the utilisation of energy through chemical reactions. Energy
Photosynthesis
changes are central to chemical reactions and understanding the
role of energy in chemistry provides for our daily life. Whenever a
chemical reaction (chemical change) occurs, energy is usually
Evaporation of water transferred to or from the surroundings. The energy change (gain or
loss) during the reaction can be measured. Changing states of
matter (physical change) also involve energy changes. When the
substance changes its state, the energy is transferred to or from a
Condensation of water droplets substance. Evaporation (e.g., boiling water), melting (e.g., melting
ice), condensation (e.g., water droplets forming on the outside of
the glass of cold beverage), sublimation (e.g., mothball and dry
ice sublime without melting), etc., are some examples of changing
states around us in everyday life.
2.1 Energy Changes
Lesson Objectives o To explain how changes in energy during chemical reactions

o To identify the reactions as spontaneous or non-spontaneous, and
exothermic or endothermic
o To use the concept of energy in bond breaking and bond making
o To develop the skills of collaboration, communication, problem
solving, and critical thinking
There are various kinds of energy such as kinetic energy (due to

the movement), potential energy (due to the position), electrical
energy, light energy, thermal energy, chemical energy, mechanical
energy, etc. In addition, energy can neither be created nor
destroyed as stated in the Law of Conservation of Energy.
However, energy can change from one form to another without a
net loss or gain of energy and it is called energy
transformation.
42
2.1 ► Energy Changes
Energy transformations occur everywhere in daily life. Some

common energy transformation devices are as follows:
o electric motor (electrical energy into kinetic energy)
o hair dryer (electrical energy into thermal energy)
o battery (chemical energy into electrical energy)
o automobile engine (chemical energy into mechanical energy)
o solar cell (light energy into electrical energy)
Moreover, all chemical reactions involve energy changes.
Whether a chemical reaction absorbs or releases energy, the
overall energy is not changed during the reaction.
(a) Chemical Energy Chemical energy is the energy that is stored in the bonds of
Changes chemical compounds such as atoms and molecules. Energy
changes take place during chemical reactions. In some reactions,
the energy changes can be observed as either an increase or a
decrease in the overall energy of the system. In some reactions, it
can be seen as a change in the temperature. In other reactions, this
change can be observed when a reaction starts to give off light.
Chemical energy is the source of most of the energy that humans
need to function. Humans release this chemical energy during
digestion and use it to power systems inside the body. Plants store
chemical energy in carbohydrates formed during photosynthesis.
Energy changes are very important in chemistry because almost
all reactions involve a change in energy. Whenever a chemical
reaction takes place between reactants to form products, there is
always an energy change usually in the form of heat. Thus,
chemical reactions often involve changes in energy due to the
breaking and formation of bonds.
The energy change is due to the difference in the amounts of stored
chemical energy between the reactant and the product particles in
a chemical reaction. The interactions between particles can
produce cooling or heating effects that are used in everyday
applications. When an instant cold pack and a hot pack have been
activated, the change in temperatures occurs. These temperature
changes are due to a solid substance (salt) dissolving in water. This
generates a chemical reaction. These packs contain a mixture of
chemicals that react together to create heat and cold. A chemical
reaction involves the breaking of bonds in the reactants and the
forming of bonds in the products. In the given examples of cold
and hot packs, energy is absorbed to break bonds, and energy is
released when bonds are formed during the process of dissolving.
43
Chemical reactions provide electricity which is the result of

interactions between ions in an electrolyte. Examples are batteries
and fuel cells.
(b) Changes of Energy Some reactions take place on their own under a given set of
in Chemical conditions, and some are needed to provide energy for the reaction
Reactions to proceed. A process that can take place on its own accord is
called spontaneous. Non-spontaneous processes need the energy
to take place. As mentioned in the introduction of Section 2.1,
almost all chemical reactions absorb or release energy, generally
in the form of heat. Depending on the gain or loss of energy (heat),
chemical reactions can be classified as endothermic or
exothermic.
(i) Spontaneous and In a spontaneous reaction, the physical or chemical change occurs
non-spontaneous without the addition of energy. Adding a solution of dilute
reactions sulphuric acid to a solution of sodium hydroxide is an example of
a spontaneous reaction because the reaction takes place without
any energy being added.
The reaction between magnesium and oxygen, and the reaction
between copper and oxygen are both non-spontaneous reactions.
They need the energy to initiate the reaction. Most of the reaction
will not take place until the system has some minimum amount of
energy added to it. After the reaction has started, it may then carry
on spontaneously. Iron rusting is exothermic and spontaneous.
When the ice melts at room temperature, that is a spontaneous and
endothermic process.
(ii) Exothermic and endothermic reactions

Exothermic reactions When sulphuric acid is slowly poured into water, the flask or
beaker becomes hot. This is heat being released to the
surroundings by the reacting system. This kind of change
(reaction) is known as an exothermic reaction. Examples of
exothermic reactions are burning candle, the combustion of a fuel,
the neutralisation reaction, respiration, and rusting of iron.
Exothermic reactions give out energy. So, there is a temperature
rise. In exothermic reactions, the energy of the product is lower
than the energy of the reactants because energy has been released
during the reaction. This is shown on the energy level diagram.
(reactants → products + energy)
44
Endothermic reactions When ammonium chloride is dissolved in water, the flask becomes
quite cold to the touch. This is heat being absorbed from the
surroundings by the reacting system. This kind of change
(reaction) is known as an endothermic reaction. Examples of
endothermic reactions are melting of ice, cooking an egg,
evaporating liquid water, and thermal decomposition of limestone.
Endothermic reactions take in energy from the surroundings. So,
there is a temperature fall. In endothermic reactions, the energy of
the products is higher than the energy of the reactants because
energy has been absorbed during the reaction. This is shown on
(reactants + energy → products) the energy level diagram.
Energy transfer in Energy changes in chemical reactions are caused by the making
chemical reactions and breaking of chemical bonds. In a chemical reaction, bonds in
the reactants must be broken first. Energy is absorbed to break
bonds. Bond breaking is an endothermic process. Then new bonds
in the products form. Energy is released when new bonds form.
Bond making is an exothermic process. For example, when
nitrogen reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen oxide, the bonds
between the nitrogen molecules and oxygen molecules must first
be broken to form atoms of nitrogen and oxygen. Nitrogen atoms
then form bonds with oxygen atoms, forming nitrogen oxide
(Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1
Energy Transfer Caused by
Bond Breaking and Bond
Making in a Chemical Reaction
As mentioned in Section 2.1 (a), if the energy absorbed in bond
breaking is less than the energy given out in bond making, the
reaction is exothermic. If the energy absorbed in bond breaking
is more than the energy given out in bond making, the reaction
is endothermic.
45
Example 1:
Predict whether the following reaction is exothermic or
endothermic.
H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → 2HCl (g)
Given: energy required to break 1 mol of H−H bonds = 436 kJ
energy required to break 1 mol of Cl−Cl bonds = 242 kJ
energy required to make 1 mol of H−Cl bonds = 431 kJ
Solution:
H−H (g) + Cl−Cl (g) → 2H−Cl (g)
Total energy absorbed for bond breaking (energy in)
= 1 x (H−H) + 1 x (Cl−Cl)
= 436 + 242
= 678 kJ
Total energy released for bond making (energy out)
= 2 x (H−Cl)
= 2 x 431
= 862 kJ
678 kJ < 862 kJ

Therefore, the reaction is exothermic.
understanding of the heat change in the reaction and energy
transformation through the name of the device or process. Other
relevant activities could also be applied.

Objective To explore the heat change in the context of exothermic and

endothermic reactions

o Give each group a set of samples and apparatus as mentioned
in the support materials.
46

o 1st member: fill a beaker with ice cubes and use a
thermometer to record the initial
temperature (T1). After complete melting
of the ice cube, record the final temperature
(T2);
nd
o 2 member: add a teaspoon of glucose powder to the water
in a beaker (T1 recorded) and stir the
beaker. After the complete dissolving of the
glucose powder, record the final
temperature (T2);
rd
o 3 member: add a teaspoon of washing powder to the
water in a beaker (T1 recorded) and stir the
beaker. After complete dissolving of the
washing powder, record the final
temperature (T2);
o Tabulate the results and calculate the temperature changes.
Observe the changes and predict, through observation and
calculating, which reaction is exothermic or endothermic. (By
doing this activity, each group should develop the problem
solving and critical thinking skills for examining if the
reaction is exothermic or endothermic.)
class, check their ideas and give feedback.
o Conclude by telling the students those exothermic reactions
could be used to power machines while endothermic reactions
could be used for cooling. By classifying reactions as
exothermic or endothermic, students can understand which
reactions are best suited to meet specific challenges.
Reflection on Learning o Summarise the lesson by asking students what they have learned
in the lesson.
o To reflect on their learning, assess students’ understanding by
o If you put an ice cube in a glass of soda, the heat absorbed by
the ice will cause the ice to melt, and the glass will become
_____. (hot/cool)
47
o During an endothermic reaction in a beaker, if we are part

of the surroundings and touched the beaker, it would feel
_____. (hot/cool)
o Someone is running on the track they begin to perspire. Is
perspiration exothermic or endothermic?
necessary.

Objective To describe the energy transformation through the name of the

device or process

o Distribute nine cards to each group.
o Let each member of the group randomly collect three cards out
of nine.
o Tell each member to describe the energy transformation of the
name written on his/her cards.
o Tell them to tabulate their answers. (By doing this activity,
each group should develop the knowledge to consider energy
transformation through the name of the device or process.)
o Ask 2 or 3 groups to share their observations with the class.
After the group has shared, make the class raise their hands if
they agree with the presentation. (If other groups have
additional information, they could discuss it with the class.)
Monitor the class, check their ideas and give feedback.
o Coordinate their responses to the description of input and
output forms of energy for individual devices and processes.
o According to the Law of Conservation of Energy, energy
cannot be _____ or _____.
o What type of energy conversion is represented by a bear
bending a small tree to reach fruit in its branches?
48
o A gasoline engine only converts some of the chemical

energy of gasoline into mechanical energy. What other
energy transformation is taking place in the gasoline
engine?
necessary.
Review Questions 1. Which device can be used to transform from electrical energy
into thermal energy?
(A) electrical motor (B) hair dryer
(C) battery (D) steam boiler
2. Which device can be transformed from chemical energy into
electrical energy?
(A) solar cell (B) fuel cells
(C) electric bulbs (D) automobile engine
3. What energy transformation takes place in gas turbine?
(A) electrical energy into light energy
(B) chemical energy into electrical energy
(C) mechanical energy into electrical energy
(D) chemical energy into mechanical energy
4. The energy that is stored in the bonds of chemical compounds
is _________.
(A) kinetic energy (B) thermal energy
(C) electrical energy (D) chemical energy
5. The bond breaking is a/an ________ process.
(A) exothermic (B) endothermic
(C) heat evolving (D) combustion
Key Terms o Law of Conservation of Energy states that in any physical or

chemical process, energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
o Energy transformation is the process of changing one form
of energy into another.
o System is the specific part of the universe that contains the
reaction or process which is
o studied.
o Surroundings are everything in the universe other than the
system.
o Exothermic reaction is a reaction which releases heat into the
surroundings.
o Endothermic reaction is a reaction which absorbs heat from
the surroundings.
49
2.2 Enthalpy Changes in Chemical Reactions
Lesson Objectives o To differentiate the enthalpy and enthalpy changes of

chemical reactions
o To discuss the types of enthalpy changes of reactions and
measure enthalpy changes
manipulation, analysing, and critical thinking
The total chemical energy of a substance is called its enthalpy (or

heat content). H is the symbol for enthalpy. In chemical reactions,
there are changes in chemical energy and therefore, enthalpy
changes. The heat change of a chemical reaction is usually
expressed by the terms “change in heat content” or “change in
enthalpy” of the chemical reaction. The change in enthalpy
describes the amount of heat transferred at constant pressure
during a chemical reaction. Heat changes can be measured by
using a calorimeter.
(a) Enthalpy Changes The heat absorbed or released in a process occurring at constant
and Standard pressure is called the enthalpy change; it is given the symbol ΔH.
Enthalpy Changes The unit of enthalpy change is kilojoule per mole (kJ mol-1).
Hence, the ΔH value gives the amount of energy that is absorbed
or released per mole of the product formed. In other words, ΔH is
the difference in the heat content of the products and reactants.
Enthalpy is not measured directly, however, the change in
enthalpy is measured, which is the heat added or lost by the
system. The change in enthalpy can be expressed as
ΔH = Hproducts– Hreactants
For an endothermic reaction where energy is absorbed from the
surroundings, the total energy of the products is greater than that
of the reactants, then ΔH is positive, i.e., a positive sign. For
example,
1 1
N2(g) + 2 O2(g) → NO(g) ΔH = (+)
2
For an exothermic reaction where energy is released to the

surroundings, the total energy of the products is less than that of
the reactants, then ΔH is negative, i.e., a negative sign. For
example,
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ΔH = (–)
50
2.2 ► Enthalpy Changes in Chemical Reactions
The enthalpy of a reaction depends on the conditions under which

the reaction is carried out. Therefore, it is necessary to specify
some standard conditions.
The heat absorbed or released in a process occurring at standard
conditions of temperature and pressure is called the standard
enthalpy change, ΔH. The standard conditions chosen for energy
changes are as follows:
standard temperature = 25 °C = 298 K
standard pressure = 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 101 kPa
(i) Writing A thermochemical equation is a balanced chemical equation that

thermochemical includes the physical states of all reactants and products and the
equations standard enthalpy change (∆Hθ is negative or positive).
Sometimes, the thermochemical equation may be shown the
enthalpy change ΔH rather than ∆Hθ. It is important to include the
physical states of the reactants and products in the thermochemical
equation because the value of enthalpy change depends on those
states. It is usual to indicate the physical state of each substance
by the appropriate letter places in brackets after the formula;
(s) for solid, (l) for liquid and (g) for gas. Some examples of
thermochemical equations are
1
HgO(s) → Hg(l) + 2 O2(g) ΔH = + 90.7 kJ mol-1
C(graphite) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ΔHθ = – 394 kJ mol-1
The standard enthalpy change is expressed in different ways

(ii) Standard enthalpy
changes of depending on the nature of the reaction. In more general cases, it
reactions can use the term, standard enthalpy changes of reaction.
The standard enthalpy change of a reaction (ΔH𝑟𝜃 ) is the enthalpy
change when the molar quantities of reactants stated in the
chemical equation react to give products under standard
conditions.
The enthalpy changes of the reaction can be exothermic or
endothermic and ΔH𝑟𝜃 can be positive or negative. For example,
1
H2(g) + 2 O2(g) → H2O(l) ΔH𝑟𝜃 = – 286 kJ mol-1
The usual standard enthalpy changes for chemical reactions are
the standard enthalpy change of formation, the standard enthalpy
change of combustion, and the standard enthalpy change of
neutralisation.
51
Standard enthalpy change The standard enthalpy change of formation of a compound is the
of formation, Δ𝐇𝜽𝐟 enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed from its
elements under standard conditions.
The formation of a compound can be exothermic or endothermic
and ΔH𝑓𝜃 can be positive or negative. For example,
1
N2(g) + O2(g) → NO2(g) ∆H𝑓𝜃 [NO2(g)] = + 33 kJ mol-1
2
1
C(graphite) + 2 O2(g) → CO(g) ∆H𝑓𝜃 [CO (g)] = – 110 kJ mol-1
Note that the state symbol for carbon is shown as “graphite”. This
is because there are several forms of carbon but the most stable is
graphite and choose the most stable form when writing chemical
equations where enthalpy changes are shown.
Standard enthalpy change The standard enthalpy change of combustion is the enthalpy
of combustion, Δ𝐇𝜽𝐜 change when one mole of a substance (element or compound) is
burnt completely in oxygen under standard conditions.
Combustion reactions are always exothermic and the enthalpy
changes are always negative. For example,
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O(l) ∆H𝑐𝜃 [CH4(g)] = – 891 kJ mol-1
Standard enthalpy change The standard enthalpy change of neutralisation is the enthalpy
of neutralisation, Δ𝐇𝜽𝐧 change when solutions of an acid and an alkali react together
under standard conditions to produce one mole of water.
The neutralisation reaction is exothermic and the enthalpy change
is negative. For example,
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ∆H𝑛𝜃 = – 57.1 kJ mol-1
Example 2:
Write down the thermochemical equations for the following
reactions.
(i) Combustion of carbon (graphite) (∆H𝑐𝜃 = – 394 kJ mol-1)
(ii) Combustion of methane gas (∆H𝑐𝜃 = – 891 kJ mol-1)
(iii) Combustion of ethanol (∆H𝑐𝜃 = – 1367 kJ mol-1)
(iv) Formation of ethanol (∆H𝑓𝜃 = – 235 kJ mol-1)
(v) Formation of NaHCO3 (s) (∆H𝑓𝜃 = – 951 kJ mol-1)
Solutions:
(i) C(graphite) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ∆H𝑐𝜃 = – 394 kJ mol-1
(ii) CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ∆H𝑐𝜃 = – 891 kJ mol-1
(iii) C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) ∆H𝑐𝜃 = – 1367 kJ mol-1
1
(iv) 2C(graphite) + 3H2 (g) + O2(g) → C2H5OH(l) ∆H𝑓𝜃 = – 235 kJ mol-1
2
1 3
(v) Na(s) + C(graphite) + H2(g) + O2(g) → NaHCO3 (s) ∆H𝑓𝜃 = – 951 kJ mol-1
2 2
52
(b) Measurement of The enthalpy changes ΔH (heat changes) of reactions can be

Enthalpy Changes measured in several ways. Experimentally, ΔH is not measured.
The heat change, q, is measured by using the following equation:
q = mcΔT
If the mass of the reactants (m), the change in temperature (ΔT)
and the specific heat of materials (c) are known, q can be
calculated. Since the measurements are performed under constant
pressure, ΔH is equal to the q measured. The heat changes related
to the physical changes involve melting, evaporation, etc., and
chemical changes including burning, acid-base reaction,
neutralisation reaction, etc. can be measured by the calorimeter. A
calorimeter is a device to measure the amount of heat released or
absorbed in reactions that occur in solutions. The heat change can
be measured through the thermometer.
Enthalpy changes of The enthalpy change of solution, ΔHsol, of a substance, is the

reactions in solution enthalpy change when one mole of the substance is dissolved in
water. The simplest way of measuring enthalpy change is to use
the energy to heat (or cool) water or a solution. The following
measurements are needed to make:
o the mass of the reactants
o the mass of water, m (or its volume, since its density is
1.00 g cm-3)
o the rise (or fall) in temperature of the water or solution, ΔT
In the calorimeter, to find the heat change of a substance, the
sample is added to a calorimeter and the initial and the final
temperature of the reaction is recorded.
The heat change, q, can be calculated by the following equation:
q = mcΔT
where q = the heat change, m = the mass of water, c = the specific
heat capacity of water, ΔT = rise (or fall) in temperature of the
water or solution (ΔT = Tfinal – Tinitial).
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram
of water by one degree is known as the specific heat capacity of
water and is given the symbol c. It has a value of 4.18 J g-1 °C-1. If
ΔT is positive value (i.e., Tfinal> Tinitial), the q value will also be
positive. Although q = ΔH, the reaction is giving off this amount
of energy. Thus, the actual sign on ΔH is negative (–). Figure 2.2
shows a basic calorimeter used for the measurement of heat
change.
53
Bomb calorimeter A bomb calorimeter is a type of calorimeter for determining the

heat of combustion by igniting a sample in a high pressure of
oxygen in a sealed vessel and measuring the resulting temperature
rise. The highly accurate values of the standard enthalpy change
of combustion (ΔHcθ ) can be measured only by a bomb
calorimeter. It is used to measure the energy content of fuels.
Figure 2.2
A Basic Calorimeter Used for Simple Heat
Measurement of Reactions in Solution
Example 3:
A known amount of water is placed in the calorimeter and the
initial temperature is measured. The finely powdered solid
ammonium nitrate is weighed and added into the water. The water
is stirred until all the solid has dissolved, and the lowest
temperature is recorded. The following results were obtained.
mass of water (m) = 100 g
specific heat capacity of water (c) = 4.18 J g-1 °C-1
mass of ammonium nitrate = 7.10 g
initial temperature = 18.2 °C
final temperature = 12.8 °C
Calculate the enthalpy change of ammonium nitrate solution.
(N=14, H=1, O=16)
Solution:
q = mcΔT
= 100 x 4.18 x (12.8 – 18.2) (Δ means “final – initial”)
= – 2257 J = – 2.257 kJ
Since Tfinal < Tinitial the heat is absorbed. Thus, the reaction is
endothermic and the enthalpy change is positive.
molar mass of NH4NO3 = 14 + (4x1) + 14 + (3x16) = 80 g mol-1
2.257 kJ 80 g
the heat absorbed = ×
7.10 g 1 mol
= 25.43 kJ mol-1
∴ ΔHsol = + 25.43 kJ mol-1
54
Example 4:
In an experiment, a known amount of acid in solution (50 cm3 of
2.0 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid) is placed in a calorimeter and its
temperature is recorded. An equivalent amount of base (50 cm3 of
2.0 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution) is added and the
temperature rise is measured. Assuming that the resultant solution
is the dilute solution. Calculate the enthalpy change of
neutralisation, ΔHn. Given:
initial temperature of HCl = 17.5 °C
initial temperature of NaOH = 17.9 °C
final temperature = 31.0 °C
The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J g-1 °C-1.
Solution:
(17.5+17.9)
Average temperature of the HCl and NaOH = 2
= 17.7 °C
q = mcΔT
= (50 + 50) x 4.18 x (31.0 – 17.7)
= 5559 J
= 5.559 kJ
Since Tfinal > Tinitial the heat is released. Thus, the reaction is
exothermic and the enthalpy change is negative.
mol of HCl = mol of NaOH
1 dm3 2 mol
= 50 cm3 × × 1 dm3
1000 cm3
= 0.10 mol
When 0.10 mole of HCl and 0.10 mole of NaOH produce 0.10
mole of water, 5.559 kJ of heat is released.
∴ the heat released for one mole of water is 55.59 kJ mol-1.
5.559 kJ
the heat released = 0.10 mol
= 55.59 kJ mol-1
∴ΔHn = – 55.59 kJ mol-1
Note: It can take the average temperature because the volumes of

acid and base solutions are equal. Because the solution is very
dilute, its specific heat capacity is taken to be the same as that of
water.
55
expected to complete the learning indicated by the learning
outcomes. Two related activities are suggested to enhance the
students’ understanding of energy changes and thermochemical
reactions. Other relevant activities could also be applied.

analysing, reasoning, and critical thinking skills
Objective To realise how to write the thermochemical equations for the

given processes

o Let each member of the group randomly collect one statement
out of four.
o Tell each member to write the thermochemical equation of
each statement got by the individual. (By doing this activity,
each group should develop the knowledge to describe the
thermochemical equation through the statement of process.)
answers with the class. Monitor the class, check their ideas and
give feedback.
o After the group has shared, the class raises their hands that they
information, they could discuss it with the class.)
o Listen in on the students’ conversations and coordinate their
responses. Thermochemical equations must include all
physical states. If we change the stoichiometric coefficients in
the chemical reaction, then we also change the enthalpy (ΔH)
value proportionally.
o What does a negative ∆H mean in the equation?
o If ΔH is positive, heat would be shown on the _____ side
of the thermochemical equation.
o A chemical reaction that absorbs heat from the
surroundings is said to be _____ and has a _____ ΔH at
constant pressure.
56

answered correctly.
Activity (2) Collaborative work to develop students’ communication,

manipulation, reasoning, and critical thinking skills.
To determine the energy changes during chemical reactions and

Objective
enthalpy change (ΔH)

o Encourage the students to discuss the enthalpy changes of
reactions in the solution before doing the activity.
o Tell each group to the following instructions:
o 1st member: copy and complete the table;
o 2nd member: determine the type of reaction and molar
mass of given salt;
rd
o 3 member: determine the enthalpy changes of
reactions. (By doing this activity, each
group should develop the problem solving
and critical thinking skills for examining if
the reactions are exothermic or
endothermic and their enthalpy changes.)
o Conclude by telling students that the heat changes related to
the physical changes involve melting, evaporation, etc., and
chemical changes including burning, acid-base reaction,
neutralisation reaction, etc., can be measured by the
calorimeter.
o To reflect on their learning, assess students’ understanding by
o The physical states of all reactants and products are usually
expressed in a thermochemical equation. (Yes/No)
o What are the standard conditions for energy changes?
57
o A combustion reaction is also (exothermic/endothermic)

and the enthalpy changes are always positive/negative).
necessary.
Review Questions 1. Heat liberated by a chemical reaction is assigned by _______.

(A) positive (B) negative (C) zero (D) non-zero
2. Which of the following symbols represents the standard
enthalpy change?
(A) ∆Hθ (B) K (C) ∆Sθ (D) ∆UO
3. The heat absorbed or released in a process occurring at
constant ______ is called enthalpy change.
(A) temperature (B) concentration
(C) mass (D) pressure
4. The standard enthalpy change of a reaction is the enthalpy
change when the molar quantities of reactants stated in the
chemical equation react to give products under __________
conditions.
(A) standard (B) thermal (C) neutral (D) normal
5. The enthalpy changes of combustion reaction are
always_____.
(A) endothermic (B) exothermic
(C) endothermic or exothermic (D) none of these
Key Terms o Enthalpy change is the heat change accompanying a

chemical reaction at constant pressure.
o Specific heat capacity of liquid is the energy required to raise
the temperature of 1 g of liquid by 1 °C.
58
2.3 ► Hess’s Law
2.3 Hess’s Law
Lesson Objectives o To apply Hess’s law to construct enthalpy cycles and calculate
enthalpy changes in reactions
o To calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using bond
energy (bond enthalpy)
analysing, and critical thinking
There are very few reactions whose enthalpy change can be

measured directly by measuring the change in temperature in a
calorimeter. In some cases, the reaction is difficult, even
impossible, to carry out individually. By using Hess’s law, the
enthalpy change for such reactions can be determined indirectly.
Hess’s law can be stated as below. The enthalpy change for a
chemical reaction is the same, whatever route is taken from
reactants to products.
(a) Enthalpy Cycle Hess’s law can be illustrated by drawing an enthalpy cycle. For
example, the reactant A directly forms B. This is the Route I. In
Route II, reactant A forms C, and C is changing into B. According
to Hess’s law, the enthalpy changes of Route I are the same as for
Route II. The enthalpy cycle for different routes of the reaction is
shown as follows:
According to Hess’s law,

Enthalpy change of Route I = Enthalpy changes of Route II
ΔHr = ΔH1 + ΔH2
If there are more than two steps in Route II, the enthalpy changes
of the reaction can be expressed as ΔHr = ΔH1 + ΔH2 + ΔH3 + …
Constructing the The enthalpy cycle can be constructed in the following steps:
enthalpy cycle Step (1) Write down the equation for the enthalpy change of the
reaction.
Step (2) Based on the data given, draw the enthalpy cycle with the
correct arrow direction.
Step (3) Write the corresponding symbols for enthalpy changes
over the arrows.
59
Step (4) Find two routes (clockwise and anticlockwise) and apply
Hess’s law to calculate the required enthalpy change (i.e.,
Route I is equal to Route II). For calculation, take into
account the number of moles of each reactant and
product. Note that the standard enthalpy change for the
formation of an element in its standard state is zero and
no need to take it into account.
Calculating involving the To determine the enthalpy change of reaction from enthalpy
enthalpy change of changes of formation, the corresponding elements of reactant and
reaction from enthalpy product should be considered. Firstly, write the balanced chemical
changes of formation
equation for the standard enthalpy change of reaction at the top.
The elements are written at the bottom with arrows pointing
upwards and balanced the elements. The Hess’s cycle of enthalpy
change of a reaction is constructed as below:
By using Hess’s law,

Route I = Route II
ΔH1 + ΔHr = ΔH2
For example, the following relevant data are given to determine
the enthalpy change of reaction, the conversion of nitrogen oxide
to nitrogen dioxide.
ΔHfθ [NO(g)] = + 90 kJ mol-1
ΔHfθ [NO2(g)] = + 33 kJ mol-1
Construction of the enthalpy cycle for calculating the standard
enthalpy change of reaction (ΔHrθ ) is given below.
1 ∆Hθ
r
Step (1) NO(g) + O2(g) → NO2(g)
2
60

Route I = Route II
ΔHfθ [NO(g)] + ΔHrθ = ΔHfθ [NO2(g)]
(+ 90) + ΔHrθ = (+ 33)
ΔHrθ = – 57 kJ mol-1
ΔHrθ [NO(g)] = – 57 kJ mol-1
Example 5:
Calculate the standard enthalpy change of the decomposition of
calcium carbonate; CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g) using the data
given below. ΔHfθ [CaO(s)] = – 636 kJ mol-1
ΔHfθ [CO2(g)] = – 394 kJ mol-1
ΔHfθ [CaCO3(s)] = – 1207 kJ mol-1
Solution:

Route I = Route II
ΔHfθ [CaCO3(s)] + ΔHr = ΔHfθ [CaO(s)]+ ΔHfθ [CO2(g)]
(– 1207) + ΔHrθ = (– 636) + (– 394)
θ
ΔHr = + 177 kJ mol-1
ΔHrθ [CaCO3 (s)] = + 177 kJ mol-1
61
Note: The values for ΔHfθ [CaO(s)] and ΔHfθ [CO2(g)] are added
together for Route II. Take care to account for the fact that some
values may be positive and some negative.
Calculating the enthalpy To determine the enthalpy change of formation from enthalpy
change of formation from changes of combustion, the corresponding combustion products
enthalpy changes of should be considered. The combustion products (usually carbon
combustion
dioxide and water) are written at the bottom. Then, draw the
downward arrows that go from elements and compounds to
combustion products, and add oxygen to the elements and
compound to balance the respective combustion products.
The enthalpy change in the formation of many compounds can be
calculated by using the enthalpy cycle shown below.

Route I = Route II
ΔH1 = ΔHf + ΔH2
Consider the reaction for the formation of methane.
C(graphite) + 2H2(g) → CH4(g)
The standard enthalpy changes of combustion (ΔHcθ ) for methane,
carbon, and hydrogen are –
ΔHcθ [CH4(g)] = – 891 kJ mol-1
ΔHcθ [C(graphite)] = – 394 kJ mol-1
ΔHcθ [H2(g)] = – 286 kJ mol-1
The enthalpy cycle for calculating the standard enthalpy change
for the formation of methane gas (ΔHfθ ) is given below.
∆Hθ
f
Step (1) C(graphite) + 2H2(g) → CH4(g)
Step (2) The individual combustion reactions for elements and
compound are shown as below.
C(graphite) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
1
H2(g) + O2(g) → H2O (l)
2
∴ C(graphite) + 2H2(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) +2H2O(l)
62

Route I = Route II
ΔHcθ [C(graphite)] + 2 ΔHcθ [H2(g)] = ΔHfθ + ΔHcθ [CH4(g)]
( –394) + 2 ( –286) = ΔHfθ + (– 891)
ΔHfθ = – 75 kJ mol-1
∴ ΔHf [CH4(g)] = – 75 kJ mol-1
Note: The value for ΔHcθ [H2(g)] is multiplied by 2 because 2

moles of H2(g) appear in the equation.
Example 6:
Calculate the standard enthalpy change of formation of ethanoic
acid, CH3COOH.
2C(graphite) + 2H2(g) + O2(g) → CH3COOH(l)
The relevant enthalpy changes of combustions are given below.
ΔHcθ [C(graphite)] = – 394 kJ mol-1
ΔHcθ [H2(g)] = – 286 kJ mol-1
ΔHcθ [CH3COOH(l)] = – 872 kJ mol-1
63
Solution:

Route I = Route II
2 ΔHcθ [C(graphite) +2 ΔHcθ [H2(g)] = ΔHfθ + ΔHcθ [CH3COOH(l)]
2(– 394) + 2(– 286) = ΔHfθ + (– 872)
ΔHfθ = – 488 kJ mol-1
∴ ΔHfθ [CH3COOH(l)] = – 488 kJ mol-1
Note: The values for ΔHcθ [C(graphite)] and ΔHcθ [H2(g)] are
multiplied by 2 because 2 moles of C (graphite) and 2 moles of
H2(g) appear in the equation.
(b) Bond Energy and Enthalpy changes are due to the breaking and forming of bonds.
Enthalpy Changes Breaking a bond absorbs energy (ΔH is positive) and making a
bond releases energy (ΔH is negative). The energy needed to make
or break bonds is called bond energy (bond enthalpy). The higher
the bond enthalpy, the more energy needed to break the bond, and
the stronger is the bond. The symbol for bond enthalpy is E. So,
E(C–H) refers to the bond enthalpy of a mole of single bonds
between carbon and hydrogen atoms. The bond enthalpy for
double and triple bonds refers to a mole of double or triple bonds.
When new bonds are formed the amount of energy released is the
same as the amount of energy absorbed when the same type of
bond is broken. For example, the bond enthalpies for the breaking
and forming bonds of bromine molecules are + 193 kJ mol-1 and
– 193 kJ mol-1, respectively.
Br2(g) → 2Br (g) E(Br–Br) = + 193 kJ mol-1
2Br (g) → Br2(g) E(Br–Br) = – 193 kJ mol-1
Hess’s law can also be used to find approximate values of enthalpy
change of a reaction using bond enthalpies.
The bond enthalpy can be used to calculate the enthalpy change of
a reaction that cannot be measured directly.
64
Example 7:
Calculate the standard enthalpy change of reaction of Haber
process by using the Hess’s cycle from the data given below.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
The relevant bond enthalpies are E(N≡N) = 945 kJ mol-1, E(H–H)
= 436 kJ mol-1, and E(N–H) = 391 kJ mol-1
Solution:
By using Hess’s law, the standard enthalpy change of reaction,

ΔHr is calculated as follows:
Route I = Route II
ΔHrθ = ΔH1 + ΔH2
ΔHrθ = enthalpy change for bonds broken + enthalpy change for bonds formed
= [E(N≡N) + 3 × E(H–H)] + 2 [3 × (–E(N–H)]
= 945 + 3(436) + 6 (–391)
θ
ΔHr = 2253 + (– 2346)
= – 93 kJ mol-1
Calculating the enthalpy Example 8:

change without using the Calculate the enthalpy change of the combustion (ΔHc) of ethanol
enthalpy cycle from given bond enthalpy values.
C2H5OH (l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
E(C–C) = + 347 kJ mol-1, E(C–H) = + 410 kJ mol-1,
E(C–O) = + 336 kJ mol-1, E(O=O) = + 496 kJ mol-1,
E(C=O) = + 805 kJ mol-1, E(O–H) = + 465 kJ mol-1
Solution:
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
ΔH for bonds broken = E(C–C) + 5(E(C–H)) + E(C–O) + E(O–H) + 3(E(O=O))

= 347 + 5(410) + (336) + (465) + 3(496)
= + 4686 kJ mol-1
65
ΔH for bonds formed = 2[2 x (– E(C=O))] + 3[2 x (– E(O–H))]

= – 4(805) + – 6(465)
= – 6010 kJ mol-1
ΔHc = enthalpy change for bonds broken + enthalpy change for bonds formed
= (+ 4686) + (– 6010)
∴ ΔHc = – 1324 kJ mol-1
Two related activities are suggested to enhance student’s
understanding of the calculation of enthalpy changes from the
reaction, and bond energy from bonds in a variety of molecules.
Other relevant activities could also be applied.
Group work to develop students’ collaboration, communication,

Activity (1)
Objective To determine the enthalpy changes from thermochemical

reactions

o Give each group a chemical reaction as in the example given.
o 1st member: write the balanced thermochemical equation
for the formation of CO at the top;
nd
o 2 member: draw the cycle with the combustion products
at the bottom (make sure the correct
directions of arrows);
rd
o 3 member: write the corresponding symbols for enthalpy
changes over the arrows (add oxygen on both
sides of the equation to balance the
combustion reactions);
th
o 4 member: find two routes (clockwise and
anticlockwise) and apply Hess’s law. (By
doing this activity, students should develop
their conceptual understanding of the
thermochemical reactions and increase their
problem solving skills.)
66

o Coordinate their responses to calculate the enthalpy change for
the formation reaction by using the data of combustion
reactions.
o What will ΔH be if there is 1 mole of oxygen?
o 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s) ΔH = –1500 kJ
o C(graphite) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + 394 kJ, what amount of
heat is released for the reaction if 3 moles of CO2 are
formed?
necessary.

Objective To examine the bond energy from bonds in a variety of molecules

o Distribute six cards to each group.
o Let each member of the group randomly collect two cards out
of six.
o Tell each member to describe the full structural formula and
number of bonds on his/her cards.
o Tell them to calculate the bond energy of each molecule.
(Using the results of this activity, each group should develop
a conceptual understanding of the bond energy through the
displayed structure of a molecule.)
67
o The average bond enthalpies for O-H, O-O, and O=O are
465, 142, and 496 kJ mol-1, respectively. What is the
enthalpy change, in kJ, for the reaction below?
H-O-O-H(g) → H-O-H(g) + ½O=O(g)
o Does bond breaking require energy, release energy, or not
involve energy at all?
o When more energy is taken in to break bonds than is
released in making bonds, the reaction is (exothermic or
endothermic).
necessary.
Review Questions 1. The amount of energy required in bond breaking or making of

one mole of chemical bonds in a molecular element or
compound is __________.
(A) bond length (B) bond angle
(C) bond enthalpy (D) bond strength
2. Automobile manufactures can determine how much energy
the engine consumes or generates while burning fuels by using
__________.
(A) Hund's rule (B) Aufbau principle
(C) Hess's law (D) Le Chatelier's principle
3. Which one is a balanced chemical equation corresponding to
the standard enthalpy change of formation of MgCO3(s)?
(A) Mg(s) + C(graphite) + O2 → MgCO3(s) ΔHfθ = –
(B) Mg(s) + C(graphite)+ O2 → MgCO3(s) ΔHcθ = –
3
(C) Mg(s) + C(graphite)+ 2 O2(g) → MgCO3(s) ΔHfθ = –
3
(D) MgCO3(s) → Mg(s)+ C(graphite) + 2 O2(g) ΔHfθ = –
4. The energy from burning 0.45 g of propane was transferred to
100cm3 of water to raise its temperature by 20°C. What is the
enthalpy change in kJ? (Assum that 1 cm3 of water has a mass
of 1g, this specific capacity of water is 4.18 Jg-1 °C-1)
(A) 0.836 kJ (B) 8.36 kJ (C) 83.6 kJ (D) 836 kJ
68
► Exercises
Key Term o Bond energy (Bond enthalpy) is the amount of energy

required in bond breaking or making of one mole of chemical
bonds in a molecular element or compound.
Chemistry in Society o In burning fuels (such as paraffin, coal, propane, and butane)
the exothermic reaction takes place during the reaction.
o The endothermic reaction takes place during cooking food,
baking bread, boiling water, and warming the food.
o A lot of weight loss applications use Hess’s law concept to
calculate the number of calories burned during a workout.
o Hand warmers produce heat from the exothermic reaction and
Hess’s law can help to find out the total change in enthalpy
and deduce how many amounts of each ingredient are needed
to keep warm for hours.
o For the most effective energy choice, the industries such as
automobile manufacturers must determine how much energy
the engine consumes or generates while burning fuels by using
Hess’s law.
Exercises 1. What energy transformation takes place in electric generator?

(A) light energy into electrical energy
(B) electrical energy int thermal energy
(C) mechanical energy into electrical energy
(D) chemical energy into thermal energy
2. When the energy needed to break bonds is ___________ the
energy needed to form bonds, the reaction is exothermic.
(A) less than (B) greater than (C) equal to (D) larger than
3. A process in which the system absorbs heat from its
surrounding is called_________.
(A) exothermic reaction (B) endothermic reaction
(C) oxidation (D) combination
4. The heat absorbed or released in a process at standard
conditions of temperature and pressure is called the _______.
(A) heat content (B) enthalpy
(C) ethanal change (D) standard enthalpy change
5. The standard conditions chosen for energy changes are
_______.
(A) 273 K and 1 atm (B) 0 K and 760 mmHg
(C) 298 K and 1 atm (D) –273 K and 101 kPa
6. Change in enthalpy of a system is due to heat supplied at a
constant_____.
(A) temperature (B) mass (C) pressure (D) volume
69
7. Which energy profile diagram best represents the thermal

decomposition of limestone?
(A) (B)
product
Energy
reactant
Energy
reactant product
progress of reaction
progress of reaction product
(C) reactant (D)
Energy
Energy
reactant
product
8. The standard enthalpy change of _____ of a compound is the
enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed
from its element under standard conditions.
(A) reaction (B) formation (C) combustion (D) neutralization
9. Which one is the thermochemical equation for formation of
ethanol?
(A) C(graphite) + H2(g) + O2(g) → C2H2OH(l) ∆Hfθ = –235 kJmol-1
(B) C(graphite)+ H2(g) + O2(g) → C2H5OH (l) ∆Hcθ = –235 kJmol-1
1
(C) 2C(graphite)+3H2(g)+ 2O2(g)→C2H5OH (l) ∆Hfθ = –235 kJmol-1
5 1
(D) 2C(graphite)+ 2H2(g) + 2O2(g) → C2H5OH(l) ∆Hcθ = –235 kJmol-1
10. The highly accurate values of enthalpy changes of combustion
can be measured by using a special apparatus called_____.
(A) thermometer (B) manometer
(C) barometer (D) bomb calorimeter
11. The enthalpy of combustion of methanol is –720 kJmol-1.
What is the amount of energy released per gram during
combustion? (C = 12, H = 1, O = 16)
(A) 2.25 kJ g–1 (B) 22.5 kJ g–1 (C) 225 kJ g–1 (D) 2250 kJ g–1
12. Hydrogen reacts with chlorine as follows.
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) H = –184 kJmol-1
The H-H bond energy is 436 kJmol-1 and the Cl – Cl bond
energy is 242 kJmol-1. What is the H-Cl bond energy?
(A) 247 kJ (B) 431 kJ (C) 494 kJ (D) 862 kJ
70
71
Chapter 3
CHEMICAL KINETICS:
RATES OF REACTION
3.1 Reaction Rates
3.2 Collision Theory and Activation Energy
3.3 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
Learning Outcomes

to:
o express the rate of a chemical reaction in terms of
change in concentration of reactants and products;
o determine the rate of reaction;
o explain the important role of collision theory;
o define the term activation energy;
o describe the effects of changes in the concentration of
reactants, particle size of reactants, pressure of gases,
temperature and light on the rate of a reaction;
o differentiate the catalytic effects of positive, negative,
homogeneous, heterogeneous catalysts and
biocatalysts.
72
3.1 ► Reaction Rates
Previously, we learned how to write chemical equations to express

chemical reactions and then use these equations to calculate the
amounts of products produced and reactants consumed in such
Explosion of dynamite reactions. Every reaction has a rate, or speed, at which it proceeds.
(within a second) Different chemical reactions occur at different rates (speeds).
Some are fast and some are very slow. For example, an explosion
of dynamite, striking of a match, and burning of magnesium
ribbon take within a second, whereas weathering of rocks and
Spoiling of preserved food
(weeks, months) rusting of an iron pipe happen for years. Chemical reactions occur
all around us, crucially important in environmental, biological,
and industrial processes. For instance, depletion of the ozone layer
depends on the relative rates of reactions that produce and destroy
Rusting of an iron pipe ozone molecules; enzyme action is essential in food preservatives;
(months, years) the economical synthesis of ammonia to produce fertiliser
depends on the rate at which gaseous nitrogen and hydrogen can
be converted to ammonia. Hence, knowledge of reaction rates is
required in drug design, pollution control, and food processing.
The study of reaction rates is known as “chemical kinetics”. In this
Weathering of rocks
(very slow for years)
chapter, the rate of reaction that is central to understanding the
chemical reactions will be focused.
3.1 Reaction Rates
Lesson Objectives o To express the rate of a chemical reaction in terms of change

in concentration of reactants and products
o To determine the rate of reaction
observing, reasoning, manipulation, and critical thinking
Rate is a measure of how fast or how slow the reaction is. To

describe the quantitative measurement of a reaction rate, it is
necessary to specify how fast the reactants are used up or the
products are formed.
An iron nail reacts slowly in the air as it rusts. White phosphorus
bursts into flames when exposed to air. Candle wax burns only
after the wick of the candle is lighted. These reactions with the
oxygen in the air take place at different rates. The rate of reaction
varies greatly for different reactions and under different
conditions. The rate of reaction means measuring the change in
the amount of a product produced or a reactant used up in the time
taken for that change.
73
Chapter 3 ► Chemical Kinetics: Rates of Reactions
In other words, the reaction rate is usually expressed as the change

in the amount of a reactant used up or the product formed in a unit
of time.
For the progress of a simple reaction (Reactant A→Product B),
the rate of this reaction can be illustrated as shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1
Plots Showing Rate of Reaction
in Terms of
(a) Decrease in Concentration
of Reactant A
(b) Increase in Concentration
of Product B with Time
Consider, as an example, the reaction between magnesium ribbon

and hydrochloric acid. Magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric
acid giving off hydrogen gas according to the following chemical
equation:
Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
This reaction can be readily observed in how long it takes before
Figure 3.2 there is no magnesium left in the flask. In other words, the
Measuring the Volume of reactants have been used up. Alternatively, how quickly the
Hydrogen Gas Released with hydrogen gas evolved during the reaction. The volume of
Time by Gas Syringe Method
hydrogen gas released in the process of reaction at time intervals
can be measured as shown in Figure 3.2.
The rate of reaction (in terms of the reactant) is expressed as
mass of Mg reacted
rate of disappearance of Mg = time
Similarly, the rate of reaction (in terms of the product) is expressed
as
volume of H2 collected
rate of formation of H2 = time
Thus, the rate of a reaction can be expressed as the change in the
amount (mass, volume or concentration) of reactants or products
per unit of time.
rate = change in the amount (mass,volume,or concentration) of reactants or products
time taken for this change
If the substance is a gas, the amount consumed or formed is

expressed in pressure units or as measured in volume.
Concentration units are used if the reactant or product is in
solution. The time measurement is expressed in whatever units fit
the reaction (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months or years).
74
Generally, in chemical reactions, the rate of a reaction in solution

is measured in terms of a decrease in the concentration of the
reactant or an increase in the concentration of the product per unit
time at a constant temperature.
change in concentration
rate = change in time
concentration at time t2 – concentration at time t1
= t2 − t1
∆ [reactant]
rate of reactant used up =- ∆t
∆ [product]
rate of product formed =+ ∆t
where the delta (Δ) means change and the square bracket [ ]
represents molar concentration. The minus (–) sign means a
decrease in the concentration of the reactant. The plus (+) sign
means an increase in the concentration of the product. Rate is
expressed as a positive quantity.
𝑘
For a general chemical reaction aA + bB → cC + dD
where a, b, c, and d are the stoichiometric coefficients of the
reactants and products in the balanced chemical equation, and k is
the rate constant, which explains the relationship between the
molar concentration of the reactants and the rate of a chemical
reaction.
1 ∆[A] 1 ∆[B]
Thus, the rate for the reaction is rate = − a = −b
∆t ∆t
1 ∆[C] 1 ∆[D]
= =d
c ∆t ∆t
The mole ratios from the balanced chemical equation can be used
to determine the rates of change in concentrations of products and
reactants. The rate of reaction can then be derived from any one
of these individual rates.
Example 1:
When the following reaction of zinc and dilute hydrochloric acid
takes place, 30 g of zinc has been used up after 2 min. Calculate
the rate of the reaction in terms of the mole per second.
(Zn = 65.38)
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Solution:
1 mol
moles of zinc = 30 g × = 0.46 mol
65.38 g
reaction time (in seconds) t = 2 × 60 = 120 s
moles of zinc used 0.46 mol
rate = = = 0.004 mol s-1
time 120 s
The rate of reaction is 0.004 mol s-1.
75
Example 2:
Write the rate expressions for the following reactions in terms of
the disappearance of the reactants and the appearance of the
products.
(a) C6H12O6 (s) → 2C2H5OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g)
(b) 3O2 (g) → 2O3 (g)
Solution:
∆[C6 H12 O6 ] 1 ∆[C2 H5 OH] 1 ∆[CO2 ]
(a) rate = − = =
∆t 2 ∆t 2 ∆t
1 ∆[O2 ] 1 ∆[O3 ]
(b) rate = − 3 = −2
∆t ∆t
Example 3:
If the concentration of H2 is 0.674 mol dm-3 at time t1 = 1 s and
0.526 mol dm-3 at time t2 = 2 s after the reaction begins, calculate
the rate of the following reaction:
H2 (g) + 2ICl (g) → I2 (g) + 2HCl (g)
Solution:
∆[H2 ]
rate = −
∆t
0.526 mol dm−3 – 0.674 mol dm−3
= (2 s – 1s)
– 0.148 mol dm−3
= = 0.148 mol dm-3
1s
The rate of the reaction is 0.148 mol dm-3.
Example 4:
In the reaction 2A (aq) → 4B (aq) + C (aq), the decomposition of
compound A at 300 K in a solution with constant volume can be
followed by monitoring the concentration of A. Initially (at t = 0),
the concentration of A is 2.00 mol dm-3, and after 120 s, it is
reduced to 1.76 mol dm-3. Calculate the rate of the reaction.
Solution:
Δ[A] = [A]t – [A]0 = (1.76 – 2.00) mol dm-3 = – 0.24 mol dm-3
1 ∆[A]
rate = − 2 ∆t
1 – 0.24 mol dm−3
= −2( ) = 1.0 × 10-3 mol dm-3s-1
120 s)
The rate of reaction is 1.0 × 10-3 mol dm-3s-1.
76
understanding of the rate of reaction. Other relevant activities
Group work to develop students’ collaboration, communication,

Activity (1)
observation, problem solving, manipulation, and critical thinking
skills
Objective To measure the rate of reaction in terms of a reactant used up in

the time taken

o 1st member: put 2 g of baking soda into a conical flask, fit
the flask with a cork;
o 2 member: syringe 25 cm3 of vinegar into the flask
nd
through the cork and record the initial time

(t1). After bubbling has stopped, record the
final time (t2); using a stopwatch;
rd
o 3 member: put 5 g of baking soda into a conical flask, fit
the flask with a cork;
o 4 member: syringe 25 cm3 of vinegar into the flask
th
through the cork and record the initial time

(t1). After bubbling has stopped, record the
final time (t2); using a stopwatch.
o Tabulate the results and calculate the rate of reaction.
o Observe the changes and predict, through observation and
calculating, the rate of reaction for both processes.
(By doing this activity, each group should develop
cooperation and problem solving skills for examining the
rate of reaction.)
77
o Conclude by telling students that the quantitative

measurement of a reaction rate is necessary to specify how fast
the reactants are used up or the products are formed.
o What units can you use to measure the rate of reaction?
o Which gas is released when vinegar is added to baking
soda?
o Why does a vitamin C effervescent tablet fizz in water?
necessary.

reasoning, problem solving, and critical thinking skills
Objective To describe the rate of chemical reaction

o Tell each member to do the following instructions:
o Write the chemical equation as mentioned in the given
example;
o 1st member: write the rate expression for this reaction;
o 2nd member: calculate the rate of disappearance of B;
o 3rd member: calculate the rate of formation of C;
(By doing this activity, each group should develop a
conceptual understanding of the rate expression as well as
reasoning and problem solving skills for the reaction rate
by assembling the given information.)
o Ask 2 or 3 groups to share their results with the class. After
o Coordinate by telling the students that the mole ratios in the
balanced chemical equation can be used to figure out how fast
the concentrations of products and reactants are changing.
78
3.2 ► Collision Theory and Activation Energy
o For the chemical reaction H2 (g) + Br2 (g) → 2HBr (g),
compare the rates of consumption of the reactants with the
formation of the product.
o What is the rate expression of reaction for the given
reaction?
A + 9B → 7C + 4D
o Scan the written responses to assess each student’s
understanding.
Review Questions 1. Different chemical reactions occur at __________ rates.

(A) same (B) equal (C) different (D) identical
2. __________ units are used if the reactant or product is in
solution.
(A) Mole (B) Volume (C) Concentration (D) Pressure
3. The reaction time is __________ to the rate of reaction.
(A) inversely proportional (B) directly proportional
(C) equal (D) different
4. The reaction rate is __________ to the change in concentration
of reactant.
5. The unit of rate of a reaction is expressed as __________.
(A) mole dm3 s (B) mole dm-3 s-1
(C) mole dm-3 s (D) mole dm3 s-1
Key Term o Rate of a reaction is measured in terms of the change in amount of

a reactant or a product per unit of time.
3.2 Collision Theory and Activation Energy
Lesson Objectives o To explain the important role of collision theory

o To define the term activation energy
o To develop the skills of collaboration, communication, reasoning,
79
(a) Collision Theory

Collision orientation A number of variables mentioned in Section 3.3 affect the rate of
and sufficient energy a reaction. To understand why these variables affect reaction rates,
the conditions that are necessary for a reaction to take place should
be considered. Collision theory explains how chemical reactions
occur. It is based on the kinetic molecular theory of gases.
Reactant particles moving in random directions possess kinetic
energy. When they frequently collide with one another, the energy
is transferred as a result of the collision. Not all collisions between
reactant particles result in the formation of reaction products. For
a reaction to occur, colliding particles must impact with certain
minimum energy known as an activation energy. This section
describes the required conditions of how reactions occur.
Figure 3.3
Different Orientations of
Colliding Molecules
(a) Incorrect Orientation
(b) Correct Orientation
The rate of reaction depends on the rate of successful collisions

between reactant particles. Reacting particles must collide with
sufficient energy to form the activated complex (a temporary
species formed by the reactant particles as a result of the collision
before they form the product). The more successful collisions
there are, the more the activated complex leads to the rate of a
reaction being faster.
In the molecular view of the matter, it is postulated that chemical
reactions depend on the collisions between the reacting particles –
atoms, molecules or ions. Hence, the collision theory can be stated
as below.
Reacting particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) must collide in the
correct orientation with sufficient energy to overcome the energy
barrier to react.
According to the collision theory, a reaction will speed up if (i)
the frequency of collision increases and (ii) the proportion of
particles with energy that is greater than the activation energy
increases.
Collision theory can be used to explain the main factors such as
concentration, temperature, pressure, and particle size, affecting
the rate of chemical reactions.
80
(b) Activation Energy In terms of the collision theory, for a chemical reaction to occur,
the colliding molecules must possess at least a certain minimum
energy necessary to rearrange the original bonds breaking or new
bonds forming. The activation energy (Ea) is the minimum
energy that reactant particles must possess for a successful
collision to take place in a reaction. During the progress of a
reaction, an unstable intermediate which is known as an activated
complex, having required minimum energy, is formed before
producing a product.
For example, a hydrogen molecule and an iodine molecule collide
to form an unstable intermediate [H2I2] which exists for a short
time and then breaks up to form two molecules of hydrogen
iodide.
H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ [H2I2] → 2HI (g)
Activated complex
It can be shown diagrammatically as follows:
In order to get the product HI, the reactants must pass through a
short-lived, high-energy transition state. The minimum energy
that needs to be reached in this state is equal to the activation
energy (Ea) for that reaction. Hence, the activation energy
represents an energy barrier for the reaction, and it has a different
value in different reactions.
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.4 shows the diagram of energy change when H2 gas reacts
Energy Profile Diagram for
the Exothermic Reaction with I2 gas to form HI as a product. In this reaction, since the final
between Hydrogen and lodine product HI has less energy than that of the reactants, the reaction
is the exothermic reaction. Some energy is released when the
activated complex [H2I2] leads to the formation of the products.
When there is sufficient energy to overcome the energy barrier,
the formation of the product is favourable. If the energy is not
enough, it cannot overcome the energy barrier and the
decomposition of the product, that is, back to reactants will occur.
A high Ea means that relatively few collisions have the required
energy to produce the activated complex, and hence, the reaction
rate is slow. With a low Ea, more collisions have sufficient energy
to react, and the reaction rate is fast.
81
understanding of collision theory and activation energy. Other

Objective To explain the collision theory based on orientation factors

o 1st member: use two yellow balls and two white balls to
depict the unsuccessful collision;
nd
o 2 member: use balls to demonstrate a successful
collision;
rd
o 3 member: state three conditions that must be met to
occur a reaction.
(By doing this activity, each group should develop an
understanding of the required conditions of how reactions
occur based on collision theory.)
o Conclude by telling the students that the particles must have
enough energy for a successful (or effective) collision to
produce a reaction. The rate of reaction depends on the rate of
successful collisions between the reactant particles.
o Are all collisions successful in producing a chemical
reaction?
o Why do not all collisions between particles cause a
reaction?
82
o What are the important conditions in collision theory?

o If necessary, explain and ask questions on the same topics
again.

Objective To realise the energy barrier in collision theory

o Encourage students to study the activation energy before
doing the activity.
o Let each group copy the given figure.
o Tell them to do the following instruction:
o 1st member: label the positions of the reactants, products,
and activated complex;
nd
o 2 member: consider what happens if the energy is not
enough to overcome the energy barrier;
rd
o 3 member: consider what happens when there is
sufficient energy to overcome the energy
barrier;
communication and critical thinking skills to describe the
energy barrier in collision theory.)
answers with the class. After the group has shared, the class
raises their hands to indicate that they agree with the
presentation. (If other groups have additional information,
they could discuss it with the class.) Monitor the class and
check their ideas and give feedback.
responses.
o To reflect on their learning, assess a student’s knowledge by
o What is the name given to the minimum amount of energy
needed by particles for them to react when they collide?
o How is the activated complex related to the activation
energy?
83
o Does an activated complex have high potential energy?

answered correctly.
1. Collision theory is based on the kinetic molecular theory of

Review Questions
__________.
(A) solids (B) solutions (C) liquids (D) gases
2. In a chemical reaction, __________ molecules must collide
with each other with sufficient energy and in the correct
orientation for a reaction to occur.
(A) reactant (B) product (C) catalyst (D) additive
3. Activated complex is a __________ species formed by the
reactant particles as a result of the collision before they form
the product.
(A) rigid (B) constant (C) temporary (D) fastness
4. The activation energy is the __________ energy that reactant
particles must possess for a sufficient collision to take place in
a reaction.
(A) maximum (B) minimum (C) higher (D) smaller
5. Activated complex is a __________ arrangement of atoms that
may form products or break apart to reform the reactants.
(A) temporary unstable (B) very stable
(C) permanent unstable (D) random
Key Terms o Collision theory states that a chemical reaction only takes
place when two reacting molecules collide in the correct
orientation with sufficient kinetic energy.
o Successful collision is a collision that causes a chemical
reaction.
o Activated complex is a temporary unstable arrangement of
atoms that may form products or break apart to reform the
reactants.
o Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy that
reacting particles must have to form the activated complex and
lead to a reaction.
o Transition state (also known as an intermediate state) is a
highly energetic state that would be highly unstable.
84
3.3 ► Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
3.3 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
Lesson Objectives o To describe the effects of changes in concentration of

reactants, the particle size of reactants, pressure of gases,
temperature and light on the rate of a reaction
o To differentiate the catalytic effects of positive, negative,
homogeneous, heterogeneous catalysts and biocatalysts
(enzymes)
Although a reaction needs to take place rapidly, it need not be

dangerous. For example, the controlled burning of fuel in an
internal combustion engine is required to avoid fire or explosion.
On the other hand, some undesirable reactions, such as the
spoiling of food, need to take place more slowly. Thus, to bring
the reaction under control in desirable ways, what factors
determine its rate will be studied in this section.
(a) Effect of For many reactions involving liquids or gases, increasing the
Concentration concentrations of the reactants increases the rate of reactions. The
of Reactants effect of concentration on the rate of reaction can be explained by
the collision theory. If more molecules or ions of the reactants are
in the reaction area, then there is a greater chance of more effective
collisions per unit time and, thus, more reactions will occur. For
example, zinc granule reacts fairly slowly with 1.0 mol dm-3 dilute
hydrochloric acid but much faster with the more concentrated 6.0
mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid as a function of time (Figure 3.5). The
higher the concentration of reactant hydrochloric acid, more
collisions on the surface of the zinc will occur throughout the time
period (Time 1 to Time 3). Hence, the reactant zinc will be used
up more quickly and the rate of reaction will be faster.
Figure 3.5
The Progress of
Reactions of Zn with
Different Concentrations
of HCl during Three
Periods of Time
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
85
(b) Effect of Particle Size In reactions involving solids, a reaction occurs at the boundary
surface between reactants. The rate of a reaction involving a solid
reactant is increased by increasing the surface area of the solid.
The smaller the particle size, the larger the surface area will be. If
the surface is larger, it will be hit by more moving reacting
particles per unit time, and the rate of reaction will be faster.
For example, aluminium foil reacts moderately with sodium
hydroxide solution only when warmed, but powdered aluminium
of the same mass reacts rapidly in the cold. Reducing the size of
particles increases the surface area, increases the number of
collisions per second, increases the number of effective collisions,
and thus increases the rate of reaction. Large pieces of wood are
difficult to ignite whereas small pieces burn more rapidly.
(c) Effect of Pressure Changing the pressure does not affect the rate of reaction that only
involves solids or liquids. But pressure affects the rate of a
reaction involving gases. Increasing the pressure increases the
speed of the reaction. The pressure is inversely proportional to the
volume of a gas at a constant temperature (Figure 3.6). At low
pressure, the volume becomes larger, the number of collisions of
gaseous molecules is smaller, and thus, the rate of reaction is
Figure 3.6 slower. At high pressure, the volume becomes smaller, the number
Effect of Pressure on the of collisions is greater, and thus, the rate of reaction is faster.
Collision of Gaseous
Molecules For example, food can cook faster in a pressure cooker than in a
pot, because trapped steam becomes hotter as the pressure
increases, causing more water molecules to collide and the
reaction to speed up.
(d) Effect of Temperature Most chemical reactions react faster at a high temperature than at
a low temperature. The kinetic energy of a gas is directly
proportional to the temperature. Therefore, increasing the
temperature also increases the kinetic energy, which means that
the molecules move faster and collide more frequently with
sufficient activation energy for the reaction to proceed
(Figure 3.7). Thus, the number of effective collisions per second
Figure 3.7 of the reacting particles increases, and hence, the rate of reaction
Effect of Temperature on
increases. For instance, the time required to hard-boil an egg in
Collision of Particles with
Energy water is much shorter at 100 °C than at 80 °C. On the other hand,
foods are cooled or frozen to slow down the chemical reactions
that result in the spoiling of food, the ripening of fruit and the
souring of milk.
86
The effect of temperature on reaction rates can also be explained

by using the energy distribution curve also known as the
Boltzmann distribution. In general, the area under the curve
represents the number of particles within a certain energy range.
The shaded area shows the number of particles with energy greater
than the activation energy. Let us suppose that chemical reactions
take place only if the collided particles possess activation energy,
Figure 3.8
Boltzmann Distribution of Ea.
Molecular Energies at Figure 3.8 is the plot of energy distribution curves at two different
Temperatures T1 and T2,
temperatures. The area under the distribution curve at temperature
Showing the Activation
Energy T1 gives the fraction of the number of molecules having particular
energy while the shaded area represents the number of molecules
with energy greater than the activation energy, Ea. When the
temperature is increased to T2, the shape of the distribution curve
changes. It flattens and spreads out as shown in the figure,
showing that the fraction of molecules with energy greater than Ea
is much larger at the higher temperature, T2. The fraction of
molecules with energy greater than the activation energy will
move faster and collide more often by increasing the temperature.
Hence, the reaction becomes faster. That is, increasing the
temperature can lead to increasing the rate of a reaction.
Generally, for a ten degrees rise in temperature, this area under the
curve approximately doubles as does the rate of reactions.
(e) Effect of Catalysts A catalyst is defined as a substance which alters the rate of a
chemical reaction but remains chemically unchanged at the end of
the reaction. Most catalysts make chemical reactions go faster.
These catalysts are known as positive catalysts. The most
common positive catalysts used in the chemical industries are iron
in the Haber Process for manufacturing ammonia; vanadium(V)
oxide or platinised asbestos in the Contact Process for
manufacturing sulphur trioxide; and manganese(IV) oxide in the
Figure 3.9 preparation of oxygen from hydrogen peroxide. Sometimes, a
Effect of Catalyst on the chemical reaction needs to go more slowly or suppress unwanted
Activation Energy of a
Reaction reactions. For instance, the alcohol acts as a catalyst to slow down
the oxidation of sodium sulphite to sodium sulphate. This kind of
catalyst is known as a negative catalyst.
Generally, the catalysts provide an alternative pathway for the
reaction with lower activation energy, and thus increasing the
reaction rate. Figure 3.9 is the energy diagram which shows the
reaction progress of uncatalysed and catalysed reactions.
87
In the diagram, the pathway corresponds to the activation energy

of a catalysed reaction (blue curve) being less than that of an
uncatalysed reaction (red curve), and thus the rate of catalysed
reaction is faster than that of uncatalysed reaction.
Catalysts may be homogeneous, that is, uniformly mixed with the
reactants, or heterogeneous, in which case the catalyst and the
reactants ar in different phases. Homogeneous catalysts most
often catalyse the gaseous and aqueous reactions to increase their
reaction rates.
For example, in the manufacturing process (Lead chamber
process) of sulphuric acid, nitrogen oxide acts as a catalyst in the
oxidation of sulphur dioxide to speed up the reaction but no net
loss of gas NO in the overall reaction.
NO
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2SO3 (g)
Most heterogeneous catalysts are solids that catalyse either
gaseous or liquid reactants. The reactions take place on the surface
of the solid catalyst to speed up. For example, in ammonia
oxidation process (Ostwald process), Pt - Rh catalyst speeds up
the reaction.
Catalysts are important for the proper functioning of the biological

systems. Enzymes act as biocatalysts for specific biochemical
reactions in living systems. The most well-known digestive
enzymes, ptyalin in saliva and pepsin in gastric juice, catalyse to
hasten the breakdown of large molecules, such as starch and
protein, into simpler molecules. In general, the reaction rate using
enzymes is much faster than inorganic catalysts, often increased
by a factor of 106 to 1012.
(f) Effect of Light Some chemical reactions obtain the energy they need from light.
Reactions that are initiated by light are called photochemical
reactions. The brighter the light, the faster is the reaction. If the
intensity of light (visible or ultraviolet) is greater, the more
reactant molecules gain the required energy (activation energy)
and the faster the reaction speed. When the reactant molecules
absorb the light (hν), a photochemical reaction takes place, such
as photosynthesis in green plants, a chain reaction in ozone
depletion, and the decomposition of silver bromide in
photographic films.
88
The reaction between hydrogen and chlorine is extremely slow in

the dark, but it becomes explosive when the reaction mixture is
exposed to intense sunlight via a chain reaction.
H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → 2HCl (g) slow
ℎ𝜈
H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → 2HCl (g) fast
understanding of the factors affecting reaction rates. Other

manipulation, reasoning, and critical thinking skills
Objective To determine the factors affecting the rates of reaction

o Divide equally one tablet into four pieces and distribute them
to each group.
o Weigh four pieces of the tablet.
o 1st member: pour 50 cm3 each of tap water into two
glasses. Put one and two pieces into each
glass. Record the time for the piece(s) to be
dissolved completely;
nd
o 2 member: pour 50 cm3 of hot water into a glass. Put
one piece of the tablet into the glass. Record
the time for the piece of the tablet to be
dissolved completely;
rd
o 3 member: make a piece of the tablet into powder. Pour
50 cm3 of tap water into a glass. Put powder
into the glass. Record the time for the
powder to be dissolved completely.
o Tabulate the results by discussing the rate of chemical
reaction (slow/fast) under the following conditions:
concentration, temperature, and size of particles.
89

conceptual understanding of factors influencing the rate of
reactions as well as reasoning and critical thinking skills to
find the rate of reaction.)
o Coordinate their responses by telling them these factors are
important to bring the reaction under control in desirable ways.
o Why does a higher temperature increase the rate of a
reaction?
o Why do most reactions begin at a fast rate and then get
slower and slower?
o How does the reaction rate change with the surface area?
necessary.

Objective To understand the factors influencing the rate of reaction

o Distribute nine cards to each group.
o Let each member of the group randomly collect three cards out
of nine.
o Tell each member to describe the statements on his/her cards
that would either increase or decrease the rate of reaction.
(Using the results of this activity, each group should develop
knowledge on applying factors influencing the rate of
reactions to adjust the rate of reaction through the ways that
are mentioned on their cards.)
90

o Coordinate their responses to the description of different
processes that affect the rate of reaction.
asking questions as follows:
o Catalysts permit reactions to proceed along a _____
energy path. (higher/lower)
o Why does breaking up a solid reactant increase the rate of
reaction?
o Which change would decrease the rate of the following
reaction?
catalyst
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2SO3 (g)
necessary.
1. The effect of __________ on reaction rate can be explained by

Review Questions using energy distribution curve.
(A) temperature (B) pressure (C) volume (D) concentration
2. When the reactant molecules absorb the light, __________
reaction takes place.
(A) photochemical (B) chemical (C) physical (D) analytical
3. Homogeneous catalyst is a catalyst which is in the
__________ phase as the reactants in a catalyzed reaction.
(A) different (B) same (C) distinct (D) divergent
4. Enzymes are __________ that act as catalysts for specific
biochemical reaction.
(A) lipids (B)fats (C) proteins (D) oils
5. The reaction rate of marble chips (CaCO3) with 1 mole dm-3
HCl aqueous solution is slow. If 3 mole dm-3 HCl aqueous
solution is used instead of 1 mole dm-3 HCl, the rate of reaction
will __________.
(A) decrease (B) increase (C) constant (D) equal
91
Key Terms o Catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of a chemical

reaction but remains chemically unchanged at the end of the
reaction.
o Positive catalyst is a catalyst that increases the rate of a
chemical reaction.
o Negative catalyst is a catalyst that decreases the rate of a
chemical reaction.
o Phase is a portion of a physical state (solid, liquid, gas) that is
homogeneous throughout, and can be separated physically
from other phases.
o Homogeneous catalyst is a catalyst which is in the same
phase as the reactants in a catalysed reaction.
o Heterogeneous catalyst is a catalyst which is in a different
phase from the reactants in a catalysed reaction.
o Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts for specific
biochemical reactions.
o Photochemical reaction is a chemical reaction initiated by
the absorption of energy in the form of light, resulting in
specific products.
Chemical in Society o When large amounts of flammable powdered substances

collect in grain elevators, coal mines, and chemical industries,
violent explosions can occur.
o Storage of preserved foods at a sub-zero temperature in a
refrigerator is effective for slowing the rate of bacterial decay
and also helping keep food fresh for longer periods of time.
o At high altitudes with low temperature less than 100 °C, it
takes a long time (about 30 min) to boil an egg. In the plains
with high pressure, water boils at 100 °C, so the boiling time
is shorter than that on the hills.
o In many industrial processes, enzymes from organisms
(usually bacteria) are widely used in specific reactions such as
the conversion of glucose to sweeter-tasting fructose, the
manufacture of new antibiotics and the manufacture of
laundry detergents.
o Corrosion inhibitors like imidazoline and quaternary amine
prevent H2S and CO2 corrosion. Volatile corrosion inhibitors
(VCI) such as morpholine or hydrazine prevent corrosion in
boilers. Wrapping metals in volatile corrosion inhibitor-coated
paper is common short-term protection against moisture and
humidity.
92
► Exercises
Exercises 1. __________ action is essential in food preservatives.

(A) Enzyme (B) Environmental
(C) Biological (D) Industrial
2. The reaction rate is usually expressed as the change in the
amount of reactant used up or the product formed in a unit of
__________.
(A) temperature (B) volume (C) time (D) pressure
3. The rate of reaction depends on the rate of successful
collisions between __________ molecules.
(A) reactant (B) product (C) catalyst (D) additive
4. For solid system, the unit of the rate is expressed as
__________.
(A) g s-1 (B) mole dm-3 s-1 (C) mole s-1 (D) atm s-1
5. The pressure is __________ to the volume of a gas at a
constant temperature.
6. At __________ pressure, the rate of a reaction is faster.
(A) high (B) low (C) ambient (D) equal
7. In a chemical reaction, the rate of reaction in solution is in
terms of __________ per unit time at constant temperature.
(A) an increase in concentration of reactant
(B) a decrease in concentration of reactant
(C) a decrease in concentration of product
(D) a decrease in concentration of reactant and product
8. When a catalyst decreases the rate of chemical reaction, it is
called a __________.
(A) catalyst (B) positive catalyst
(C) negative catalyst (D) biocatalysts
9. For a general chemical reaction a A →products. The rate for
the reaction is __________.
1 ∆[𝐴] 1 ∆[𝐴]
(A) Rate = - 𝑎 (B) Rate = + 𝑎
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆[𝐴] ∆[𝐴]
(C) Rate = - 𝑎 (D) Rate = 𝑎
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
10. In the reaction 2A → product, the rate of reaction is
__________.
∆[𝐴] ∆[𝐴]
(A) Rate =-2 (B) Rate=-
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
1 ∆[𝐴] 1 ∆[𝐴]
(C) Rate =- 2 (D) Rate =+ 2
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
93
94
Chapter 4
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
4.1 State of Dynamic Equilibrium
4.2 Le Chatelier’s Principle and Factors Affecting
the Chemical Equilibrium
4.3 Equilibrium Constants
Learning Outcomes

to:
o explain the reversible reaction and the dynamic
nature of a chemical equilibrium;
o apply Le Chatelier’s Principle to explain the
effects of changes in concentration, temperature,
or pressure, on a closed system at equilibrium;
o predict the direction of an equilibrium shift by
any change in conditions;
o write an expression for the equilibrium constants
Kc, and Kp from a given balanced chemical
equation;
o calculate the values of equilibrium constants and
concentration of each substance from the
appropriate data;
o explain how equilibrium principles are applied to
the production of industrial chemicals.
95
Chapter 4 ► Chemical Equilibrium
Equilibrium means a state of balance. There are two types of

equilibrium; static equilibrium and dynamic equilibrium. Let us
look at some examples of static and dynamic equilibria in our
everyday life. Consider a book at rest on a table. The weight of a
book gets balanced by the normal reaction force from the table to
the book. Both the forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction, resulting in static equilibrium. All chemical reactions
are dynamics. In a sealed bottle of soda, carbon dioxide is present
in both the liquid phase and the gaseous phase (bubbles). Inside
the sealed soda bottle, the two forms of carbon dioxide are in
dynamic equilibrium. This is because the gaseous carbon dioxide
is turning into a liquid at the same rate that the liquid carbon
dioxide is turning back into a gas. Similar behaviour of reactant(s)
and product(s) can be observed in a chemical reaction.
Chemical equilibria are also important in numerous biological and
environmental processes. The maintenance of equilibrium in
reactions between haemoglobin and oxygen in human blood is one
of the processes involving human health. The carbon cycle
contributes to the important equilibrium process that minimises
the impacts of carbon dioxide on the environment. To understand
the equilibrium of a chemical reaction, the basic concepts involved
in chemical equilibrium and the importance of equilibrium
considerations will be studied in this chapter. Additionally, some
applications of chemical equilibria in the chemical industry are
also highlighted.
4.1 State of Dynamic Equilibrium
Lesson Objectives o To explain the reversible reaction and the dynamic nature of a
chemical equilibrium
o To develop the skills of collaboration, communication, and
critical thinking
A chemical equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium; that is, reactants

are continuously being changed to products and products are
continuously being changed back to reactants. A dynamic
equilibrium exists once a reversible reaction occurs.
96
4.1 ► State of Dynamic Equilibrium
(a) Reversible Reaction Many chemical reactions go to completion. For example, fuels are
and Equilibrium burned in the air to produce carbon dioxide and water, and the
reaction stops when all the fuels have been used up. The products
cannot be converted back to reactants. But, some reactions do not
go to completion, and they can be reversed. There is the forward
reaction where reactants are converted into products, and the
reverse reaction where the products are converted back into the
starting reactants under the appropriate conditions. These
reactions are reversible reactions.
The following is an example of reversible reaction which can be
used as a qualitative illustration of chemical equilibrium.
The symbol ⇌ is used to represent the reversible reaction. In the

forward reaction, reactants A and B combine to form product C.
In the reverse reaction, C decomposes into A and B. So, a
reversible reaction is one that can occur in both the forward and
reverse directions, and the conversion of reactants to products and
the conversion of products to reactants occur simultaneously.
Reversible reactions that happen in a closed system eventually
reach equilibrium. When the rates of the forward and reverse
reactions balance, the reversible reaction is in equilibrium.
(b) Dynamic Nature of If a reversible reaction is in a closed system, the system can reach
Equilibrium a state called a dynamic equilibrium. In dynamic equilibrium, the
forward and reverse reactions do not stop; rather, they continue to
occur at the same rate, leading to constant concentrations of the
reactants and products. Figures 4.1 (a) and (b) depict the
concentration changes of the reactant and product and the reaction
rates with respect to time.
Figure 4.1
(a) Changes in Concentration
of Reactant and Product
with respect to Time
(b) Rates of Forward and
Reverse Reactions with
respect to Time
As shown in Figure 4.1 (a), it can be seen that, generally, the

reaction begins with only the concentrations of reactants and there
are no products formed.
97
As the reaction proceeds towards equilibrium, the concentrations

of reactants gradually decrease, whereas the concentrations of
products gradually increase. After a system has reached
equilibrium, as shown by the dotted line, the concentrations of all
substances remain constant.
As depicted in Figure 4.1 (b), the rate of the forward reaction is
high and the rate of the reverse reaction is low initially. As the
reaction proceeds, the rate of the forward reaction decreases and
the rate of the reverse reaction increases until both reactions occur
at the same rate. As indicated by the dotted line, the equilibrium
is reached when the two rates are equal. In equilibrium, the
forward and reverse reactions are still proceeding at an equal rate.
Thus, the equilibrium is dynamic in nature. This state of chemical
equilibrium is known as dynamic equilibrium. The above reaction
in dynamic equilibrium may be represented by the reversible
equation as below.
Generally, in chemical equilibrium, the reaction is still proceeding

at equal rates for the forward and reverse reactions, and the
concentrations of the reactants and products remain constant.
(c) Homogeneous and Based on the phase of the reactants and products, chemical
Heterogeneous equilibrium can be classified into homogeneous and
Chemical Equilibria heterogeneous chemical equilibria.
(i) Homogeneous In homogenous chemical equilibrium, the reactants and the

Chemical Equilibria products of chemical equilibrium are all in a single phase. For
example,
N2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2NO (g)
(ii) Heterogeneous In heterogeneous chemical equilibrium, the reactants and the

Chemical Equilibria products of chemical equilibrium are present in more than one
phase. Any combination of solid, liquid, or gas states, as well as
solutions, can exist. For example,
H2O (l) ⇌ H2O (g)
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) ⇌ 2Fe (s) + 3CO2 (g)
98
understanding of the nature of chemical equilibrium. Other

manipulation, and critical thinking skills
Objective To investigate the reversible reaction

o Tell each pair to do the following instructions:
o 1st member: place a few copper(II) sulphate crystals in a
test tube and heat the test tube strongly until
no other changes occur. Leave the test tube to
cool;
nd
o 2 member: add a few drops of water into it by using a
dropper;
rd
o 3 member: write the above chemical reaction and
determine whether it is reversible or
irreversible.
o Observe the colour changes and predict the change in
forward reaction and reverse reaction. (By doing this
activity, each group should develop critical thinking skills
for examining the reversible reaction.)
the group has shared, make the students raise their hands if
Monitor the class and check their ideas and give feedback.
o Coordinate their responses to familiarise themselves with the
forward reactions, reverse reactions, and reversible reactions.
99
o What is driven out of copper(II) sulphate crystal when
heated and what colour changes are observed? Is it a
forward or reverse reaction?
o What changes are observed by adding a few drops of
water? Is it a forward or reverse reaction?
o Give some examples of reversible reactions.
o Take informal polls about how many questions students
answered correctly.

Objective To describe the changes in concentrations of substances and rates

of chemical reactions at equilibrium

o Encourage each group to revise the dynamic nature of
equilibrium in Section 4.1 (b) before doing the activity.
o Tell each member to see the graphs (Figure 4.1), and consider
the following changes before doing the reaction, the initial
state of the reaction, during the reaction, and at equilibrium.
o Tell each member to discuss the following changes:
o 1st member: the concentration of reactant with time;
o 2nd member: the concentration of product with time;
o 3rd member: the rate of forward reaction with time; o 4th
member: the rate of reverse reaction with
time.
conceptual understanding of dynamic equilibrium
concerning changes in concentrations and rates with
reaction time.)
100
o Coordinate by telling students that the rates of forward and

reverse reactions are equal and concentrations of reactants and
products remain constant at the equilibrium.
o What are the two factors to be considered in whether the
reaction is at equilibrium or not?
o Equilibrium can occur _____ (only in a closed system or
both closed and open systems).
o In a reversible reaction at equilibrium, what can be said
about the amounts of reactants and products?
necessary.
1. The reaction of the reactants to form the products is called the

__________ reaction.
(A) forward (B) reverse (C) reversible (D) balanced
2. The reversible reaction is carried out in the __________
system to achieve dynamic equilibrium.
(A) open (B) closed
(C) homogeneous (D) heterogeneous
3. In the chemical equilibrium, the __________ of the reactants
and products remain constant.
(A) concentrations (B) heat
(C) temperature (D) pressure
4. A __________ system has only one phase.
(A) heterogeneous (B) dynamic
(C) homogeneous (D) static
5. Which of the following reactions is at equilibrium?
(C) H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2HI (g)

(D) H2 (g) + I2 (g) → 2HI (g)
Key Terms o Reversible reaction is a reaction that can proceed in the

forward as well as in the reverse directions under the
appropriate conditions.
101
o Closed system is a system that allows energy to enter and exit,

but matter can neither be gained nor lost.
o Dynamic equilibrium is a chemical equilibrium in which the
reaction is still proceeding at equal rates of the forward and
reverse reactions, and the concentrations of the reactants and
products remain constant.
o Homogeneous equilibrium is one in which the reactants and
the products of chemical equilibrium are all in a single phase.
o Heterogeneous equilibrium is one in which the reactants and
the products of chemical equilibrium are all in more than one
phase.
4.2 Le Chatelier’s Principle and Factors Affecting the Chemical Equilibrium
Lesson Objectives o To apply Le Chatelier’s principle to explain the effects of

changes in concentration, temperature, or pressure, on a closed
system at equilibrium;
o To predict the direction of an equilibrium shift by any change
in conditions;
As mentioned in Section 4.1(b), at dynamic equilibrium, the rates

of forward and reverse reactions are equal, and thus the
concentrations of reactants and products remain constant. In the
previous chapter, Rates of Reaction, the factors affecting the rate
of reaction are described. In this section, what effect these factors
may have on the position of equilibrium of a reaction will be
considered.
(a) Le Chatelier’s Le Chatelier’s principle is a qualitative guide to the effect of

Principle changes in concentration, temperature, and pressure on a system
at equilibrium. When one of these factors (stress) changes, the
position of chemical equilibrium is effectively altered. This idea
was discovered by French Chemist Henri Louis Le Chatelier in
1884. Le Chatelier's principle can be stated as below.
If a system is in equilibrium and when any of the factors affecting
the chemical equilibrium, such as temperature, pressure, or
concentration is changed, the equilibrium shifts (moves) so as to
cancel out the effect of the change.
102
4.2 ► Le Chatelier’s Principle and Factors Affecting the Chemical Equilibrium
In other words, if one of the factors affecting the system of

chemical equilibrium is changed, the system will respond
oppositely. This means, that by adding something, the system will
react to remove it; by removing something, the system will react
to replace it. After that, a new equilibrium will be established.
(b) Factors Affecting Once equilibrium is established in a system, no further change is

the Chemical apparent as long as the external factors remain unchanged. If the
Equilibrium external factors are altered, the system will shift to a new state of
equilibrium. The changes in concentration, temperature, and
pressure of the system (stress) are external factors that affect
equilibrium. The greater the stress, the more the direction of the
reaction shifts in response to the stress. In some cases, stress
causes no shift in the equilibrium, especially when the moles of
reactants and products are equal after the change in the pressure
of gases. Le Chatelier’s principle describes how a chemical
equilibrium shifts in response to a stress within an enclosed
system.
A change in concentration, temperature, or pressure makes a
difference in the amount of product formed in a reaction.
However, a catalyst does not affect the equilibrium concentrations
and there is no change in equilibrium.
Effect of Concentration A change in the concentration of one of the substances in an

on Equilibrium equilibrium system affects the equilibrium positions. Adding or
removing a reactant or product from a reaction mixture at
equilibrium will always disturb the equilibrium. Le Chatelier’s
principle predicts that in reaction A + B ⇌ C + D, the reaction will
shift in the direction that will minimise the change in
concentration caused by the addition or removal.
When the concentration of a reactant is increased (by adding
more), the system responds by removing the concentration of the
reactant. Thus, the reaction proceeds in the forward direction in
favour of products. Equilibrium shifts to the right to reestablish
equilibrium.
When the concentration of a reactant is decreased (by reducing it),
the system responds by adding the concentration of the reactant.
Thus, the reaction proceeds in the reverse direction in favour of
reactants. Equilibrium shifts to the left to reestablish equilibrium.
103
When the concentration of a product is increased (by adding

more), the system responds by removing the concentration of the
product. Thus, the reaction proceeds in the reverse direction in
favour of reactants. Equilibrium shifts to the left to reestablish
equilibrium.
When the concentration of a product is decreased (by reducing it),
the system responds by adding the concentration of the product.
Thus, the reaction proceeds in the forward direction in favour of
products. Equilibrium shifts to the right to reestablish equilibrium.
Example 1:
Predict the effect of an increasing concentration of SCN– ions on
the given equilibrium.
Solution:
By increasing the concentration of SCN–, a forward reaction will

be favoured. Equilibrium shifts from left to right and more
concentration of FeSCN2+ will be formed. The colour of the
solution becomes a deep red.
Effect of Temperature Changing the temperature can also affect the equilibrium position.
on Equilibrium The effect of temperature on chemical equilibrium depends upon
the heat changes (ΔH) of the reaction and follows Le Chatelier’s
principle. In other words, the effect of temperature on an
equilibrium depends on whether the reaction is exothermic or
endothermic. It is important to consider the forward reaction,
whether it is exothermic (heat released) or endothermic (heat
absorbed). If the forward reaction is exothermic, the reverse
reaction will be endothermic. If a thermochemical equation is
given, the value of heat change is for the forward reaction. A
temperature decrease favours an exothermic reaction, and a
temperature increase favours an endothermic reaction.
In the case of exothermic reactions (A ⇌ B ΔH = −), decreasing
the temperature favours the exothermic reaction by releasing heat.
Equilibrium shifts towards the forward reaction.
In the case of endothermic reactions (A ⇌ B ΔH = +), increasing
the temperature favours the endothermic reaction by absorbing
heat. Equilibrium shifts towards the forward reaction.
104
Figure 4.2 shows how the equilibrium between N2O4 and NO2
responds to changes in temperature, as an example. The following
reaction is the decomposition of N2O4 (colourless) to NO2
exothermic.
Figure 4.1
Effect of Temperature on
the Reaction Equilibrium
In Figure 4.2 (a), the gas mixture of N2O4 and NO2 is in

equilibrium at room temperature, and it has a pale brown colour.
In Figure 4.2 (b), when the temperature is decreased, it favours the
exothermic reaction and the equilibrium shifts to the left. More
N2O4 is obtained. The colour of the reaction mixture becomes
colourless. In Figure 4.2 (c), when the temperature is increased, it
favours the endothermic reaction and the equilibrium shifts to the
right. More NO2 is obtained. The colour of the reaction mixture
becomes reddish-brown.
Example 2:
Using Le Chatelier’s principle, what will be the effect of
increasing temperature on the given chemical equilibrium?
Solution:
The forward reaction is an exothermic (heat evolving) reaction

and the reverse reaction is an endothermic (heat absorbing)
reaction. Increasing the temperature favours the endothermic
reaction. The reverse reaction will be favoured. Equilibrium shifts
from right to left and more nitrogen and hydrogen gases will be
formed.
105
Effect of Pressure on Pressure changes do not markedly affect the solid or liquid phases.
Equilibrium However, pressure has a significant effect on the gas phase. The
pressure of a gas mixture at a given temperature is determined by
the number of gas molecules in a given volume. The effect of
pressure depends on the total number of moles of gases on each
side of the chemical reactions, that is, reactants and products sides.
If the pressure is increased (typically by reducing the volume of
the container), then the position of equilibrium will shift towards
the side with fewer moles of gas since fewer moles will occupy
the smallest volume. This is because the side with fewer moles of
gas will have fewer gas molecules to collide with the sides of the
container.
In chemical equilibrium, the change of pressure in both liquids and
solids can be ignored because their volumes are independent of
pressure.
According to Le Chatelier's principle, as pressure increases the
equilibrium moves toward the side of the reaction with fewer
moles of gas. As pressure decreases, the equilibrium moves
toward the side of the reaction with more moles of gas. Moreover,
if the number of moles of gas is the same on both sides of the
reversible chemical equation, pressure has no effect; there is no
shift in equilibrium by changing the pressure.
Consider the reaction of making ammonia as a product gas, and
Figure 4.3 shows how equilibrium responds to changes in
pressure.
Figure 4.1
Effect of Pressure on the
Reaction Equilibrium
In Figure 4.3 (a), the gas mixture of N2, H2 and NH3 are in
equilibrium. In Figure 4.3 (b), increasing the pressure by lowering
the piston favours fewer moles of the gas. The equilibrium shifts
to the right and more ammonia is obtained. In Figure 4.3 (c),
decreasing the pressure by raising the piston favours more moles
of the gases.
106
The equilibrium shifts to the left and more nitrogen and hydrogen
are obtained.
Example 3:
Using Le Chatelier’s principle, what will be the effect of
increasing pressure on the given chemical equilibrium?
Solution:
In total, there are fewer moles of gas in the forward reaction, and
in the reverse reaction are more moles of the gases. According to
Le Chatelier’s principle, increasing pressure favours fewer moles
of gases. The forward reaction will be favoured. Equilibrium shifts
from left to right and more sulphur trioxide gas will be formed.
Example 4:
Using Le Chatelier’s principle, predict the effect of decreasing
pressure on the given chemical equilibrium.
Solution:
1 mol
Copper(II) oxide and copper(I) oxide are solids and there is no
pressure effect on them. So, pressure affects only the oxygen gas.
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, decreasing the pressure
favours more mole of the gas. The forward reaction will be
favoured. Equilibrium shifts from left to right and more copper(I)
oxide and oxygen gas will be formed.
Example 5:
What is the effect of increasing pressure on the given chemical
equilibrium?
Solution:
The number of moles of reactants is equal to that of the product.

According to Le Chatelier’s principle, increasing pressure does
not affect the equilibrium.
107
(c) Applying Industrial processes are usually designed to give the maximum
Le Chatelier’s possible yield of products. The conditions for carrying out the
Principle in Industry reactions are based on Le Chatelier’s principle. The following
processes illustrate the application of Le Chatelier’s principle in
the industry.
(i) Ammonia production The synthesis of ammonia (Haber process) is a good example of
an industrial process that uses Le Chatelier’s principle. The
chemical equation for the process is shown below.
Since the reaction is exothermic, the forward reaction is favoured

at low temperatures and the reverse reaction at high temperatures.
To produce the maximum yield of ammonia, the temperature must
be maintained at a level that is low enough to continue the forward
reaction. The pressure must be maintained at a high level to get
the highest quantity of ammonia. The forward reaction is also
favoured by high pressure because there are four moles of
reactants for every two moles of product formed. The catalyst used
is iron(III) oxide with a small amount of aluminium oxide. The
catalyst will speed up the production and this has helped reduce
the energy requirements.
(ii) Methanol production Methanol is an alcohol that is used in fuels, making methyl esters,
and creating urea-formaldehyde resin glues through the oxidation
of methanol. It is produced from carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
The forward reaction is exothermic corresponding to the

formation of methanol. To produce the maximum yield of
methanol, the position of equilibrium must be shifted to the right.
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, decreasing the temperature
will shift the position of equilibrium to the right. The temperature
must be maintained at a level that is low enough to continue the
forward reaction. This reaction is carried out at a temperature of
250 °C using the catalyst Cu-ZnO-Al2O3.
Additionally, according to Le Chatelier’s principle, increasing the
pressure will also shift the equilibrium to form more moles of
methanol.
108
understanding of the factors affecting the equilibrium of the
chemical reaction. Other relevant activities could also be applied.

Objective To recognise the factors affecting the equilibrium of the chemical

reaction

o Encourage students to revise Le Chatelier’s principle before
doing the activity.
o Distribute three thermochemical equations to each group.
o Let each member of the group randomly collect one equation
out of three.
o Give the following question to each group. In which direction,
left or right, will the equilibrium shift if the following changes
are made? (These questions are based on sample equations.
The names of reactants and products can be changed for other
equations.)
o NO (reactant) is added.
o The system is cooled.
o H2 (reactant) is removed.
o Pressure is increased.
o N2O (product) is added.
o H2O (product) is removed.
o Predict, through discussion, the answers for his/her
respective chemical equation.
reasoning and critical thinking skills for examining if the
chemical equilibrium shift left or right.)
o Conclude by telling the students that the system will shift out
of equilibrium and shift to a new equilibrium if the external
factors are altered.
109
o In an exothermic reaction, what happens to the equilibrium
if the temperature is increased?
o What will happen to the equilibrium when the
concentration of one of the reactants is increased?
o Does the catalyst shift the equilibrium position?
necessary.

Objective To predict the effect of stress on the system at equilibrium

o Encourage students to revise the stresses (concentration,
pressure, or temperature) that can affect the system at
equilibrium.
o Tell them to consider the changes by the stress on the
equilibrium and concentration:
o 1st member: direction of equilibrium;
o 2nd member: concentration of reactant;
o 3rd member: concentration of product;
analysing and critical thinking skills to predict the effect
of stress on the system at equilibrium.
the group has shared, the class raises their hands that they
responses.
110
o What will happen to the equilibrium when the
concentration of one of the reactants is increased?
o The formation of products is favoured by (high/low)
temperature in an endothermic reaction.
o When, because of the applied stress, the forward reaction
is faster than the reverse reaction, the system is said to shift
to the (right/left). As a result, the products will (increase/
decrease) and the reactants will (increase/decrease).
answered correctly.
1. Which of the following factors can affect the system of

chemical equilibrium?
(A) Only temperature (B) Only pressure
(C) Only concentration (D) All of these
2. Due to the addition of reactants, the rate of the forward
reaction is __________.
(A) slow (B) moderate (C) fast (D) very slow
3. A decrease in temperature would favour the __________
reaction.
(A) exothermic (B) endothermic (C) forward (D) reverse
4. The composition of equilibrium mixture does not change by
the __________.
(A) pressure (B) catalyst (C) temperature (D) concentration
5. How would you do to obtain more CH3OH in the given
equilibrium?
(A) By increasing temperature

(B) By decreasing pressure
(C) By decreasing temperature
(D) By the addition of methanol
111
4.3 Equilibrium Constant
Lesson Objectives o To write an expression for the equilibrium constants Kc, and
Kp from a given balanced chemical equation
o To calculate the values of equilibrium constants and
concentration of each substance from the appropriate data
o To explain how equilibrium principles are applied to the
production of industrial chemicals
In 1864, two Norwegian chemists proposed the law of mass action

as a general description of the equilibrium condition. It is a
quantitative law for predicting the amounts of reactants and
products when a reaction reaches a state of dynamic equilibrium.
According to the law of mass action, for a reversible reaction (in
a closed system) at equilibrium and a constant temperature, the
ratio between the concentration of reactants and products is
constant.
(a) Deriving Equilibrium
Constants
The equilibrium constant, Consider the general reaction occurring in the solution.
Keq aA+bB⇌cC+dD
A and B are the reactants, C and D are the products while a, b, c,
and d are the stoichiometric coefficients of the respective reactants
and products. The rate of the forward reaction is directly
proportional to the concentration of the reactants raised to a power
equal to their coefficients. This can be shown using the following
expressions:
Rate of forward reaction ∝ [A]a [B]b
Rate of forward reaction = kf [A]a [B]b
where kf represents the rate constant for the forward reaction.
Similarly, the rate of the reverse reaction is directly proportional
to the concentration of the products raised to a power equal to its
coefficients. That is,
Rate of reverse reaction ∝ [C]c [D]d
Rate of reverse reaction = kr [C]c [D]d
where kr represents the rate constant for the reverse reaction.
At equilibrium, the rates of forward and reverse reactions are
equal.
112
4.3 ► Equilibrium Constant
This ratio is called the equilibrium constant, Keq. It is a

characteristic numerical value of the ratio of product
concentrations to reactant concentrations, with each concentration
raised to the power corresponding to its coefficient in the balanced
chemical equation. The value of Keq is constant only at a specified
temperature; that is, each chemical reaction has its own
characteristic Keq.
The equilibrium constant provides how far a reaction has gone
towards completion before it reaches equilibrium. The units of
equilibrium constant depend on the form of the equilibrium
expression. Pure solids or liquids are excluded from the
equilibrium expression because their concentrations remain
constant throughout the reaction.
The equilibrium constant can describe whether the reaction tends
to have a higher concentration of products or reactants at
equilibrium.
If the Keq value is large (Keq >> 1), the equilibrium lies to the right
and there are more products than reactants.
If the Keq value is small (Keq << 1), the equilibrium lies to the left
and there are more reactants than products.
If the Keq value is equal to one (Keq = 1), both reactants and
products are equally favoured at equilibrium and the concentration
of reactants and products will be equal.
The equilibrium constant Kc
If molar concentrations are used, the equilibrium constant can be
expressed as below.
The equilibrium constant Kp

For equilibrium that involves gases, pressure can be used instead
of concentration. Then, the equilibrium constant Kp can be given
as the ratio of the partial pressures of products and reactants. The
equilibrium constant is written as below.
Both Kp and Kc can be applied for the gaseous reactions.

113
(b) Equilibrium Constants The relationship between the products and reactants of a
for Homogeneous and homogeneous or heterogeneous reaction at equilibrium is shown
Heterogeneous by the equilibrium constant, Keq.
Equilibria
Equilibrium constant for For a homogeneous equilibrium, e.g., H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2HI (g),
the homogeneous the equilibrium constant can be expressed as below.
equilibrium
Equilibrium constant for In many equilibrium systems, the substances involved are not all
the heterogeneous in the same phase. An example of a liquid-vapour heterogeneous
equilibrium equilibrium state is the equilibrium between ethanol (l) and
ethanol (g) in a closed flask.
C2H5OH (l) ⇌ C2H5OH (g)
At a given temperature, the equilibrium constant expression
becomes Keq = [C2H5OH (g)]. Because ethanol is a pure liquid, its
concentration is constant at a given temperature.
The equilibrium for the sublimation of iodine crystals is an
example of the solid-vapour heterogeneous equilibrium state.
I2 (s) ⇌ I2 (g)
At a given temperature, the equilibrium constant expression
becomes Keq = [I2 (g)]. The equilibrium depends only on the
concentration of gaseous iodine in the system.
Example 6:
Write the equilibrium constant expression for the reaction in
which ammonia gas is produced from hydrogen and nitrogen.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)
Solution:
[NH3 ]2
Keq = [N 3
2 ][H2 ]
Example 7:
Write expressions for Kc and Kp if applicable, for the given
reversible reaction at equilibrium.
HF (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + F− (aq)
Solution:
The given reaction is a reaction occurring in the solution. There is
no gas present and Kp is not applied.
[H+ ] [F− ]
Kc = [HF]
114
Example 8:
Write the equilibrium constant expression (Kp) for the given
reversible reaction at equilibrium.
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2SO3 (g)
Solution:
2
𝑃𝑆𝑂 3
Kp = 𝑃2
𝑆𝑂2 𝑃𝑂2
Example 9:
Write the equilibrium constant expression for the decomposition
of baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate).
2NaHCO3 (s) ⇌ Na2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
Solution:
Keq = [CO2] [H2O]
(c) Calculation Concerning The numerical value of the equilibrium constant is determined by
Equilibrium Constants measuring the concentration of each substance involved in a
chemical reaction at equilibrium. When equilibrium is established,
the concentration of each substance is determined experimentally,
and the equilibrium constants are calculated from the ratio of the
product concentrations to reactant concentrations.
Conversely, the equilibrium concentration of any substance
involved in a reaction can be calculated by using the equilibrium
constant. An example that shows how to calculate the value of the
equilibrium constant is given below.
Example 10:
The equilibrium 2NO (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2NO2 (g) was investigated at
230 ºC. In one experiment, the concentrations of NO, O2, NO2
were respectively found to be 0.542 mol dm-3, 0.127 mol dm-3, and
0.059 mol dm-3 at equilibrium. Calculate the equilibrium constant
(Kc) of the reaction and identify the direction of equilibrium.
Note:
The equilibrium constant
Solution:
expression can be useful in
another way. Knowing the
constant expression, a
chemist can calculate the
equilibrium concentration
of any substance involved Kc = 0.093 dm3 mol-1
in a reaction if the Since the Kc value is small (Kc<<1), the equilibrium lies to the
concentrations of all other
left, and the reaction mixture contains mostly reactants (NO and
reactants and products are
known. O2).
115
Example 11:
Hydrogen sulphide gas decomposes to form hydrogen and
diatomic sulphur gaseous molecules, S2 at 1405 K. The
equilibrium constant for the reaction is 2.270 × 10-3. The
concentration of H2 can be calculated, if [S2] = 0.054 mol dm-3 and
[H2S] = 0.184 mol dm-3. How much of the concentration of
hydrogen gas would be produced?
Solution:
0.184 mol dm-3 ? 0.0540 mol dm-3
= 0.0377 mol dm-3
understanding of the equilibrium constants Kc, and Kp from a
given chemical reaction. Other relevant activities could also be
applied.

Objective To understand the relationship between the magnitude of Keq and

the extent of reaction (more reactants or more products) by using
an illustration

o Give each group the chemical reactions as in the example
given.
o Tell each group to illustrate the amount of A and B for the
following magnitude of the equilibrium constant:
o 1st member: Keq >> 1;
o 2nd member: Keq = 1;
o 3rd member: Keq << 1;
116

reasoning and critical thinking skills to describe the
amount of reactant andproduct depending upon the
magnitude of Keq.)
conditions that affect the amount of substances.
o When calculating Keq equilibrium constants, do you need
to consider the concentration of liquids or solids?
o An equilibrium constant with a large value indicates (more
products/more reactants) at equilibrium.
o (Keq >> 1 / Keq<< 1) means reaction makes more reactants.

Objective To classify the given equilibria as heterogeneous or homogeneous,

and write an equilibrium expression for each

o Give each group the chemical reactions as in the example
given.
o Tell each group to do the following:
o 1st member: classify the given equilibria as homogeneous
or heterogeneous;
nd
o 2 member: write an expression for Kc (if it is available);
o 3rd member: write an expression for Kp (if it is available);
reasoning and critical thinking skills to describe the types
of equilibrium and equilibrium expressions.)
117

o Coordinate their responses by telling them the equilibrium
constant expresses the relationship between products and
reactants of a homogeneous or heterogeneous equilibrium at a
specified temperature.
o For the following equation, 2HBr (g) ⇌ H2 (g) + Br2 (g);
are both Kp and Kc equal?
o CO2 (g) + C (s) ⇌ 2CO (g) is an example of
(homogeneous/heterogeneous) equilibrium.
o What is the expression of Kc of the following chemical
equation?
Ag2O (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) ⇌ 2AgNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
o Scan the written responses to assess each student’s
understanding.
1. x R ⇌ y P
For this chemical equilibrium, the rate of forward reaction
__________.
(A) kf [R]x (B) kr[P]y (C) kr [R]x (D) kf [P]y
2. If __________, the concentration of reactants and products will
be equal.
(A) Keq = 0(B) Keq >> 1 (C) Keq = 1 (D) Keq << 1
3. For equilibrium that involves gases, __________ can be used
to write the equilibrium constant.
(A) Keq (B) only Kc (C) only Kp (D) both Kc and Kp
4. What is the equilibrium constant for the given reversible
reaction?
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
[CaCO3 ] [CaCO3 ]
(A) Kc = [CaO][CO2 ]
(B) Kp = [CaO][CO2 ]
1
(C) Kc = [CO2] (D) Kc = [CaCO3 ]
118
► Exercises
5. Write the expression for Kp for the production of ammonia:
PN2 P3H2 PH2 PN2

(A) Kp = (B) Kp =
P2NH3 PNH3
PNH3 P2NH3
(C) Kp = (D) Kp =
PH2 PN2 PN2 P3H2
Key Term o Equilibrium constant is a ratio that expresses the relationship

between the amounts of products and reactants present at
equilibrium in a reversible chemical reaction at a given
temperature.
Chemistry in Society o When the hot air and cold air are entering the room at the same
time the overall temperature of the room does not change at
all.
o In a championship match, the muscles of tennis players need
extra oxygen. The transfer of O2 from the lungs to the blood
and then to the muscle tissues depends on the chemical
equilibrium between oxygen and haemoglobin.
o When running on a treadmill, the person is in constant motion
or dynamic equilibrium. The person is moving forwards,
simultaneously, and the treadmill is moving backwards at the
same rate.
Exercises 1. In a closed system, __________ can neither be gained nor lost.

(A) temperature (B) heat (C) matter (D) pressure
2. According to Le Chatelier’s principle, the change in
__________ does not affect the equilibrium if the number of
moles of reactants is equal to that of the products.
(A) pressure (B) temperature (C) concentration (D) heat
3. The value of Keq is constant only at a specified __________.
(A) pressure (B) concentration (C) volume (D) temperature
4. Pure __________ are excluded from the equilibrium expression
because their concentrations remain constant throughout the
reaction.
(A) gases (B) solids or liquids (C) ions (D) aqueous solutions
119
5. The equilibrium 2H2S (g) ⇌ 2 H2 (g) + S2 (g) was investigated

at 1045 K. In one experiment, the concentrations of H2S, H2,
S2 were respectively found to be 0.183 mol dm-3, 0.038 mol
dm-3, and 0.055 mol dm-3 at equilibrium. Calculate the
equilibrium constant (Kc) of the reaction.
(A) 2.37 (B) 2.37 × 10−2 (C) 2.37 × 103 (D) 2.37 × 10−3
6. Predict the effect of decreasing the pressure on each of the
following equilibrium:
2H2O (g) + N2 (g) ⇌ 2H2 (g) + 2NO (g)
(A) The equilibrium will shift to the right.
(B) The equilibrium will shift to the left.
(C) There is no pressure effect on that equilibrium.
(D) The reaction is still proceeding both forward and reverse
reactions.
7. How would you change in the following equilibrium to get the
highest quantity of CaCO3 (s)?
CaO (s) + CO2 (g) ⇌ CaCO3 (s) ΔH = (+)
(A) By increasing temperature (B) By decreasing pressure
(C) By decreasing temperature (D) By adding CaCO3
8. At a certain temperature, Keq = 10.5 for the equilibrium
CO (g) + 2H2 (g) ⇌ CH3OH (g), calculate the concentration
of CH3OH in an equilibrium mixture containing 0.0661 mol
dm-3 of H2 and 3.85 mol dm-3 of CO.
(A) 0.1766 mol dm-3 (B) 0.1950 mol dm-3
(C) 1.866 mol dm-3 (D) 1.665 mol dm-3
9. At 430 °C, Kp is 54.3 for the given reaction,
H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2HI (g). A mixture of H2 at a partial
pressure of 0.500 atm and I2 at a partial pressure of 0.500 atm
is placed in a container at 430 °C. Calculate the equilibrium
partial pressure of HI.
(A) 4.654 atm (B) 0.3685 atm (C) 3.684 atm (D) 36.85 atm
10. There are two types of equilibrium; __________ equilibrium
and __________ equilibrium.
(A) static, dynamic (B) static, homogeneous
(C) dynamic, heterogeneous (D) chemical, static
11. All chemical reactions are __________.
(A) static (B) thermal (C) dynamics (D) homogeneous
120
121
Chapter 5
ACID-BASE REACTIONS
5.1 Theories of Acids and Bases
5.2 Ionic Dissociation of Water and pH
5.3 Ionisation of Acids and Bases
5.4 Salt Hydrolysis
5.5 Buffer Solutions
Learning Outcomes

to:
o describe the Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and
Lewis acid-base theories;
o explain the conjugate acid-base pairs;
o discuss the ionic product constant for the
autoionisation of water and define pH as a
measure of acidity and alkalinity;
o deduce the expressions for the dissociation
constants of weak acids and weak bases and solve
problems for pH, pOH, [H+] and [OH–];
o predict whether a salt solution will be acidic,
basic, or neutral;
o explain the buffer solutions and perform the
calculations related to buffer solutions.
122
5.1 ► Theories of Acids and Bases
Acid-base reactions are essential in the fields of chemistry such as

biochemistry, agricultural chemistry, industrial chemistry, and
environmental chemistry. When an acid and a base react, they
neutralise each other to form a salt. It is important to realise that
these neutralisation reactions are important in domestic uses,
Milk of magnesia
biological uses, and industrial uses. Antacids such as aluminium
hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide (magnesia) are taken when
a person has a stomach ulcer. Calcium oxide (quicklime) is applied
to acidic soil to neutralise it. Limewater can be used to absorb
harmful sulphur dioxide released from the power station. We have
learned that pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the
Quicklime solution. In some processes, it is required to keep the pH values
constant. To resist the changes in pH values, buffering action is
needed. This is important for processes and reactions which
require specific and stable pH ranges. Buffering in the blood is
crucial to our survival. The pH of blood must be kept constant for
normal body functions to work. Buffers are used in many
household items. For instance, buffers are used in shampoos to
stop skin irritation caused by ingredients like sodium hydroxide.
Buffer solutions Previously, we have learned the properties of acids and bases, as
well as salts, which are products of reactions between acids and
bases (neutralisation reactions). Early known characteristics of
acids and bases include that they are the main chemicals in all the
chemistry that occurs in water. Here, we will study how acids and
bases are related to water. This chapter also focuses on the further
Shampoo
idea of the chemistry of acid-base reactions, ionic equilibria and
the buffering action of the acids or bases.
5.1 Theories of Acids and Bases
Lesson Objectives o To describe the Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis acid-base

theories;
o To explain the conjugate acid-base pairs;
o To develop the skills of collaboration, communication, analysing,
and critical thinking
Definitions of acid and base have changed dramatically as

scientists have learned more about them. Svante Arrhenius,
Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted, Thomas Martin Lowry, and Gilbert
Newton Lewis made significant contributions to the current
understanding of definitions of acids and bases.
123
Chapter 5 ► Acid-Base Reactions
(a) Arrhenius Theory The first person to define acids and bases was the Swedish chemist
Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927; Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1903).
He proposed that acids are any substances that dissociate to
produce hydrogen ions (H+) when they dissolve in water. An
example of an Arrhenius acid is hydrochloric acid. Strong acids
such as hydrochloric acid completely ionise in water, whereas
weak acids such as ethanoic acid only partially ionise.
e.g., HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)
CH3COOH (aq) ⇋ H+ (aq) + CH3COO– (aq)
Bases are any substances that dissociate to produce hydroxide ions
(OH–) when they dissolve in water. An example of an Arrhenius
base is sodium hydroxide. Strong bases such as sodium hydroxide
completely ionise in an aqueous solution, whereas weak bases
such as ammonium hydroxide only partially ionise.
e.g., NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
NH4OH (aq) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
Arrhenius theory has some weak points, one of which is that its
application is limited to aqueous solutions. It is unable to account
for the acidic properties of CO2, SO2, SO3, etc., which do not have
hydrogen, and the basic properties of CaO, MgO, etc., which do
not have hydroxyl groups.
(b) Brønsted-Lowry Theory The Danish chemist Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted (1879–1947)
and the English chemist Thomas Martin Lowry (1874–1936)
independently proposed a new theory, called the Brønsted-Lowry
theory.
Acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors. This
definition applies to all solvents, not only to aqueous solutions. An
extension of the Brønsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases is
the concept of the conjugate acid-base pair, which consists of
either an acid and its conjugate base or a base and its conjugate
acid. The conjugate base of a Brønsted-Lowry acid is the species
that remains when one proton has been removed from the acid.
Conversely, a conjugate acid results from the addition of a proton
to a Brønsted-Lowry base. Every Brønsted-Lowry acid and base
has a corresponding conjugate base and conjugate acid. A strong
acid has a weak conjugate base and a strong base has a weak
conjugate acid, and vice versa.
For example, when ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) dissolves in water,
the following equilibrium is established:
124
CH3COOH molecule donates a proton to water forming

CH3COO– ion (ethanoate ion). Therefore, CH3COOH is classified
as a Brønsted-Lowry acid (acid 1), and CH3COO– ion is its
conjugate base (base 1). On the other hand, the H2O molecule
accepts that proton forming H3O+ ion (hydronium ion). Therefore,
the H2O molecule acts as a base (base 2), and its conjugate acid is
H3O+ ion (acid 2). CH3COOH, which loses a proton with
difficulty, is a weak acid and its conjugate base CH3COO– ion is
a strong base.
When the ammonia molecule dissolves in water the following
equilibrium is established:
+
NH3 molecule accepts a proton 4 from water forming NH4 ion.
Thus, NH3 is a Brønsted-Lowry base (base 1) and NH+ ion is its

conjugate acid (acid 1). H2O molecule donates a proton forming
OH– ion. Thus, the H2O molecule acts as an acid (acid 2), and its
conjugate base is OH– ion (base 2). NH3 is a weak base and its
conjugate acid NH+ ion is a strong acid.
The Brønsted-Lowry theory fails to explain the reaction between
acidic oxides (CO2, SO2, and SO3) and basic oxides (BaO, CaO,
and Na2O) because there is no proton transfer. Substances such as
BF3, AlCl3 etc., do not have any hydrogen and thus cannot give a
proton but are known to behave as acids. It does not explain the
reactions occurring in the non-protonic solvents like COCl2, SO2,
N2O4, etc.
Example 1
(a) What are (i) the conjugate bases for the acids HNO2, HF, H2S,
−
and HSO−4 and (ii) the conjugate acids for the bases NH2 , NH3, and
CH3COO–?
125
Solution:
(i) For the acids, HNO2, HF, H2S, and HSO− 4 , the corresponding
− – – 2−
conjugate bases are - NO2 , F , HS , and SO4 , respectively.
(ii) For the bases, NH2− , NH3, and CH3COO–, the corresponding
conjugate acids are - NH3, NH4+ , and CH3COOH, respectively.
(c) Lewis Theory In 1932, American chemist Gilbert Newton Lewis (1875–1946)
proposed that bases are species that can donate an electron pair,
and acids are species that can accept an electron pair. The Lewis
concept is significant since it is more general than any of the other
definitions which define only the involvement of hydrogen ions or
protons as an acid. For example, the reaction of ammonia with
boron trifluoride is an acid-base reaction.
H3N: (g) + BF3 (g) → H3N-BF3 (s)
base acid Lewis salt
The NH3 molecule possesses a lone pair of electrons (on the N
atom) which is shared by the electron-deficient BF3 molecule (on
the B atom). The NH3 molecule, which donates an electron pair,
behaves as a Lewis base. The BF3 molecule, which accepts an
electron pair, behaves as a Lewis acid.
understanding of Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis theories
of acids and bases. Other relevant activities could also be applied.

communication, and reasoning skills
Objective To recognise the Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis theories

of acids and bases

o Give each group the cards of three packages as given in the
support materials.
o each member: randomly collect one package;
o 1st member: show his/her cards and explain the terms;
126
o 2nd and 3rd members: match their cards to get a similar

meaning with the word(s) in the card shown by the 1st
member.
o Tabulate the answers.
(By doing this activity, each group should develop the
knowledge needed to understand the meaning of the acids
and bases defined by different scientists.)
information, they could discuss it with the class). Monitor the
o Conclude by telling the students that the definitions of acid
and base have changed significantly throughout the period of
more than a thousand years of scientific development.
o To reflect on their learning, assess the student’s knowledge by
working through the following questions:
o Which theory states that a base is a substance that produces
OH– ions in water?
o In the given equation, what is Brønsted-Lowry acid?
HCl + NH3 ⇌Cl– + NH4+ ?
o When using the Arrhenius model, what types of ions
indicate that a compound is a base?
necessary.

analysing, and critical thinking skills
Objective To identify the conjugate acids and conjugate bases
o Give each group a set of samples as mentioned in the support
materials.
o 1st member: describe the conjugate acids for the given
bases;
o 2nd member: write the equilibrium equation for the given
bases and their conjugate acids;
127
o 3rd member: describe the conjugate bases for the given

acids;
o 4th member: write the equilibrium equation for the given
acids and their conjugate bases. (By doing this activity,
each group should develop analysing and critical thinking
skills for the identification of the conjugate acid-base
pairs.)
information, they could discuss it with the class). Monitor the
o Conclude by telling the students that every Brønsted-Lowry
acid and base has a corresponding conjugate base and
conjugate acid. A strong acid has a weak conjugate base, and
a strong base has a weak conjugate acid.
o Reflect on their learning, and assess the student’s
o What is the substance formed after accepting a hydrogen
ion by a base?
o What is the conjugate acid of HCO− 3?
o What is the conjugate base of HCO− 3?
necessary.
Review Questions 1. Which of the following is a weak base?

A. NaOH B. KOH C. Al(OH)3 D. Ca(OH)2
2. A weak acid partially dissociates to give a ______.
A. hydroxide B. cation C. proton D. none of these
3. Which weak base is used as a antacid?
A. Ca(OH)2 B. NaOH C. Mg(OH)2 D. KOH
4. Which of the following are NOT conjugate acid – base pairs.
A. HCO−3 , CO3
2−
B. NH4- , NH3
C. H2C2O4, HC2O4- D. OH-, H+.
5. In the reaction NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH- , which is the
conjugate acid-base pair in this reaction?
A. NH3 and H2O B. NH3 and OH-
C. H2O and OH- D. NH4+ and NH3
128
5.2 ► Ionic Dissociation of Water and pH
Key Terms o Arrhenius acid is any substance that dissociates to

produce hydrogen ions (H+) when it dissolves in water.
o Arrhenius base is any substance that dissociates to produce
hydroxide ions (OH–) when it dissolves in water.
o Brønsted-Lowry acid is any substance that can donate a
proton.
o Brønsted-Lowry base is any substance that can accept a
proton.
o Conjugate acid is a species that forms when a base gains a
proton.
o Conjugate base is a species that forms when an acid loses
a proton.
o Conjugate acid-base pair is an acid-base pair that consists
of either an acid and its conjugate base or a base and its
conjugate acid.
o Lewis acid is any substance that can accept an electron pair.
o Lewis base is any substance that can donate an electron pair.
5.2 Ionic Dissociation of Water and pH
Lesson Objectives o To discuss the ionic product constant for the autoionisation of
water and define pH as a measure of acidity and alkalinity;
When ionic compounds dissolve in water, dissociation reactions

occur. Water can also dissociate into hydrogen and hydroxide
ions, and the process is known as autoionisation. In pure water,
very little dissociation takes place. The number of hydrogen ions
that water will receive, determines the pH, which is related to
hydrogen ion concentration.
(a) Acid-base Behaviour The capacity of water to function as an acid or a base is one of its
of Water unique characteristics. Water can show both acidic and basic
behaviour. In reactions with acids like HCl and CH3COOH, water
acts as a base, and in reactions with bases like NH3, it acts as an
acid. Although water is a very weak electrolyte and a poor
conductor of electricity, it undergoes ionisation to a small extent.
129
This reaction is called the autoionisation of water. To describe the

acid-base properties of water in the Brønsted-Lowry framework,
the autoionisation can be expressed as follows:
In pure water, one H2O molecule donates a proton and acts as an

acid, and another water molecule accepts a proton and acts as a
base at the same time. The acid-base conjugate pairs are (1) H2O
(acid) and OH– (base) and (2) H3O+ (acid) and H2O (base). Having
both proton-accepting (protophilic) and proton-donating
(protogenic) properties, water is called an amphiprotic molecule.
(b) The Ionic Product of Pure water undergoes ionisation to a very slight extent. The
Water ionisation of water can be expressed as follows:
H2O (l) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
Generally, the following equation is used to write an equilibrium
expression for this reaction:
H2O (l) ⇌ H+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
[H+ ][OH− ]
Therefore, K = [H2 O]
K [H2O] = [H+] [OH-]
Since water ionises to a very slight extent, the equilibrium
concentration of undissociated water does not differ appreciably
from the original concentration. The concentration of water [H2O]
remains constant.
Thus, Kw = [H+][OH–], where Kw = K [H2O]. Kw is called the ionic
product of water which is the product of the molar concentrations
of H+ and OH– ions at a particular temperature. From the
measurement of the electrical conductance of pure water, it was
found that the concentration of ionised ion was 1.0 × 10–7 mol dm–
3
. In pure water, the concentration of H+ ion is always equal to the
concentration of OH– ion.
[H+ ] = [OH– ] = 1.0 × 10–7 mol dm–3 at 25 °C (298 K)
Substituting these concentrations into the Kw expression gives as
KW = [H+][OH–] = (1.0 × 10–7 mol dm–3) (1.0 × 10–7 mol dm–3)
= 1.0 × 10–14 mol2 dm–6 at 25 °C (298 K)
130
This expression is also valid for dilute aqueous solutions at 25 °C

(298 K). It gives a simple relationship between H+ and OH–
concentrations in all dilute aqueous solutions.
If the individual concentration of hydrogen ions and hydroxide
ions in an aqueous solution is equal to 1.0 × 10–7 mol dm–3 at 25
°C (298 K), the solution is called a neutral aqueous solution. Since
the process of autoionisation is endothermic, the concentrations of
hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions increase with temperature. For
instance, at 100 °C (373 K), the value for Kw is approximately 5.6
× 10–13 mol2 dm–6, which is roughly 50 times greater than the value
at 25 °C (298 K). At different temperatures, the Kw has different
values.
Example 2:
Calculate the concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxide ions in

pure water at 80 °C. The ionic product of water at 80 °C is 2.4 ×
10−13 mol2 dm–6.
Solution:
Kw = [H+][OH–] = 2.4 × 10–13 mol2 dm–6
Since [H+] = [OH–], [H+]2 = 2.4 × 10–13 mol2 dm–6
[H+] = 4.9 × 10–7 mol dm–3
[OH–] = 4.9 × 10–7 mol dm–3
(c) The pH and pOH Most concentrations of hydronium ions are very small and
difficult to express. In 1909, Soren P. Sorenson (1868-1939), a
Danish biochemist proposed the potency of the hydrogen (pH)
scale, a scale ranging from 0 to 14 pH that is used to measure the
acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The pH and pOH scales express
the acidity and alkalinity of dilute aqueous solutions.
The negative logarithm to base 10 of the molar concentration of
hydrogen ions is used to calculate the pH. A mathematical
expression is given as
pH = – log [H3O+] or simply pH = – log [H+]
To calculate the H+ ion concentration of the solution of a given pH
value, it is needed to take the antilogarithm of the above
expression as follows:
[H+] = 10–pH = antilog (– pH)
Similarly, pOH is the negative logarithm to base 10 of the molar
concentration of the hydroxide ions. A mathematical expression is
shown below.
131
pOH = – log [OH–] and [OH–] = 10–pOH = antilog (– pOH)

The relation between the concentrations of these two ions
expressed as p-functions (pH and pOH) is easily derived from the
Kw expression.
Kw = [H+][OH– ]
– log Kw = –log [H+][OH–]
= {– log [H+]} + {– log[OH–]}
pKw = pH + pOH
At 298 K, the value of Kw is 1.0 × 10−14 mol2 dm–6, and so,
pH + pOH = pKw
= – log (1.0 × 10–14)
pH + pOH = 14
Acids have pH values of less than 7. For acids, the smaller the pH
value (the higher the concentration of H+ ions), the stronger the
acid is. Alkalis have pH values greater than 7. For alkalis, the
larger the pH value (the higher the concentration of OH− ions), the
stronger the alkali is. Neutral solutions have a pH value of 7.
Figure 5.1 shows the pH scale diagram. The solutions of different
pH values develop their respective different colours with the use
of a Universal indicator (in the form of paper or solution).
Figure 5.1
pH Scale Diagram with
Corresponding Acidic and
Alkaline Solutions
Example 3:
What is the pH of grapefruit juice with a hydrogen ion

concentration of 6.5 × 10−4 mol dm−3?
Solution:
[H+] = 6.5 × 10−4 mol dm−3
pH = − log [H+]
= − log 6.5 ×10−4
= − 0.81 + 4
= 3.19
132
Example 4:
Human blood pH normally ranges from 7.35 to 7.45. Calculate the

hydrogen and hydroxide ion concentrations in human blood with
a pH of 7.4.
Solution:
pH = − log [H+]
= 7.4 log [H+]
= − 7.4 [H+]
= antilog (− 7.4)
= 3.98 × 10−8 mol dm−3
[H+][OH−] = 1.0 × 10−14
1.0 × 10−14 1.0 × 10−14
[OH-] = = 3.98 × 10−8
[H+ ]
= 2.51 × 10−7 mol dm-3
understanding of the ionic product of water. Other relevant
activities could also be applied.
Activity (1) Group work to develop students’ communication, reasoning, and
critical thinking skills.
Objective To predict whether water is acting as an acid or a base in a
chemical reaction
o Encourage students to revise about the autoionisation of water
Resources and Support Materials o Distribute three chemical equations to each group.
Any chemical equations o Let each member of the group randomly collect one equation
For example, out of three.
(1) CH3NH2 (aq) + H2O (l)
–
o Tell each member to describe the role of water in his/her
⇌ CH3NH3+ (aq) + OH (aq) chemical equation. (By doing this activity, each group should
(2) HSO−4 (aq) + H2O (l)
+
develop analysing and critical thinking skills for examining
⇌ SO2−4 (aq) + H3O (aq) the role of water as an acid or a base.)
(3) C2O2−
4 (aq) + H2O (l) o Ask 2 or 3 groups to share their answers with the class. After
–
⇌ HC2O− 4 (aq) + OH (aq) the group has shared, make the class raise their hands if they
information, they could discuss it with the class.) Monitor the class,
check their ideas and give feedback.
133
o Conclude by telling the students that water molecules can have

both proton-accepting (protophilic) and proton-donating
(protogenic) properties, and it is called amphiprotic molecule.
Refection on Learning o Summarise the lesson by asking students what they have
o Refect on their learning, and assess the student’s
o What ions are produced by the autoionisation of water?
o What ion will be formed when the water molecule accepts
a proton?
o What ion will be formed when the water molecule releases
a proton?
necessary.

analysing, reasoning, problem solving, and critical thinking skills.
Objective To express the ionic product of water at a particular temperature
o Encourage students to revise the ionic product of water, which
is the product of the molar concentrations of H+ and OH– ions
at a particular temperature.
o Tell them to consider the pKw value of pure water at the
following temperatures:
o 1st member: at 30 °C;
o 2nd member: at 40 °C;
o 3rd member: at 50 °C;
o 4th member: at 100 °C;
(By doing this activity, each group should develop a conceptual
understanding of the ionic product of pure water and the
relationship among pH, pOH, and pKw as well as enhance problem
solving and critical thinking skills.)
the group has shared, the class raises their hands if they agree
with the presentation. (If other groups have additional
134

responses by telling them the values of Kw are different at
different temperatures.
o Reflect on their learning, and assess each student’s knowledge
o In pure water, which statement is true at all conditions of
temperature and pressure; [H3O+] = 1.0 × 10−7 mol dm−3
or [H3O+] = [OH−]?
o What are the hydronium ion concentration and the
hydroxide ion concentration in pure water at 25 °C?
o What is the relationship between pH, pOH, and pKw?
answered correctly.
Review Questions 1. The concentration of hydrogen ions in water is equal to 1.0 ×

10–7 mol dm–3 at 25 °C (298 K). What is the pH of water?
A. 1 B. 14 C. 7 D. 5
2. What is the value for Kw at 298K?
A. 1 × 10–14 mol2 dm–3 B. 1 × 10–14 mol2 dm–6
C. 1 × 10–7 mol dm–3 D. 1 × 10–7 mol2 dm–6
3. Which of the following expression is the ionic product of
water?
A. K = [H+][OH–] B. KW = [H2O]
C. K = [H2O] D. KW = [H+][OH–]
4. At 100 °C (373 K), the value for ____is approximately
5.6 × 10–13 mol2 dm–6.
A. [H+] B. Kw C. [OH-] D. [H2O]2
5. The reaction H2O (l) ⇌ H+ (aq) + OH- (aq), which is called
_____ of water.
A. ionisation B. dissociation
C. autoionisation D. solvation
Key Terms o Autoionisation of water is a reaction between two water

molecules yielding hydronium and hydroxide ions.
o Amphiprotic molecule is one which can have both proton-
accepting (protophilic) and proton-donating (protogenic)
properties.
135
o Ionic product of water is the equilibrium constant for the

autoionisation of water which is the product of the molar
concentrations of H+ and OH– ions at a particular temperature.
o Neutral aqueous solution is one in which the concentrations
of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are equal at the value of
1.0 × 10–7 mol dm–3 at 25 °C (298 K) (pH = 7).
5.3 Ionisation of Acids and Bases
Lesson Objectives o To deduce the expressions for the dissociation constants of

weak acids and weak bases and solve problems for pH, pOH,
[H+] and [OH−]
Arrhenius’s concept of acids and bases is applicable in the case of

ionisation of acids and bases. In an aqueous solution, strong acids
and bases are almost completely dissociated (ionised), producing
hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH–). When dealing with
aqueous solutions of weak acids or bases, however, more
information about the system is required as they undergo partial
dissociation. Acids and bases difer greatly based on their
strengths. The strengths of acids and bases can be ranked by the
extent to which they ionise in aqueous solutions.
(a) Strong Acids and Strong acids are strong electrolytes that completely ionise in
Weak Acids water. Most of the strong acids are inorganic acids. Examples are
hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid (HNO3), perchloric acid
(HClO4), and sulphuric acid (H2SO4). When strong acids are
dissolved in water, the following reactions take place:
e.g.,
HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)
HClO4 (aq) → H+ (aq) + ClO− 4 (aq)
H2SO4 (aq) → H (aq) + HSO−
+
4 (aq)
− + 2− 2 steps
HSO4 (aq) ⇌ H (aq) + SO4 (aq)
(HSO− 4 is still acidic since it has a replaceable hydrogen atom.)
136
5.3 ► Ionisation of Acids and Bases
Most organic acids are weak acids. Weak acids are weak
electrolytes that partially ionise only to a limited extent in water.
Some examples of weak acids are hydrofuoric acid (HF),
hypochlorous acid (HOCl), ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), and
methanoic acid (HCOOH).
e.g.,
HF (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + F– (aq)
HCOOH (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + HCOO– (aq)
Basicity of an acid The basicity of an acid may be defined as the number of H+ ions
that one molecule of acid can produce. For example, the basicity
of hydrochloric acid is one because each molecule can give only
one H+ ion. The basicity of sulphuric acid is two since each
molecule can provide two H+ ions.
e.g.,
HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)
H2SO4 (aq) → 2H+ (aq) + SO2− 4 (aq)
Thus, the number of hydrogen ions that one molecule of acid can
produce is the basicity of acid. Acids that donate a maximum of
one, two, or three protons are called monoprotic acids (HCl,
CH3COOH), diprotic acids (H2SO4, H2CO3), or triprotic acids
(H3PO4), respectively, and are also called monobasic acids,
dibasic acids, or tribasic acids, respectively. Some strong and
weak acids are shown in Table 5.1.
Table. 5.1 Strong acids Weak acids
Some Common Strong and Weak Acids
HClO4 perchloric acid HF hydrofluoric acid
HI hydroiodic acid HNO2 nitrous acid
HBr hydrobromic acid HCOOH methanoic acid
HCl hydrochloric acid CH3COOH ethanoic acid
H2SO4 sulphuric acid H2CO3 carbonic acid
HNO3 nitric acid HCN hydrocyanic acid
137
Example 5:
Calculate [H+], [OH–], and pH for a 0.02 mol dm–3 HNO3 solution.
Solution:
HNO3 (aq) → H+ (aq) + NO3− (aq)
0.02 mol dm–3 0.02 mol dm–3
[H+] = 0.02 mol dm–3
[H+] [OH–] = Kw = 1 × 10–14 mol2 dm–6
1.0 × 10−14 1.0 × 10−14
[OH–] = =
[H+ ] 0.02
= 5 × 10 mol dm-3
-13
pH = – log [H+]
= – log 0.02
= – log (2 × 10–2)
= – 0.301 + 2 = 1.699
(b) Strong Bases and In common usage, the word “alkali” and “base” are
Weak Bases interchangeable. A base is a substance that reacts with an acid
whereas an alkali is a base that is soluble in water. Hydroxides of
alkali metals (Li, Na, K) and certain alkaline earth metals (Ca, Sr,
Ba) are strong bases. Like strong acids, strong bases are strong
electrolytes that ionise completely in water. The ionisation
reactions of some strong bases are shown below.
NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
Ba(OH)2 (aq) → Ba2+ (aq) + 2OH– (aq)
Weak bases, like weak acids, are weak electrolytes that ionise to
a very limited extent in water. Ammonia, aniline, methylamine,
and pyridine are examples of weak bases.
e.g., NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
Acidity of a base The acidity of a base is measured by the number of molecules of

a monoprotic acid, like HCl, which will neutralise one molecule
of the base. For example, one molecule of NaOH neutralises one
molecule of HCl and therefore has an acidity of one. Ca(OH)2 has
an acidity of two because it neutralises two molecules of HCl.
e.g., NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
138
Some strong and weak bases are shown in Table 5.2.
Table. 5.2 Strong bases Weak bases

Some Common Strong and LiOH lithium hydroxide NH3 ammonia
Weak Bases
NaOH sodium hydroxide CH3NH2 methylamine
KOH potassium hydroxide (CH3)2NH dimethylamine
Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide (CH3)3N trimethylamine
Sr(OH)2 strontium hydroxide
Ba(OH) 2 barium hydroxide
Example 6:
Calculate pH and pOH for 0.012 mol dm–3 of slaked lime,

Ca(OH)2 solution.
Solution:
Ca(OH)2 (aq) → Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH– (aq)
0.012 mol dm–3 2 × 0.012 mol dm–3
[OH–] = 2 × 0.012 = 0.024 mol dm–3
pOH = – log [OH–]
= – log 0.024
= – (– 1.62) = 1.62
pH + pOH = 14
pH = 14 – pOH
= 14 – 1.62 = 12.38
(c) Relative Strengths of A strong acid completely ionises in water. The relative strengths
Acids and Bases of acids may be determined by measuring the acid ionisation
Acid dissociation constants
constants, Ka, in aqueous solutions. Consider the reaction of a
weak monoprotic acid HA.
HA (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + A– (aq) or
HA (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + A– (aq)
The equation for the ionisation constant is expressed as
[H+ ][A− ]
Ka = [HA]
139
The strength of an acid is related to its degree of ionisation, the

magnitude of which is reflected by the value of its dissociation
constant, Ka (same as the ionisation constant for complete
ionisation). The larger the Ka value of an acid, the greater its
dissociation, the higher the concentrations of H+ and the stronger
is the acid. Thus, the dissociation constant of a stronger acid is
greater than that of a weaker acid. The dissociation constants
increase as the strength of the acids increases. For example, the
strength of the following acids can be indicated by their acid
dissociation constants:
HNO2 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + NO2− (aq) Ka = 4.5 × 10–4
–2
HSO− + 2−
4 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O (aq) + SO4 (aq) Ka = 1.3 × 10
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO– (aq)
Ka= 1.8 × 10–5
The decreasing order of acid strength is HSO− 4 > HNO2 >
CH3COOH. The dissociation constant of a weak acid is sometimes
expressed on a logarithmic scale, which for acid is denoted by the
relation pKa = – log Ka. Small Ka values (corresponding to large
pKa) indicate weak acids. Ka and pKa may be used to indicate their
comparative acid strengths.
Example 7:
Nicotinic acid is a weak organic acid that can be represented as

HA.
HA (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + A– (aq)
The equilibrium concentrations of a dilute solution of nicotinic
acid at 298 K are given as, [HA]= 0.049 mol dm–3 and
[H3O+] = [A–] = 8.4 × 10–4 mol dm–3. What are the Ka and pKa
values?
Solution:
HA (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + A– (aq)
or HA (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + A– (aq)
[H+ ][A− ] 8.4 × 10−4 × 8.4 × 10−4
Ka = = = 1.4 × 10-5
[HA] 0.049
PKa = -log Ka = -log 1.4 × 10-5 = -0.146 + 5 = 4.854
140
Base dissociation constants Similarly, the relative strengths of bases can be determined by
measuring their base dissociation constants, Kb, in aqueous
solutions. The higher the Kb value of a base, the greater its
dissociation and the higher the concentrations of OH– ions will be.
The dissociation constants increase as the strength of the base
increases. Consider the reaction of a base, B.
B (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ HB+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
The equation for the dissociation constant is expressed as
[HB+ ][OH− ]
Kb = .
[B]
The water is not included in the equilibrium expression as it is in
such great excess, that the concentration of water does not change
significantly with changes in the concentrations of other species.
The following data on base dissociation constants indicate the
order of base strength.
CH3COO–(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COOH(aq) + OH–(aq) Kb = 5.6 × 10–10
NO−
2 (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ HNO2(aq) + OH–(aq) Kb = 2.2 × 10–11
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ NN4+ (aq) + OH– (aq) Kb = 1.8 × 10–5
The decreasing order of base strength is NH3 > CH3COO– > NO2− .
For a base, the dissociation constant is expressed on a logarithmic
scale, which is denoted by the relation pKb = – log Kb. Small Kb
values (corresponding to large pKb) indicate weak bases. Kb and
pKb may be used to indicate their comparative base strengths.
Example 8:
Use a 0.055 mol dm–3 solution of weak base ammonia having

hydroxide ion concentration of 1.0 × 10–3 mol dm–3, and calculate
the Kb value.
Solution:
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
[OH– ] = [NH4+ ] = 1.0 × 10–3 mol dm–3
The ionisation of the weak base is so small that the concentration
of undissociated NH3 molecule present at equilibrium is
approximately the same as that of the original concentration.
Thus, [NH3] = 0.055 mol dm–3
[NH+ −
4 ][OH ] (1.0 × 10−3 )(1.0 × 10−3 )
Kb = = = 1.82 × 10-5
[NH3 ] 0.055
141
understanding of the ionisation of acids and bases. Other relevant
Objective To assign a strong acid, strong base, weak acid, and weak base to
each of the given acids and bases.
o Give each group the formulae of acids and bases as in the
example given.
o Tell each group to classify the given formulae as follows:
o 1st member: strong acids;
o 2nd member: strong bases;
o 3rd member: weak acids;
o 4th member: weak bases.
(By doing this activity, each group should develop reasoning
and critical thinking skills to describe the types of acids and
bases.)
o Coordinate their responses by telling them that the strengths
of acids and bases can be determined by how much of each
ionise in aqueous solutions.
o Reflect on their learning, and assess the student's knowledge
o What type of ion does a base produce when it is dissolved
in water?
o Any acid that dissociates completely into ions is called a
(strong/weak) acid. If it does not dissociate completely, it
is a (strong/weak) acid.
necessary.
142

reasoning, problem solving, and critical thinking skills.
Objective To determine the relative strength of acids and bases
o Encourage the students to discuss the acid dissociation
constant and base dissociation constant before doing the
activity.
o Tell each group to do the following:
o 1st member: copy and complete the table of acids;
o 2nd member: arrange the acids in order of increasing acid
strength;
o 3rd member: copy and complete the table of bases;
o 4th member: arrange the bases in order of increasing base
strength.
(By using this activity, each group should develop a
conceptual understanding of the ionisation of acids and bases,
and increase problem solving and critical thinking skills to
determine the acid dissociation constant and base dissociation
constant.)
o Coordinate their responses to the description of different Ka or
Kb and explain that the water is excluded from the equilibrium
expression due to a large quantity and so the concentration of
water does not change significantly with changes in the
concentrations of other species.
o Reflect on their learning, and assess student's knowledge by
o What is the measure of the ability of the acid to lose its H+
ion?
143
o What is the strength of a base? o If the dissociation

constant (Ka) for a weak acid is 1.0 ×10-2, what would be
its pKa value?
necessary.
Review Questions 1. _____are strong electrolytes that completely ionise in water.

A. Weak acids B. Strong acids
C. Strong conjugated acids D. Weak conjugated acids
2. Slake lime is a strong base, what is the pOH for 0.01 mol
dm–3 of slaked lime.
A. 3 B. 4 C. 1.698 D. 1
3. The acidity of a base is measured by the number of molecules
of a______,
A. monoprotic base B. diprotic base
C. diprotic acid D. monoprotic acid
4. The higher the Kb value of a base, the greater its dissociation
and the ____of OH– ions will be.
A. higher the concentrations B. lower the
concentrations
C. higher the pH value D. lower the pH value
5. Ka value of the nicotinic acid is 1.4 × 10–5. What is the pKa
for this acid?
A. 4.53 B. 4.85 C. 5.01 D. 5.41
Key Terms o Strong acids are strong electrolytes that completely ionise in
water.
o Weak acids are weak electrolytes that partially ionise only to
a limited extent in water.
o Strong bases are strong electrolytes that ionise completely in
water.
o Weak bases are weak electrolytes that ionise to a very limited
extent in water.
o Basicity of an acid is the number of hydrogen ions that one
molecule of an acid can produce.
o Acidity of a base is the number of molecules of a monoprotic
acid that will neutralise one molecule of the base.
o Acid dissociation constant (Ka) is the equilibrium constant
for a weak acid.
o Base dissociation constant (Kb) is the equilibrium constant
for a weak base.
144
5.4 ► Salt Hydrolysis
5.4 Salt Hydrolysis
Lesson Objectives o To predict whether a salt solution will be acidic, basic, or

neutral
When the solutions of an acid and a base are mixed, an acid-base

neutralisation reaction occurs, forming salt and water. Salts are
strong electrolytes that completely dissociate into ions in water.
Water solutions of normal salts may be acidic, basic, or neutral
depending on the salt. These differences are due to the reaction of
ions of the salt and water. This reaction is referred to as hydrolysis.
The term salt hydrolysis describes the reaction of an anion or a
cation of a salt, or both, with water. Salt hydrolysis usually affects
the pH of a solution. There are four possible cases as below.
(a) Salts of Strong Bases Consider a solution of NaCl, which is the salt of the strong base
and Strong Acids NaOH and the strong acid HCl. NaCl dissociates into Na+ and Cl–
ions in H2O. Water molecules ionise slightly to produce equal
concentrations of H+ and OH– ions.
NaCl (s) → Na+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)
H2O (l) ⇌ H+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
The process may also be written as
Na+ (aq) Cl– (aq)
H2O (l) ⇌ OH– (aq) + H+ (aq)
The cation Na+ and the anion Cl– of the salt do not react with
water. This is because the products, base and acid, are strong so
that no formation of molecules, NaOH and HCl, occurs. Only Na+,
Cl–, H+ and OH– ions are present in this salt solution. The ionic
equilibrium of water remains undisturbed. It means that there is
no hydrolysis. Solutions of salts of strong bases and strong acids
are therefore neutral (pH = 7) because neither ion of such a salt
disturbs the equilibrium of water.
(b) Salts of Strong Bases Consider a solution of CH3COONa, which is the salt of the strong
and Weak Acids base NaOH and the weak acid CH3COOH. It is soluble and
dissociates completely in water. Water molecules ionise slightly
to produce equal concentrations of H+ and OH– ions.
145
CH3COONa (aq) → Na+ (aq) + CH3COO– (aq)

H2O (l) ⇌ H+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
The cation Na+ of the salt does not react with water. This is
because the product base is so strong so that no formation of
molecule, NaOH, occurs. It means that there is no hydrolysis. On
the other hand, the anion CH3COO– of the salt is a strong
conjugate base of the weak acid, CH3COOH. Thus, it reacts to
some extent with H+ from H2O to form CH3COOH and OH–.
CH3COO– (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ CH3COOH (aq) + OH– (aq)
This disturbs the equilibrium of water and more water molecules
ionise to maintain Kw constant. This produces more OH– ions and
so the solution becomes basic (pH > 7).
(c) Salts of Weak Bases Consider a solution of NH4Cl, which is the salt of the weak base
and Strong Acids NH4OH and the strong acid HCl. It is soluble and dissociates
completely in water. Water molecules ionise slightly to produce
equal concentrations of H+ and OH– ions.
NH4Cl (aq) →NH4+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)
H2O (l) ⇌ H+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
The cation NH4+ of the salt is a strong conjugate acid of the weak
base NH4OH. Thus, it reacts to some extent with OH– from H2O
to form NH4OH and H+. The anion Cl– of the salt is a weak
conjugate base of the strong acid HCl and it does not react with
water.
NH4+ (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ NH4OH (aq) + H+ (aq)
This disturbs the equilibrium of water and more water molecules
ionise to maintain Kw constant. This produces more H+ ions and
so, the solution becomes acidic (pH < 7).
(d) Salts of Weak Bases For a salt derived from a weak acid and a weak base, both the
and Weak Acids cation and the anion hydrolyse. However, whether a solution
containing such a salt is acidic, basic, or neutral depends on the
relative strengths of the weak acid and the weak base. Qualitative
predictions about these solutions are based on the following:
(i) If Kb for the anion is greater than Ka for the cation (Kb > Ka),
then the solution must be basic because the anion will react
with water to a greater extent than the cation. At equilibrium,
there will be more OH– ions than H+ ions (e.g., NH4CN).
146
(ii) Conversely, if Kb for the anion is smaller than Ka for the

cation (Kb < Ka), the solution will be acidic because the
cation will react with water to a greater extent than the anion.
At equilibrium, there will be more H+ ions than OH– ions
(e.g., NH4F).
(iii) If Kb for the anion is approximately equal to Ka for the cation
(Kb ≈ Ka), the solution will be nearly neutral because the
anion produces OH– ions just as the cation produces H+ ions
(e.g., CH3COONH4). As an example, ammonium ethanoate,
CH3COONH4, is the salt of the weak acid, CH3COOH, and
the weak base, NH4OH. It is soluble and dissociates
completely in water. Water molecules ionise slightly to
produce equal concentrations of H+ and OH– ions.
CH3COONH4 (aq) → NH4+ (aq) + CH3COO– (aq)
H2O (l) ⇌ H+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
The cation NH4+ of the salt is a strong conjugate acid of the weak
base, NH4OH. Thus, it reacts to some extent with OH– from H2O
to form NH4OH and H+. The anion CH3COO– of the salt is a strong
conjugate base of the weak acid, CH3COOH. Thus, it reacts to
some extent with H+ from H2O to form CH3COOH and OH–.
NH4+ (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ NH4OH (aq) + H+ (aq)
CH3COO– (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ CH3COOH (aq) + OH– (aq)
Kb for the anion CH3COO– (5.6 × 10–10) and Ka for the cation NH4+
(5.6 × 10–10) are equal. Thus, the CH3COO– ions produce OH– ions
just as the NH4+ ions produce H+ ions. Thus, ammonium ethanoate
solution is neutral.
Example 9:
Classify the following salts and predict whether the salt solutions
will be acidic, basic, or nearly neutral: (i) (NH4)2SO4 (ii) KNO3
(iii) Na2CO3 and (iv) NH4F (Ka = 5.6 × 10–10 for NH4+ and
Kb = 1.4 × 10–11 for F–)
Solution:
(i) (NH4)2SO4 is the salt of the weak base, NH4OH, and the
strong acid, H2SO4. So, the salt solution is acidic.
(ii) KNO3 is the salt of the strong base, KOH, and the strong
acid, HNO3. So, the solution is neutral.
(iii) Na2CO3 is the salt of the strong base, NaOH, and the weak
acid, H2CO3. So, the solution is basic.
147
(iv) NH4F is the salt of the weak base, NH4OH, and the weak
acid, HF. Kb for the anion, F– (1.4 × 10–11) is smaller than Ka
for the cation, NH4+ (5.6 × 10–10). Thus, the solution is acidic.
understanding of the pH of the solution that is affected by salt
hydrolysis. Other relevant activities could also be applied.
and critical thinking skills.
Objective To describe the pH of a solution that is affected by salt hydrolysis
o Let each member of the group randomly collect one type of
salt.
o Put 20 cm3 of distilled water into a beaker and then put
one teaspoon of each salt. Stir until completely dissolve;
o Dip a litmus paper (red, blue) in each beaker;
o Observe the colour change of litmus paper and tabulate the
results.
o Identify the nature of the solution.
(By doing this activity, each group should develop knowledge
of types of salt depending on the strengths of acids and bases
of salt origin as well as critical thinking and analysing skills
for examining the reaction of salt hydrolysis.)
o Conclude by telling the students that salt hydrolysis usually
affects the pH of a solution.
148
o Reflect on their learning, and assess student’s understanding
o Is the pH of a strong acid higher or lower than the pH of a
weak acid of the same concentration?
o Is the pH of a strong base higher or lower than the pH of a
weak base of the same concentration?
o Which one of these solutions will turn red litmus paper
blue, CaCl2 or NaCN?
necessary

Objective To classify the different types of salts
o Give each group the name of the salts mentioned in the support
materials.
o Tell each group to select the salt of:
o 1st member: strong acid and strong base;
o 2nd member: strong acid and weak base;
o 3rd member: weak acid and strong base;
o 4th member: weak acid and weak base;
and critical thinking skills to describe the types of reaction of
an anion or a cation of salt, or both, with water.)
o Coordinate their responses by telling them salts are formed when
mixing the solutions of an acid and a base, i.e., an acid-base
neutralisation reaction occurs.
Refection on Learning o Summarise the lesson by asking students what they have learned
in the lesson.
o Reflect on their learning, and assess student’s knowledge by
o What is the pH of water?
149
o What type of salt causes the pH of the solution to drop

below 7 when it is dissolved in water?
o What type of salt causes the pH of the solution to rise
above 7 when it is dissolved in water?
necessary.
Review Questions 1. Salt _____usually affects the pH of a solution.

A. hydrolysis B. dissociation C. ionisation D. solution
2. NaCl dissociates into Na+ and Cl– ions in H2O. The Na+ and
the Cl– ions of the salt ____with water.
A. hydrolysis B. combine C. react D. do not react
3. What is the pH of the solutions of salts of strong bases and
strong acids?
A. 1 B. 5 C. 7 D. 14
4. Which salt when dissolved in water will produce an acid
solution?
A. NaCN B. NaCl C. CH3COONa D. NH4Cl
5. Which of the following salt that cause pH of the solution to
drop below 7 when it is dissolved in water?
A. NaBr B. NH4NO3 C. CH3COONa D. Sr(CN)2
Key Term Salt hydrolysis is the reaction of an anion or a cation of salt, or

both, with water.
5.5 Buffer Solutions
Lesson Objectives o To explain the buffer solutions and perform the calculations
related to buffer solutions
Buffers are very important to chemical and biological systems.

The pH in the human body varies greatly from one fluid to
another; for example, the pH of blood is about 7.4, whereas the
gastric juice in a stomach has a pH of about 1.5. These pH values,
which are crucial for proper enzyme function and the balance of
osmotic pressure, are maintained by buffers in most cases.
150
5.5 ► Buffer Solutions
Many experiments, particularly in biochemistry, have to be

performed in an aqueous solution. Although it is impossible to
make a solution whose pH is unaffected, it is possible to make a
solution whose pH is almost unchanged by adding a small amount
of acid or base; such a solution is referred to as a buffer solution
and a solute (salt) is known as a buffer.
A buffer solution is a solution that resists changes in pH as a result
of dilution or small addition of acids or bases. The two common
kinds of buffer solutions are solutions containing (1) a weak acid
and its salt (conjugate base), and (2) a weak base and its salt
(conjugate acid).
(a) Buffer Solution of a A typical buffer solution for acidic values of pH (e.g., 4–7)
Weak Acid and Its Salt contains a weak acid and its salt. A mixture of ethanoic acid and
sodium ethanoate is commonly used.
Sodium ethanoate, a strong electrolyte, dissociates completely in
water and provides a large reserve of ethanoate ions. Ethanoic acid
provides a large potential reserve of H+ ions.
CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + CH3COO– (aq)
Function of a buffer of a If a small amount of strong acid like HCl is added to this buffer
weak acid and its salt solution, H+ ions from the strong acid react with the base
CH3COO– to form undissociated ethanoic acid. Therefore, the
concentration of H+ is reduced. This prevents a change in the pH
of the solution.
H+ (aq) + CH3COO– (aq) → CH3COOH (aq)
If a small amount of strong base like NaOH is added, the OH– ions
from the strong base react with undissociated ethanoic acid to
form CH3COO– and undissociated water. Therefore, the
concentration of OH– is reduced. This prevents a change in the pH
of the solution.
OH– (aq) + CH3COOH (aq) → CH3COO– (aq) + H2O (l)
(b) Buffer Solution of a A buffer solution of pH 7–11 can be prepared with a weak base
Weak Base and Its Salt and its salt. A mixture of ammonium hydroxide (ammonia
solution) and ammonium chloride is used.
151
Ammonium chloride, a strong electrolyte, dissociates completely

in water and provides a large source of ammonium ions.
Ammonium hydroxide provides a large potential source of OH–
ions.
NH4Cl (aq) → NH4+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)
NH4OH (aq) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
Function of a buffer of a If a small amount of strong base is added to this buffer solution,
weak base and its salt OH– ions from the strong base react with the NH4+ ions to form
NH4OH. Therefore, the concentration of OH– is reduced. This
prevents a change in the pH of the solution.
OH– (aq) + NH4+ (aq) → NH4OH (aq)
If a small amount of strong acid is added to this buffer solution,
H+ ions from the strong acid react with the NH4OH to form NH4+
ions and undissociated water. Therefore, the concentration of H+
ions is reduced. This prevents a change in the pH of the solution.
H+ (aq) + NH4OH (aq) → NH4+ (aq) + H2O (l)
Example 10:
Which of the following solutions are buffer solutions? Give

reasons. (i) HCN/NaCN (ii) HBr/KBr (iii) HCOOH/HCOOK
(iv) HClO4/NaClO4
Solution:
(i) HCN/NaCN is a buffer solution because HCNis a weak acid
and NaCN isits salt. CN– is a conjugate base of HCN.
(ii) HBr/KBr is not a buffer solution because HBr is a strong acid.
(iii) HCOOH/HCOOK is a buffer solution because HCOOH is a
weak acid and HCOOK is its salt. HCOO– is a conjugate base
of HCOOH.
(iv) HClO4/NaClO4 is not a buffer solution because HClO4 is a
strong acid.
Example 11:
Calculate the pH of a buffer solution containing 0.01 mol of

ethanoic acid and 0.01 mol of sodium ethanoate per dm3.
(Ka = 1.8 × 10–5 for ethanoic acid)
152
Solution:
[CH3COOH] = 0.01 mol dm–3
[CH3COONa] = [ CH3COO– ] = 0.01 mol dm–3
[H+ ][CH3 COO− ]
Ka = [CH3 COOH]
[H+ ] ×0.01
1.8 × 10-5 = 0.01
[H+] = 1.8 × 10–5 mol dm–3
pH = − log 1.8 × 10–5 = − 0.255 + 5 = 4.745
Example 12:
The pH of a sodium ethanoate-ethanoic acid buffer is 4.50.

Calculate the ratio of [CH3COO–] and [CH3COOH].
(Ka = 1.8 × 10–5 for ethanoic acid)
Solution:
[H+ ][CH3 COO− ]
Ka = [CH3 COOH]
pH = 4.50 − log [H+]
= 4.50 [H+]
= antilog − 4.50 [H+] = 3.16 × 10–5 mol dm–3
[CH3 COO− ] 𝐾𝑎
[CH3 COOH]
= [H+ ]
1.8 × 10−5
= 3.16 = 0.570
× 10−5
understanding of the buffer solution. Other relevant activities
Objective To observe the properties of buffer solution.
153
Instruction o Tell each group to do the following:

o 1st member: add 28.5 cm3 of ammonia solution to 3.5 g of
ammonium chloride in a beaker. Dilute to 50 cm3 with
distilled water and mix well. Label it as ‘Solution A’;
o 2nd member: dissolve 1.8 g of NaCl in 20 cm3 of distilled
water in a beaker and stir gently with a glass rod. Add
water to the mixture until the total volume is 30 cm3. Label
it as
‘Solution B’;
o 3rd member: arrange two sets of three test tubes labelled as
‘water’, ‘Solution A’, and ‘Solution B’. Record the pH of
each;
o 4th member: add 2 drops of methyl orange followed by 5
drops of 1 mol dm–3 HCl in each test tube and stir. Observe
the colour change and determine the pH of each solution;
o 5th member: add 2 drops of methyl orange followed by 5
drops of 1 mol dm–3 NaOH in each test tube and stir.
Observe the colour change and determine the pH of each
solution;
o Tabulate the colour and pH changes of each solution and
consider if the solution is buffered or not.
and critical thinking skills to identify which solutions appear
to behave as effective buffers.)
o Coordinate their responses by telling them a buffer solution
whose pH is almost unchanged when small amounts of acid or
base are added.
o Reflect on their learning, and assess each student's knowledge
o What is a solution that resists the change in pH when a
small amount of acid or base is added?
o What will happen to the pH of a buffer solution when
adding a small amount of acid?
154
o What will happen to the pH of a buffer solution when

adding a small amount of base?
necessary.

Objective To notice that each buffer pair consists of a Brønsted-Lowry acid
and its conjugate base
o Tell each member to get any two pairs as mentioned in the
support materials.
o Tell them to (i) describe the types of acid/base/salt and
(ii) predict if this pair can be a buffer solution.
o Ask each group to tabulate their results.
and critical thinking skills to identify which solutions appear
to behave as a buffer.)
class and check their ideas.
o Coordinate their responses by telling them a buffer solution
generally consists of a weak Brønsted-Lowry acid and its
conjugate base or a weak Brønsted-Lowry base and its
conjugate acid.
o Reflect on their learning, and assess each student's knowledge
o How do you determine if two solutions will make a buffer?
o What is the conjugate base of H2CO3?
o Which pair of solutions would be considered a buffer?
HCOOH and HCOOK or HCOOH and KOH
necessary.
155
Review Questions 1. A _____ is a solution that resists changes in pH as a result of

dilution or small addition of acids or bases.
A. acidic solution B. basic solution
C. neutral solution D. buffer solution
2. Which statement about a buffer solution is correct?
A. A buffer solution rapidly changes pH due to small addition
of water.
B. A buffer solution resists changes in pH.
C. A buffer solution change pH with dilution of water
D. A buffer solution changes pH only with the small addition
of acid.
3. What is the value of pH for the buffer solution of a weak acid
and its salt?
A. 4 -7 B. 7 C. 7-9 D. 14
4. Which of the following solution is buffer solution?
A. HBr/KBr B. HCOOH/HCOOK
C. HClO4/NaClO4 D. HCl/NaCl
5. What is the pH of a 0.01 mol dm-3 sodium ethanoate and 0.01
mol dm-3 ethanoic acid buffer solution? (Ka = 1.8 × 10–5 for
ethanoic acid)
A. 4.57 B. 5.74 C. 5.47 D. 4.75
Key Term Buffer solution is a solution that resists changes in pH as a result

of dilution or a small addition of acids or bases.
Chemistry in Society o The odour of fish is due to the presence of amines (weak bases). By
using lemon juice or vinegar on cooked fish, a neutralization
reaction takes place between citric acid (weak acid) in lemons or
ethanoic acid (weak acid) in vinegar and the bases in the flesh of
fish. Thus, it reduces the odour of the fish.
o When there is too much acid (HCl) in the stomach, this acid can
cause a lot of pain. Antacids such as aluminium hydroxide,
magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia), and sodium hydrogen
carbonate which are bases, are taken to neutralise the acids so that
they do not burn as much.
o The body lotion is buffered to a slightly acidic pH to relieve rashes.
This inhibits the growth of bacteria and other pathogens.
o Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), especially in higher doses, can cause
significant stomach upset. Buffered vitamin C contains ascorbic
acid together with calcium, magnesium, and potassium ascorbates
to allow higher doses without causing stomach upset.
o Bacteria present in the human mouth eat the adhering part of the
food in it and produce acid. Tooth decay is the result of this acid
attacking the calcium compound that makes up the tooth’s enamel.
The acid inside the mouth is neutralised by toothpaste, preventing
tooth decay.
156
► Exercises
Exercises 1. Which of the following is a Lewis acid?

A. NaCl B. MgO C. BF3 D. PCl3
2. Which of the following is only Bronsted-Lowry acid but not
an Arrhenius acid?
A. HCl B. NH4+ C. BF3 D. CH3COOH
3. Which of the following can act as a Bronsted-Lowry acid and
a Bronsted-Lowry base?
A. CH3COO- B. HCl C. HCO3- D. Na2CO3
4. Having both proton-accepting and proton-donating properties,
water is called an ______?
A. Diatomic molecule B. amphiprotic molecule.
C. neutral molecule D. none of these
5. Since the process of autoionisation is______, the
concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions increase
with temperature.
A. endothermic B. exothermic
C. heat evolved D. constant heat
6. What is the pH of grapefruit juice with a hydrogen ion
concentration of 9.8 × 10−4 mol dm−3?
A. 1 B. 3 C. 7 D. 9
7. For a salt derived from a weak acid and a weak base, both the
cation and the anion hydrolyse, affecting the pH of the
solution. Which of the following salt is an acidic salt?
A. NH4F B. CH3COONH4
C. NH4CN D. HCOONa
8. Which of the following salts is neutral salt?
A. NH4F B. CH3COONH4
C. NH4CN D. HCOONa
9. Select the following salts and predict whether the salt solution
will be acidic.
A. Na2CO3 B. CH3COONH4
C. (NH4)2SO4 D. NH4CN
10. The combination that would buffer the pH at about 9 is _____.
A. NH3/NH4Cl B. CH3COOH/CH3COONa
C. HCl/NaCl D. NH3/KOH
157
158
Chapter 6
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
6.1 The 3d Series Transition Elements
6.2 Characteristic Properties of the 3d Series
Transition Elements
6.3 Uses of the 3d Series Transition Elements
Learning Outcomes

to:
o indicate the position of the d-block transition
elements in the Periodic Table;
o describe the electronic configuration of the first
series (3d series) of transition elements and their
ions;
o explain the general properties and the
characteristics of the first series of transition
elements; focusing on their variable oxidation
states, formation of coloured compounds and
ions, and magnetic and catalytic properties;
o describe the use of transition elements in different
areas of daily life.
Chapter 6 ► Transition Elements

Transition elements are the metals that exist in the block between
Groups II and III that is, they are in Groups 3 to 12 of the Periodic
Table. Transition elements such as iron and copper have played an
important role in our lives. Iron is still important as a structural
material and used as a catalyst in the manufacture of ammonia. It
Iron bridge
is also present in haemoglobin. Copper is important as an
electronic conductor. Copper-nickel (cupronickel) alloys are used
in shipbuilding due to their excellent resistance to seawater
corrosion. Gold is the transition element that is used as jewellery
because of its beautiful yellow lustre colour and its inertness to
Gold jewelry
oxygen and water. Other transition elements are also useful. For
example, titanium is a major component in modern jet aircraft and
is used in manufacturing artificial joints and dental implants. The
role of cobalt, an essential component of vitamin B12 in living
systems, is equally important. A very tiny trace amount of
Titanium jet aircraft chromium is detected in apples. Because of their distinctive
properties and uses as catalysts, structural materials, and jewellery
in our daily lives, it is very important to study the chemistry of the
tra nsition elements. In this chapter, the general properties and
characteristics, and uses of the d-block transition elements,
especially the first row transition elements between the s-block
Cupronickel alloy used
in shipbuilding
element calcium and the p-block element gallium are discussed.
6.1 The 3d Series Transition Elements
Lesson Objectives o To indicate the position of the d-block transition elements in

the Periodic Table
o To describe the electronic configuration of the first series (3d
series) of transition elements and their ions
critical thinking
The transition elements are located between Group II of the

s-block and Group III of the p-block elements in the Periodic
Table. IUPAC defines a transition element (metal) as an element
whose atom has partially filled d subshells (orbitals) or which can
give rise to cations with incomplete d subshells (orbitals).
Under this definition, groups 3 to 12 are the transition elements
and the f-block lanthanide and actinide series are called the inner
transition elements.
160
6.1 ► The 3d Series Transition Elements
There are mainly three series of transition elements. The first

series 3d transition elements run from scandium (21Sc) through
zinc (30Zn). The second series 4d transition elements run from
yttrium (39Y) through cadmium (48Cd), and the third series 5d
transition elements run from lanthanum (57La) through mercury
(80Hg) except 14 elements of lanthanide series from cerium (58Ce)
to lutetium (71Lu). The transition elements are also called the
d-block elements because the d orbitals are filled in these
elements. (The transition elements Zn, Cd, and Hg are sometimes
called transition metals, but they do not have this characteristic
electronic configuration as defined by the IUPAC, so they really
do not belong in this category.) In this section, the 3d series
transition elements, from scandium to zinc, will be highlighted.
(a) The First Series 3d The first row of the transition elements is in the fourth row
Transition Elements (Period 4) of the Periodic Table. In the 3d series, there are 10
transition elements, namely, scandium (Sc), titanium (Ti),
vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt
(Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn).
For the 3d series transition elements, the nuclear charge increases
from scandium to copper so that atomic radii show a gradual
decrease in their values (Table 6.1). The decrease in atomic radii
occurs because the attraction force between the nucleus and
electrons is stronger than the electron-electron repulsion force.
Compare to s- and p-block elements, the decrease is less rapid.
161
All the transition elements in this series have quite similar radii,
which accounts for their ability to blend together to form alloys.
Similarly, the first ionisation energies (IE) of scandium to copper
increase only slightly as the positive charge on the nucleus (atomic
number) increases. The trend correlates with an increase in the
nuclear charge and a decrease in the atomic radius. However,
towards the end of the series, zinc has the larger atomic size and
ionisation energy due to the increasing electron-electron repulsion
as the occupancy of the d orbitals is completed.
Table 6.1 Periodic Properties of the 3d Series Transition Elements
Periodic properties of elements Sc to Zn
Properties
21Sc 22Ti 23V 24Cr 25Mn 26Fe 27Co 28Ni 29Cu 30Zn
Atomic
162 147 134 130 135 126 125 124 128 138
radius (pm)
First IE
631 658 650 652 717 759 760 736 745 906
(kJ mol-1)
(b) Electronic Although the 4s orbital is the outermost orbital, it is slightly lower
Configurations of the in energy than the 3d orbitals. In atoms of the transition elements,
3d Series Transition the 4s orbital is normally filled and the rest of the electrons occupy
Elements the 3d orbitals. The electronic configurations of the 3d series
(i) Electronic configurations transition elements will be discussed in this section.
of atoms The filling of the 3d orbitals generally starts from scandium (21Sc)
and continues up to zinc (30Zn), in which the orbital is completely
filled. The filling of the 3d orbitals generally obeys Hund’s rule,
with one electron added to each of the five d orbitals before a
second electron is added to any one of them. For example, the
complete electronic configuration of titanium (22Ti) can be
described below.
2 2 6 2 6 2 2
22Ti: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Since the electronic configuration of 18Ar is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6, it
can be represented an argon core as [Ar].
Thus, 22Ti can also be represented using the argon core as
[Ar] 4s2 3d2 and its essential electronic configuration is
represented as 4s2 3d2.
There are two exceptions to the expected regular filling pattern
(half-filled or completely filled orbitals); chromium (24Cr) and
copper (29Cu).
162
In the case of 24Cr, the expected complete electronic configuration

is shown below.
2 2 6 2 6 2 4
24Cr: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
However, 3d and 4s orbitals have nearly the same energy. So, each
of these orbitals must be filled with each electron to attain a more
stable electronic configuration with the half-filled 3d orbitals. So,
one electron from the 4s shifts to the 3d orbitals.
2 2 6 2 6 1 5
24Cr: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
[Ar] 4s1 3d5

Essential electronic configuration of 24Cr: 4s1 3d5
Similarly, the electronic configuration of 29Cu is [Ar] 4s1 3d10,
instead of the expected [Ar] 4s2 3d9. This is so because completely
filled 3d orbitals have extra stability.
2 2 6 2 6 1 10
29Cu: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
In general, the neutral atoms of most of the transition elements

have an essential electronic configuration of (n-1)d1-10 ns1-2.
(ii) Electronic configurations In the transition metal elements, the 4s orbital is the outermost
of the ions orbital. When these metals form ions, the electrons are always
removed first from the 4s orbital and then from the 3d orbitals.
The electronic configuration of the iron(II) ion (Fe2+) is [Ar] 3d6,
and the electronic configuration of the iron(III) ion (Fe3+) is
[Ar] 3d5.
In general, the ions of transition elements have an electronic
configuration of (n-1)d1-10. The essential electronic configurations
of the 3d series transition elements and their ions are shown in
Table 6.2. The zinc element has completely filled 3d orbitals.
When it forms an ion, it always loses the 2 outer electrons from 4s
to give the electronic configuration of [Ar] 3d10. Completely filled
3d orbitals are so stable that zinc can form compounds in the +2
oxidation state.
163
Table 6.2 Essential Electronic Configurations of the 3d Series Transition Elements and
Their Ions (M2+ and M3+ Ions)
Example 1:
Why is copper (29Cu) considered a transition element?
Solution:
10 1
29Cu has the electronic configuration, [Ar] 3d 4s .
Cu2+ ion has the electronic configuration, [Ar] 3d9.
Copper is considered a transition element because the Cu2+ ion has
incomplete 3d orbitals.
understanding of the electronic configuration of transition
elements. Other relevant activities could also be applied.
Activity (1) Group work to develop students’ collaboration, communication, and
critical thinking skills.
Objectives To describe the filling patterns of electrons of 3d series transition
elements
o 1st member: give the names of elements in 3d series
transition elements;
o 2nd member: give their symbols with respective atomic
numbers;
o 3rd member: give their complete electronic structures;
o Tabulate the results.
communication and critical thinking skills for determining the
electronic configuration of 3d transition elements.)
164

o Conclude by telling the students that there are two exceptions
to the expected regular filling pattern (half-filled or
completely filled orbitals), 24Cr (chromium), and 29Cu
(copper).
o Which orbital would be filled the electrons first for the d-
block elements, 3d or 4s?
o What is the element in which one electron is in its 3d
orbital?
o Write the electronic configuration of an element from the
first transition series having a half-filled d orbital.
o Scan the written responses to assess students’ understanding.
necessary.

and critical thinking skills.
Objectives To recognise the electronic configuration of 3d series transition
elements and their ions
o Distribute one symbol of transition elements to each group.
o 1st member: give the complete electronic structure of 3d
series transition elements using Ar core;
o 2nd member: give the essential electronic structures of
elements;
o 3rd member: give the essential electronic structures of their
M2+ ions;
o 4th member: give the essential electronic structures of their
M3+ ions.
o Tabulate the results.
165

understanding of how to write the electronic configuration of
an atom as well as reasoning and critical thinking skills for the
electronic configuration of 3d transition elements and ions.)
o Coordinate by telling the students that the 4s orbital is the
outermost orbital in the transition elements. When these
metals form ions, the electrons are always removed first from
the 4s orbital, and then from the 3d orbitals.
o To reflect on their learning, assess each student's knowledge
o What is the general electronic configuration of d-block
elements using the Ar core?
o Which orbital would be lost electrons first for the d-block
elements, 3d or 4s?
o Mention the transition metal in the 3d series that do not
form the M2+ ion.
necessary.
Review Questions 1. A transition element (metal) is defined as an element whose atom

has _____filled d Subshells.
A. completely B. partially C. fully D. empty
2. A transition element (metal) can give rise to _____with incomplete
d subshells.
A. cations B. anions C. negative ions D. none of these
3. The first 3d series transition elements run from scandium through
______.
A. argon B. bromine C. Titanium D. Zinc
4. The transition elements are also called the _____elements.
A. s-block B. p-block C. d-block D. f-block
5. _____has the highest ionization energy in 3d transition series.
A. Zinc B. Vanadium C. Titanium D. Cobalt
Key Term o Transition elements are elements that have partially filled d
subshells (orbitals) which can give rise to cations with
incomplete d subshells (orbitals).
166
6.2 ► Characteristic Properties of the 3d Series Transition Elements
6.2 Characteristic Properties of the 3d Series Transition Elements
Lesson Objectives o To explain the general properties and the characteristics of the
first series of transition elements, focusing on their variable
oxidation states, formation of coloured compounds and ions,
magnetic and catalytic properties
In a period, the properties of transition elements are very similar

in contrast to those of s-block and p-block elements. This is
because, in a transition series, the valence shell electronic
configuration of the elements does not change. However, they
have the same group similarities as the s-block and p-block
elements. Most of the first series of transition elements are more
familiar and technically important than the heavier members of
their groups.
(a) General Properties Many of the properties of transition elements are similar, but they
of the 3d Series are very different from other metals in Groups I and II (alkali and
Transition Elements alkaline earth metals). The general physical and chemical
properties of 3d series transition elements are given below.
Physical Properties These transition elements are solid metals. They have typical
metallic properties such as malleability, ductility, metallic lustre,
and high tensile strength. They are silvery-white except for
copper, which is brownish-red in colour. They are generally good
conductors of electricity and heat. They have high melting points
and boiling points as shown in Table 6.3. The transition elements
have a high density. One cubic centimetre (1 cm3) cube of iron is
8 times heavier than a 1 cm3 cube of sodium.
Table 6.3 Physical Properties of the 3d Series Transition Elements
167
Chemical Properties Transition elements have a wide range of chemical behaviours.

They are significantly less reactive than Group I metals. For
example, nickel and copper do not react with water, or catch fire
Iron(III) oxide
in the air (oxygen), unlike sodium. In general, transition metals do
(reddish-brown)
not corrode readily in the atmosphere. But iron is an exception; it
rusts easily. They readily form alloys. Iron combined with non-
Iron(II) sulphate
(green) metal carbon produces an alloy called steel.
Most transition elements form coloured compounds. In contrast,
Copper(II) sulphate the Groups I and II metals form white compounds. Most of them
(blue) can form ions with different charges. So, the transition elements
show variable oxidation states, and they can form more than one
compound with another element, e.g., copper(I) oxide (Cu2O),
copper(II) oxide (CuO), iron(II) oxide (FeO), and iron(III) oxide
(Fe2O3). Most transition elements can form complex ions.
Table 6.4 Comparison of Some Properties of the 3d Series Transition Metals and the Alkali
Metals
Comparison of some
properties of 3d series The comparison of some properties of 3d series transition metals
transition metals with the with the Group I alkali metals is summarised in Table 6.4.
Group I alkali metals
(b) Characteristics of the Transition elements typically have incompletely filled d orbitals
3d Series Transition or readily give rise to ions with partially filled d orbitals. This is
Elements responsible for several notable properties, including variable
oxidation states, distinctive colour, the formation of paramagnetic
compounds, and catalytic activity.
Variable oxidation states Transition elements exhibit variable oxidation states. These
elements usually lose the electron from the s orbital first, which is
followed by the removal of an electron from the d orbitals.
168
Because of the removal of electrons from d orbitals, transition

elements show multiple oxidation states. Table 6.5 shows the
oxidation states of the 3d series transition elements from scandium
(21Sc) to zinc (30Zn). The +3 oxidation states (i.e., M3+ ions) are
more stable at the beginning of the series, i.e., the left side of Mn
whereas towards the end, i.e., the right side of Mn, +2 oxidation
states (i.e., M2+ ions) are more stable. The elements in the middle
of the series exhibit more oxidation states than those to the left or
right. Iron (26Fe) is known to form oxidation states from +2 to +6,
with iron(II) and iron(III) being the most common. The highest
oxidation state is +7 for manganese (25Mn). The ions of
chromium, manganese, and iron have the highest oxidation states,
+6, +7, and +6, respectively. These ions tend to be good oxidising
agents, e.g., dichromate ion (Cr2O2− 7 ), permanganate ion
− 2−
(MnO4 ), and ferrate(VI) ion (FeO4 ). In contrast, vanadium and
chromium ions with the lowest oxidation state of +2 are good
reducing agents, such as vanadium(II) ion (V2+) and chromium(II)
ion (Cr2+). Because of their greater nuclear attraction force,
divalent ions of Co2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, and Zn2+ are poor reducing
agents. Transition metals usually have their highest oxidation
states in compounds with high electronegative elements such as
oxygen and fluorine. Examples are vanadium(V) fluoride (VF5),
chromium(VI) oxide (CrO3), and manganese(VII) oxide (Mn2O7).
Table 6.5 Oxidation States of the 3d Series Transition Elements
Note: The stable oxidation states are shown in red colour.
Formation of coloured The transition elements usually form coloured compounds and
compounds and ions ions. The colour of compounds of transition metals is due to the
presence of incomplete d orbitals or the presence of unpaired
electrons.
169
The transition metal compounds form coloured ions in an aqueous

solution because they absorb visible light. The colour of some
transition metal ions in an aqueous solution is given in Table 6.6.
The characteristic colour of transition metal ions is helpful when
performing qualitative analysis.
Table 6.6 The Colour of the 3d Series Transition Metal Ions in

Aqueous Solutions
Ion Colour Ion Colour Ion Colour
3+
Ti purple Cr3+ Violet Fe2+ green
V5+ yellow Cr2+ blue Co3+ blue
Note: Sc3+ and Zn2+ ions are V4+ blue Mn7+ purple Co2+ pink
colourless because Sc3+ ion
has completely empty d V3+ green Mn3+ purple-red Ni2+ green
orbitals, and Zn2+ has V2+ violet Mn2+ pale pink Cu2+ blue
completely filled d orbitals. Cr6+ yellow Fe3+ yellow
Magnetic property The magnetic properties of a transition metal can be determined

by examining the paired or unpaired electrons in (n-1)d orbitals.
If the electrons are unpaired then it is a paramagnetic substance.
If the electrons are paired, then it is a diamagnetic substance.
According to the electronic configurations of the 3d series
transition elements, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium,
and manganese are paramagnetic substances whereas copper and
zinc are diamagnetic substances. Most of the transition elements
and their compounds are paramagnetic.
Substances that are attracted very strongly by the applied magnetic
field are said to be ferromagnetic. Iron, cobalt, and nickel are
ferromagnetic substances.
Example 2:
Is copper (29Cu) considered a diamagnetic substance? Give a
reason for your answer.
Solution:
2 2 6 2 6 1 10
29Cu: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
The electronic configuration of copper (29Cu) is [Ar] 3d10 4s1

which has the paired electrons in d orbitals. Therefore, it is a
diamagnetic substance.
170
Example 3:
Is vanadium (23V) considered a paramagnetic substance? Give a
reason for your answer.
Solution:
2 2 6 2 6 2 3
23V: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
The electronic configuration of vanadium (23V) is [Ar] 3d34s2

which has unpaired electrons in the d orbitals. Therefore, it is a
paramagnetic substance.
Catalytic property Transition metals are widely used at the industrial level due to
their catalytic properties. Many transition elements and their
compounds act as good catalysts for specific reactions. Iron and
vanadium are the most important catalysts. Iron is used as a
catalyst in the manufacture of ammonia (Haber process).
Vanadium is used in the form of vanadium(V) oxide (V2O5) in the
manufacture of sulphuric acid (Contact process). Nickel is used as
a catalyst in the hydrogenation of alkenes. Titanium(IV) chloride
(TiCl4) is used for the manufacturing of high-density polyethene
in industries.
understanding of the physical and chemical properties of
transition metals. Other relevant activities could also be applied.
reasoning, and critical thinking skills.
Objective To compare the properties between 3d transition metals and alkali
metals
Instruction o Form students into pairs.
o Encourage students to revise the properties of transition and
alkali metals before doing the activity.
o Give each pair a blank sheet of paper to draw a table having
two columns heading with Transition Metals and Alkali
Metals.
o Give each pair 8 cards as mentioned in the support materials.
o Let students match the relevant cards to the column of
Transition Metals and Alkali Metals. (By doing this activity,
171

each pair should develop the ability to classify transition
metals and alkali metals through their properties.)
o Ask 2 or 3 pairs to share their answers with the class. After the
pair has shared, make the class raise their hands if they agree
with the presentation. (If other pairs have additional
o Conclude by telling the students that transition metals have a
wide range of chemical behaviours. They are much less
reactive than alkali metals.
o Many of the properties of transition metals are due to their
electronic arrangement. How is this different from other
metals?
o Mention one of the typical properties of transition
elements.
o Where on the Periodic Table are the alkali metals found?
necessary.

Objective To predict the colour of transition metals according to their
oxidation states
Instruction o Form students into groups of five.
o Distribute five symbols of transition elements to each group.
o Let each member of the group randomly collect one symbol
from a set of five.
o Tell each member to describe the ions (with the oxidation
states) of his/her elements with their respective colour.
o (By doing this activity, each group should develop analysing
and reasoning skills to predict the colour of transition metals
with their oxidation states.)
172

responses.
o What colour change would you observe in the following
half-reactions?
(i) Cr2O2−
7 (aq) + 14H (aq) + 6e → 2Cr (aq) + 7H2O (l)
+ 3+
(ii) MnO− 4 (aq) + 8H (aq) + 5e → Mn (aq) + 4H2O (l)

+ 2+
o What metal ion is pink? (Refer to Table 6.6)

answered correctly.
Review Questions 1. The characteristic colour of transition metal ions is helpful in

______ analysis.
A. descriptive B. qualitative C. quantitative D. exhibited
2. The stable oxidation state of cobalt is_______.
A. +5 B. +4 and +7 C. +2 and +3 D. +3
3. The colour of copper (II) sulphate is ______.
A. green B. violet C. yellow D. blue
4. Which of the following is the ferromagnetic substance.
A. Chromium B. Copper C. Calcium D. Cobalt
5. Nickel is used as a catalyst in the hydrogenation of ______.
A. alkenes B. alkanes C. alcohol D. amine
Key Terms o Complex ion is an ion, which has a metal ion at its centre with
a number of other molecules or ions surrounding it.
o Paramagnetic substance is a substance that has unpaired
electrons and shows weak attraction towards the external
magnetic field.
o Diamagnetic substance is a substance that has no unpaired
electrons and shows no attraction (slight repulsion) from the
external magnetic field.
o Ferromagnetic substance is a substance that is strongly
attracted by the applied magnetic field, and retains its
magnetisation for some time even after the external magnetic
field is removed.
173
6.3 Uses of the 3d Series Transition Elements
Lesson Objectives o To describe the use of transition elements in different areas of

daily life
Transition metals and their compounds have great importance in

our lives. They are often known as everyday metals. Almost all of
them are good at conducting both heat and electricity, making
them useful for a variety of applications. The 3d series transition
metals such as titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron,
cobalt, nickel, and copper have a wide range of uses. In this
section, some of the various applications of 3d series transition
metals and their compounds will be highlighted.
Applications in building The transition elements such as iron, chromium, titanium etc., are
materials used in building materials due to their properties of strength,
malleability, and ductility. The uses of some elements are
described below.
Titanium is an integral part of modern construction because it is
highly corrosion-resistant, strong, and lightweight. It is used for
roofs, flooring, and ceiling decoration in buildings. It is also used
for spacecraft, ships, and marine equipment. Iron is usually too
soft to be used as metal alone. It is usually mixed with small
amounts of other elements to make harder alloy steels with greater
tensile strength and stronger than iron, but easily shaped.
Iron alloy steels are strong, easily shaped, and cheap compared to
most other metals. So, it is used for making building materials in
construction, for example, bridges, buildings, ships, and cars.
Manganese is mainly used in alloys, such as steel. Steel contains
about 1 % manganese to increase the strength and also improve
workability and resistance. Manganese steel is extremely strong
and is used for railway tracks.
Applications in industry Transition metals and their compounds have many chemical and
physical properties that make them desirable for industrial
applications. They have a wide range of uses. Their properties are
very similar but not identical. It is important to choose the suitable
transition metal for the required purpose.
174
6.3 ► Uses of the 3d Series Transition Elements
Vanadium is used to form alloys of steel with iron. In the chemical

industry, vanadium metal sheets, wires and tubes are widely used.
Vanadium can be used in the ceramics industry. Vanadium
compounds are also used in several applications such as
vanadium(V) oxide (V2O5) as a catalyst in the ceramics industry,
and as a mordant in the printing and dyeing of fabrics.
Chromium has many industrial uses due to its toughness and
resistance to heat and corrosion. It is widely used for
manufacturing stainless steel. Various chromium salts are the
main raw materials in the chemical industry. Chromium is mainly
used in electroplating, tanning, printing, dyeing, catalysts,
oxidants, matches, and metal corrosion inhibitors. In the
automobile industry, chromium is involved in the production of
car brake pads.
Manganese is used as a catalyst to reduce the octane rating in
gasoline. It is also used in dry cell batteries, and paint.
Cobalt is used in making alloys with various metals. Cobalt ion
has brilliant blue colour used as paint, ink, and pigments. It is
primarily used in the ceramics and paint industry to create the blue
colour. Rechargeable batteries are made up of cobalt.
Nickel is used for anti-corrosion coating, and nickel plating. It is
a primary component in rechargeable batteries. Nickel is primarily
used in the production of stainless steel.
Copper is a good conductor of electricity and it is used for
electrical wire, circuit boards, water pipes, and industrial
machinery (such as heat exchangers).
Applications in the medical Iron and copper are essential metals used in modern medicine.
field Iron is used to treat or prevent anemia. Copper has been used to
treat Wilson’s disease and Menkes disease.
The surgical instruments are made of transition metals such as
stainless steel, cobaltchrome alloys, titanium and its alloys.
Titanium surgical instruments offer several advantages over
stainless steel instruments, such as being lightweight, durable, and
corrosion-resistant. Titanium has been used mostly for fabricating
dental implants. It is also used in artificial hip bone replacements,
and eyeglass frames.
175
understanding of transition metals and their uses. Other relevant
Objective To describe the name of 3d series transition metals or compounds
for different applications
o Distribute nine uses of 3d series transition metals/compounds
to each group.
o Let each member of the group randomly collect three uses out
of nine.
o Tell each member to describe the possible metals or ions for
his/her respective uses.
(By doing this activity, each group should develop analysing
and critical thinking skills to predict the name of transition
metals or compounds for different applications.
o Coordinate their responses by telling them that transition
metals and their compounds have great importance in our
lives. They are often known as everyday metals.
o What are the uses of titanium?
o What are the uses of transition metals in the industry?
o Cobalt compounds are used to colour paints, inks, glass,
ceramics, and even makeup. What colours do they have?
necessary.
176
6.3 ► Uses of the 3d Series Transition Elements

Objectives To describe the use of transition metals that are related to their
properties
o Encourage students to discuss the uses of transition metals
related to their properties before doing the activity.
o Distribute four names of 3d series transition elements as
mentioned in the support materials to each group.
o Let each member of the group randomly collect one name out
of four.
o Tell each member to describe the properties of his/her
respective metals related to their applications.
and critical thinking skills to describe the application of 3d
transition metals depending upon the properties of these
metals.)
properties that affect the application of transition metals.
o To reflect on their learning, assess the students’ knowledge by
o Which metal is most likely to be used for building
materials (manhole and grid covers)?
o Which transition metal is an essential mineral for lithium-
ion batteries?
o What transition metals could be used in steel production?
necessary.
Review Questions 1. ______ is important as an electronic conductor.

A. Copper B. Cobalt C. Carbon D. Nickel
2. ______ surgical instruments have more suitable properties than
stainless steel.
A. Iron B. Nickle C. Chromium D. Titanium
3. ______steel is extremely strong and is used for railway tracks.
A. Chromium B. Nickle C. Manganese D. Vanadium
4. Titanium has been used mostly for fabricating _____ implants.
A. conductor B. dental C. alloy D. steel
5. The blue colour of sapphire is due to a trace amount of _____.
A. Fe and Ti B. Cr and Mn C. Co and Ni D. Sc and Zn
177
Chemistry in Society o Gemstones are found in different colours due to the presence
of transition metal ions. For example, the red colour of ruby is
due to a trace amount of chromium. The blue colour of
sapphire is due to a trace amount of iron and titanium.
o The coloured compounds of transition elements can be seen in
the pottery glazes.
o Transition metals such as iron, chromium, copper, manganese,
and zinc are essential trace elements for human beings and
plants. They are used in drugs and cosmetic formulations.
o Transition metal complexes have a long history of use as
antibacterial and antiviral agents. Copper is used in agriculture
as a fungicide (Bordeaux mixture).
o Nichrome wire is an alloy that comes into existence by mixing
chromium and nickel. It is used in electric stoves.
Exercises 1. Transition elements are the metals that exist in Groups ______
of the Periodic Table.
A. 2 to 10 B. 2 to12 C. 3 to 10 D. 3 to 12
2. The first transition element of the 3d series is ______.
A. yttrium B. lanthanum C. cerium D. scandium
3. The number of 3d electrons in Mn3+ ion is ______.
A. 4 B. 2 C. 5 D. 3
4. Copper and Zinc are ______substances.
A. thermomagnetic B. ferromagnetic
C. paramagnetic D. diamagnetic
5. Because of the greater nuclear attraction force, divalent ions
of ______ are poor reducing agents.
A. Co2+, Ni2+ and Cu2+ B. Sc2+, Ti2+ and V2+
C. Cr2+, Ti2+and Mn2+ D. V2+, Mn2+ and Cr2+
6. ______is used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid (Contact
process).
A. Vanadium(V) oxide(V2O5) B. Vanadium
C. Iron D. Iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3)
7. The red colour of ruby is due to a trace amount of _____.
A. titanium B. manganese C. chromium D. copper
8. ______is also present in haemoglobin.
A. Vanadium B. Coppr C. Zinc D. Iron
9. In the first row of the transition elements, there are
______elements.
A. 6 B. 10 C. 7 D. 2
10. The first row of the transition elements is in Period _____ of
the Periodic Table.
A. 7 B. 5 C. 4 D. 3
178
179
Chapter 7
CHEMISTRY AND GREEN

ENVIRONMENT
7.1 Our Environmental World
7.2 Pollutants and Impacts on the Environment
7.3 Radioactive Substances and the Environment
7.4 Chemistry for Sustainable Environmental
Development
Learning Outcomes

to:
o discuss the biogeochemical cycles of carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur;
o explain how human activities have impacted
these cycles and the resulting potential
consequences for the Earth;
o investigate the hazardous substances present in
the environment;
o categorise the impacts of pollutants on the
environment;
o describe the sources of radioactive substances
and their usefulness;
o identify the pros and cons of radioactivity and
radioactive substances;
o describe the green techniques to minimise
environmental pollution.
7.1 ► Our Environmental World
The planet Earth is the home to all living and non-living things
that are connected and interdependent on each other to thrive. The
environment contributes greatly to the growth of humans and
other organisms. But human activities and innovative
technologies are now threatening the environment. The role of
chemistry is crucial to alleviate these problems. The air, water, and
soil pollution must be systematically studied and treated with the
knowledge of chemistry. Challenges of environmental issues,
such as flue gases and waste materials from industrial and nuclear
energy sectors, pesticides and fertilisers runoffs from the
agricultural sector, and sewage disposal from the societal sector,
must be well informed to the society to minimise the risk, and only
then can a green environment be established.
This chapter focuses on the interrelationship of all natural
resources and the role of chemistry in the environment. A healthy
environment can only be restored by the understanding of
chemistry. Chemistry will play a crucial role to understand the
consequences of these negative impacts and what measures to take
for future green environment and to conserve our green
environment.
Biogeochemical Cycles
in the Environment
7.1 Our Environmental World
Lesson Objectives o To discuss the biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen,

phosphorus and sulphur
o To explain how human activities have impacted these cycles
and the resulting potential consequences for the Earth
critical thinking
181
Chapter 7 ► Chemistry and Green Environment
The environment is the surroundings comprising of hydrosphere,

lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. The flora and fauna
operate in the dynamic interaction of climatic factors, living things
and natural resources for survival and progress of all well-being.
Both natural and man-made chemical substances in the
environment have a direct impact on human survival and
development. In this context, all the chemical reactions that take
place in the environment are directly related to the natural matter
cycling and transformation of the elements on the Earth.
(a) Natural Matter Cycling In the natural matter cycling, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
phosphorus, and sulphur take a variety of chemical forms and may
exist for a long period in the atmosphere, on land, in water or
beneath the Earth’s surface. The pathways that allow different
chemical substances to move through living and non-living forms
and their locations in the biosphere are called a biogeochemical
cycle.
The cycling of elements is interconnected with the water cycle.
For example, water runoff is critical for leaching nitrogen and
phosphate into rivers, lakes, and oceans. The ocean is also a major
reservoir for all soluble or insoluble substances. Thus, mineral
nutrients are cycled, either rapidly or slowly, through the entire
biosphere and from one living organism to another. The detailed
description of the natural cycles of carbon and nitrogen is given in
the Grade 11 Chemistry Textbook. In this section, the summarised
description of these two cycles and the detailed description of the
phosphorus and sulphur cycles will be highlighted.
(i) Carbon cycle Most of the Earth’s carbon is stored in rocks and sediments. The
rest is located in the ocean, atmosphere, and in living organisms.
These are the reservoirs through which carbon cycles.The carbon
cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged
among the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of
the Earth. The processes involved in the carbon cycle are
photosynthesis, respiration, exchange, fossilisation,
sedimentation, and combustion (Figure 7.1).
Plants constantly exchange carbon with the atmosphere. They
absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. Plants then release
carbon dioxide when they decay.
182
Figure 7.1
Carbon Cycle in the Environment
Respiration is the process of gas exchange between the

atmosphere and living organisms. Animals exhale carbon dioxide
when they breathe. The oceans also obtain carbon from the
atmosphere by absorbing carbon dioxide. In the fossilisation
process, the animal and plant residues become sediment and
eventually turn into rock and minerals. The carbon is stored as coal
and other fossil fuels in rocks and other geological deposits. The
combustion of fossil fuels and organic materials gives off carbon
dioxide, water, and energy.
(ii) Nitrogen cycle The nitrogen cycle is a biogeochemical process through which
nitrogen is converted into many forms, consecutively passing
from the atmosphere to the soil and then to organisms, and back
into the atmosphere. The nitrogen cycle involves the following
steps: nitrogen fixation, nitrification, nitrogen assimilation,
ammonification, and denitrification (Figure 7.2).
Figure 7.2
Nitrogen Cycle in the Environment
The detailed description of the nitrogen cycle has been expressed

in Section 7.1(c), the Grade 11 Chemistry Textbook.
183
(iii) Phosphorus cycle Unlike many other cycling elements, phosphorus cannot be found
in the air. It is mainly cycling through water, soil and sediments.
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals in the
form of ions PO3− 2−
4 and HPO4 . Phosphorus is also a building
block of certain parts of the human including DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) and animal bodies, such as bones and
teeth.
In the soil, phosphorus occurs as rock phosphate, calcium
phosphate, iron phosphate, or aluminium phosphate. Phosphate
salts that are released from rocks through weathering usually
dissolve in water present in soil and will be absorbed by plants.
When animals and plants die, phosphates will enter the soils or
oceans again during decay. After that, phosphorus will end up in
sediments or rock formation again, remaining there for millions of
years. Eventually, phosphorus is released again through
weathering and this process proceeds in a cyclic way (Figure 7.3).
Phosphorus moves slowly from deposits on land and in sediments,
to living organisms, and then much more slowly back into the soil
and water sediment. The phosphorus cycle moves through plants
and animals much faster than it does through rocks and sediments.
Figure 7.3
Phosphorus Cycle in the Environment
Marine birds play a unique role in the phosphorus cycle, as they
take phosphorus-containing fish out of the ocean and return to
land, where they defecate. Their guano contains a high level of
phosphorus and in this way, marine birds return phosphorus from
the ocean to the land.
(iv) Suphur cycle The sulphur cycle (Figure 7.4) moves through the rocks, water
bodies, atmosphere and living systems.
184
Sulphur is one of the components that make up proteins and

vitamins. Plants absorb sulphur when sulphur-containing
compounds are dissolved in water. Animals consume these plants,
so that they take up enough sulphur to maintain their health.
Figure 7.4
Sulphur Cycle in the Environment
Most of the Earth’s sulphur is found in rocks and salts or buried
deep in the ocean in oceanic sediments. Sulphur can also be found
in the atmosphere by entering through both natural and human
activities. Natural sources can be, for instance, volcanic eruptions,
bacterial processes, or decaying organisms. When sulphur enters
the atmosphere through human activity, this is mainly a
consequence of industrial processes where sulphur dioxide (SO2)
and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gases are emitted on a wide scale.
When sulphur dioxide enters the atmosphere, it will react with
oxygen to produce sulphur trioxide gas (SO3), or with other
chemicals in the atmosphere, to produce sulphur salts. Sulphur
dioxide reacts with water to produce sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
Sulphuric acid may also be produced from dimethyl sulphide
emitted to the atmosphere by plankton species. All these
substances will settle back onto the Earth, or react with rain and
fall back onto the Earth as acid deposition. These particles will
then be absorbed by plants again and are released back into the
atmosphere, so that the sulphur cycle will start over again.
(b) Effect of Human The cycling of the natural chemical species has been altered by
Activities on Natural human activities. Due to the results of these actions, an excessive
Processes amount of compounds is discharged into the environment.
(i) Effect on the carbon Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere by animal
cycle husbandry practices. A large number of animals raised to feed the
Earth’s growing human population results in increased carbon
185
dioxide and methane levels in the atmosphere. Human activities

have a huge impact on the carbon cycle.
Burning fossil fuels, deforestation, changing land use, and using
limestone to make concrete transfer significant quantities of
carbon into the atmosphere rapidly. The ocean absorbs much of
the carbon dioxide that is released from burning fossil fuels. This
extra carbon dioxide is lowering the ocean’s pH, through a process
called ocean acidification. Ocean acidification interferes with the
ability of marine organisms (including corals, Dungeness crabs,
and snails) to build their shells and skeletons.
(ii) Effect on the nitrogen Excess nitrogen and phosphorus that enter the ecosystem from
and phosphorus cycles fertiliser runoff and from sewage cause excessive growth of algae.
Algal blooms block light and therefore kill aquatic plantsin rivers,
lakes, and seas. The subsequent death and decay of these aquatic
plants deplete dissolved oxygen, which leads to the death of
aquatic organisms. This process is responsible for dead zones in
lakes and at the mouths of many major rivers and for massive fish
kills, which often occur during the summer.
(iii)Effect on the sulphur The burning of large quantities of fossil fuels, especially coal,
cycle releases larger amounts of hydrogen sulphide gas into the
atmosphere. The extraction of metals such as copper, lead, and
zinc from sulphur-containing ores releases sulphur dioxide. As
rain falls through these gases, it causes acid rain. This acid rain
damages the natural environment by lowering the pH of lakes,
thus killing many of the resident plants and aquatic animals. Acid
rain also affects the man-made environment through the chemical
degradation of buildings. The new technology in the coal-fired
power plant is now in use to reduce the release of sulphur dioxide
into the atmosphere.
(c) Green Environment Nowadays, our Earth is facing many environmental issues mainly
caused by humans. Many environmental problems like global
warming, air pollution, waste disposal, water pollution, climate
change and many more are affecting every living and non-living
thing on the Earth. To sustain the natural environment and to
develop our world, the best way is to make a clean and green
environment. A green environment will promote good health.
186
The clean and green environment implies the absence of pollution

and a better quality of life. This includes supporting practices like
informed consumption, conservation practices and investment in
renewable energy. Green technology is an environmentally
friendly technology that builds products and systems to conserve
natural resources and the environment. It is applied in green
chemistry. Thus, green chemistry is the design of chemical
products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use or
generation of hazardous substances. A green synthesis which is
used in green chemistry also helps reduce harmful gas emissions,
conserve water, reduce waste and utilise less consumption of
energy. The 7 R’s of a green environment for sustainable
development are Rethink, Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Repair, Regift,
and Recycle.
understanding of the impact of human activity on the natural
matter cycles. Other relevant activities could also be applied.
communication, observation, and reasoning skills
Objective To analyse the flow of matter through the different processes
between organisms and the environment
o Encourage each group to revise the natural matter cycles from
the Grade 12 Chemistry Textbook before doing the activity.
o Distribute one of the natural matter cycles to each group.
o 1st member: mention the steps that occur in the cycle;
o 2nd member: mention the living and non-living forms in
the cycle;
o 3rd member: build up the illustration for the cycle using the
statements received from the 1st and 2nd members;
understanding of pathways that allow different chemical
substances to move through living and non-living forms and
their locations in the biosphere.)
187

o Conclude by telling the students that mineral nutrients are
cycled, either rapidly or slowly, through the entire biosphere
and from one living organism to another.
by asking the following questions:
o Identify some of the non-living processes that cycle carbon
slowly.
o How do living things get nitrogen from the environment?
o How does nitrogen enter the atmosphere?
necessary.

Objective To explain the causes and consequences of dead zones and explore
the solution
o Encourage each group to revise the effect of human activities
on the nitrogen cycle with each other within the group.
o Tell each group to describe, through discussion, the following:
o 1st member: the causes of the dead zone;
o 2nd member: the consequences of the dead zone;
o 3rd member: the solution to the dead zone.
and problem-solving skills for the formation of the dead zone.)
class, check their ideas and give feedback .
o Conclude by telling the students that the best way to reduce
algal blooms and dead zones is to control pollution from urban
and agricultural lands, as well as wastewater treatment plants
and septic systems.
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o An excess of what elements would most likely be
associated with the formation of a dead zone?
o How do algae block the absorption of oxygen into the
ocean?
o What happens when the organisms in the ocean die?
necessary.
Review Questions 1. Which cycle does not involve the atmosphere?

A. Carbon B. Nitrogen C. Phosphorous D. Water
2. Dead zones occur when a body of water gets too many
nutrients, such as _____.
A. carbon and sulphur B. carbon dioxide and oxygen
C. nitrogen and phosphorus D. none of the above
3. The clean and green environment imply
A. Absence of pollution B. Better quality of life
C. Promotion of good health D. All of the above
4. Ocean acidification starts with
A. Oil pollution B. Nutrients from fertilizer
C. Human-driven increased levels of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere
D. Dumping of waste from cities into the ocean
5. According to green chemistry, the chemical involved in the
production must be _____.
A. non-toxic B. slightly toxic C. highly toxic D. toxic
Key Terms o Biogeochemical cycle is any of the natural pathways by which

essential elements of living matter are circulated.
o Phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes
the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere.
o Sulphur cycle is a biogeochemical cycle in which the sulphur
moves between rocks, waterways, atmosphere and living
systems.
o Organisms are living biological entities, such as animals,
plants, fungi, or bacteria.
o Ocean acidification refers to a reduction in the pH of the
ocean over an extended period of time, caused primarily by
the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
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7.2 Pollutants and Impacts on the Environment
Lesson Objectives o To investigate the hazardous substances present in the

environment
o To categorise the impacts of pollutants on the environment
Environmental pollution is caused by the harmful disposal of

substances into the environment. These substances can cause a
negative impact on biodiversity, ecosystems, and human health.
This section will mainly focus on harmful substances such as some
heavy metals, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants, and
volatile organic compounds.
(a) Heavy Metals and Heavy metals are metals with high density and toxic effects even
Their Compounds at very low concentrations. The utilisation of heavy metals and
their compounds by humans influences the potential for health
effects in at least two major ways: first, by environmental
transport, that is, by human or anthropogenic contributions to air,
water, soil, and food, and second, by altering the biochemical form
of the elements. Arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury and their
compounds are described in this section.
Arsenic and their Pure arsenic is rarely found in nature and is not very toxic, but it
compounds can be oxidised easily in humid air and becomes toxic by
conversion to arsenic anhydride. Arsenic is mostly found in the
form of +3 and +5 oxidation states but is not in elemental form in
nature. The desorption and dissolution of arsenic from arsenic rich
rocks and minerals are the main sources of groundwater
contamination and soil. After that, this dissolved arsenic
contaminates the environment.
Compounds such as calcium arsenide, lead arsenide and sodium
arsenate, which are highly water soluble, are used for the
production of paint (green, yellow), glass, ceramics, and
semiconductors. Sodium arsenate is used to kill some parasites in
fruit cultivation and potato growing. Arsenic compounds cause
acute and chronic effects in individuals, communities and
populations at concentrations ranging from a few micrograms to
milligrams per litre, depending on species, and time of exposure.
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7.2 ► Pollutants and Impacts on the Environment
Cadmium and their Cadmium is released into the atmosphere predominantly as

compounds elemental cadmium and cadmium oxide from some sources as
cadmium sulphide (from coal combustion) or cadmium chloride
(from waste incineration). Cadmium exists as the +2 oxidation
state in nature. Levels of cadmium in water, air and soil are
increasing particularly in industrial areas. Tobacco smoking is
also a significant source of cadmium exposure.
Various salts of cadmium are commonly used in electronic cells,
accumulators, porcelain, nuclear materials, amalgam in dentistry,
plastic, metal coating, vacuum tubes, and photovoltaic materials.
Cadmium in the environment is also toxic to plants, animals and
microorganisms.
Lead and their Lead and its derivatives are industrial toxic substances that have
compounds been widely used by humans for centuries. In the environment,
lead primarily exists in the +2 and +4 oxidation states.
Lead enters the atmosphere largely in the exhaust fumes from
internal combustion engines. Consequently, the lead content of the
air is the highest in urban industrial areas and the lowest in rural
areas.
The primary use of lead is in the manufacture of batteries, and in
the production of paint, alloys and metal products in the industry.
An increased level of lead in the environment can result in
decreased growth and reproduction in plants and animals, and
neurological effects in vertebrates.
Mercury and their Elemental mercury occurs in nature. Mercury can also be found in
compounds +1 and +2 oxidation states.
Mercury is released into the environment from a variety of
sources, both natural and anthropogenic. Inorganic mercury can
be transformed into methylmercury by microorganisms such as
phytoplanktons and fungi. It then bioaccumulates in fish and
shellfish.
The source of exposure to low levels is mercury released from
amalgam from the panning of gold and fillings in teeth. It is
generally taken into the body in the form of vapour.
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Mercury may have toxic effects on the nervous, digestive and

immune systems, and on the lungs, kidneys, skin, eyes, and
development of the child in utero and early in life.
(b) Pesticides A pesticide is a substance that kills a pest, or it prevents or reduces

the damage a pest may cause. Pests can be insects, mice or other
animals, unwanted plants (weeds), fungi, bacteria or viruses.
Pesticides are often grouped into "families" because they act on
the pest in the same way. Some common families include
organophosphates, organochlorines, carbamates and
thiocarbamates, and pyrethroids. Many processes affect what
happens to pesticides in the environment. These processes include
adsorption, transfer, and degradation. Adsorption occurs because
of the attraction between a chemical and soil particles. Positively
charged pesticide molecules, for example, are attracted to and can
bind to negatively charged clay particles. Many soil factors
influence pesticide adsorption. The transfer includes processes
that move the pesticide away from the target site. These include
volatilisation, spray drift, runoff, leaching, absorption and crop
removal. Degradation is the process of pesticide breakdown after
application. Pesticides are broken down by microbes, chemical
reactions, and photodegradation. This process may take anywhere
from hours or days to years, depending on environmental
conditions and the chemical characteristics of the pesticides.
Pesticides can contaminate soil, water, turf, and other vegetation.
In addition to killing insects or weeds, pesticides can be toxic to a
host of other organisms including birds, fish, beneficial insects,
and non-target plants. Pesticides can cause short-term adverse
health effects, called acute effects, as well as chronic adverse
effects that can occur months or years after exposure.
(c) Persistent organic Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and volatile organic
pollutants (POPs) compounds (VOCs) are two of the most insidious forms of toxic
and volatile organic contamination.
compounds (VOCs) POPs are also carbon-based organic compounds that have the
special abilities to be long-lasting and to resist breakdown into
safer substances. They include industrial chemicals like
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and pesticides like
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). POPs are primary
products and by-products from industrial processes, chemical
manufacturing and resulting wastes.
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POPs are chemically stable, remain intact in the environment for

long periods, and are lipophilic in nature. Therefore, they
accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms and reside for a
longer period of time finally affecting humans and wildlife.
VOCs are organic chemicals that pollute the air and be absorbed
or inhaled by humans, animals and plants. They are generally
man-made carbon-based molecules such as paint thinners, dry
cleaning fluid, nail polish remover, grease solvents and the
emissions of crude oil, fuels and plastics. VOCs play a significant
role in the formation of ozone and fine particulates in the
atmosphere. Under sunlight, VOCs react with nitrogen oxides
emitted mainly from vehicles, power plants and industrial
activities to form ozone, which in turn helps the formation of fine
particulates. The accumulation of ozone, fine particulates and
other gaseous pollutants results in smog that reduces visibility.
The burning of plastics releases toxic gases like dioxins, furans,
mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls into the atmosphere, and
poses a threat to vegetation, and human and animal health.
understanding of the transportation of pollutants and their impacts
on the environment.
Activity (1) Group work to develop students’ communication, reasoning, and
critical thinking skills
Objective To describe the way of exposure to heavy metals and their effects
on the environment and living things
o Encourage students to revise about the way of exposure to
heavy metals and their effect on the environment and living
things before doing the activity.
o Distribute four symbols of heavy metals to each group.
o Let each member of the group randomly collect one symbol
from a set of four.
o Tell each member to describe (i) how the element of choice
enters the environment and (ii) the effect of elements on the
environment and living things.
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and critical thinking skills for the exposure to heavy metals
and their effect on the environment.)
o Conclude by telling the students that heavy metals and their
compounds can affect the environment in at least two major
ways: first, through environmental transport, and second, by
altering the biochemical form of the elements.
o Name one arsenic compound that is used to kill some
parasites in fruit cultivation and potato growing.
o What are some ways that heavy metals contaminated
water?
o What are some ways that humans might ingest heavy
metals without knowing them?
necessary.

Objective To express the sources and adverse effects of POPs and VOCs
o Encourage students to revise the persistent organic pollutants
(POPs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) before doing
the activity.
o Tell each group to describe, through discussion, the following:
o 1st member: toxic compounds of POPs and VOCs
o 2nd member: sources of these compounds
o 3rd member: adverse effect
and critical thinking skills to describe the cause and effect of
POPs and VOCs.)
194

responses by telling them POPs have strong persistence in the
environment, and VOCs are hydrocarbons that become
volatile at room temperature.
o Why do POPs remain intact in the environment for long
periods?
o What do VOCs play in the formation of smog?
o List some common VOCs from your surroundings.
answered correctly.
Review Questions 1. Which of the following heavy metals is not a chemical

pollutant?
A. Mercury B. Arsenic C. Iron D. Lead
2. Pure arsenic can be oxidised easily in humid air by conversion
to______.
A. arsenic chloride B. arsenic anhydride
C. arsenic trioxide D. arsenic acid
3. Arsenic is mostly found in the form of ______oxidation states.
A. +2 and +3 B. +2 and +4 C. +3 and +4 D. +3 and +5
4. DDT and PCB belong to ______.
A. VOCs B. POPs C. BVOCs D. PVC
5. Tobacco smoking is a significant source of ______ exposure.
A. mercury B. arsenic C. lead D. cadmium
Key Terms Photodegradation is a process by which substances are broken

down by the action of sunlight.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are carbon-based organic
compounds that have the special abilities to be long-lasting and to
resist breakdown into safer substances.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are organic chemicals that
can vaporise.
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7.3 Radioactive Substances and the Environment
Lesson Objectives o To describe the sources of radioactive substances and their

usefulness
o To identify the pros and cons of radioactivity and radioactive
substances
Radioactive substances include radioactive material and

radioactive waste. Radioactive pollution is the result of released
radionuclides in the environment. A radionuclide is an atom with
an unstable nucleus which has excessive energy.
(a) Radioactivity Radioactivity is a spontaneous process of decay or disintegration

of heavy nuclei generating different types of radiation such as
alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays, and forming a new
element(s). These radiations including X-rays are called ionising
radiation.
The penetrating power of alpha particles, beta particles, and
gamma rays varies greatly (Figure 7.5). Alpha particles can be
blocked by a few pieces of paper. Beta particles pass through
paper but are stopped by aluminium foil. Low energy beta
particles may penetrate the superficial layer of skin, whereas high
energy beta particles will penetrate the skin a centimetre or more.
Gamma rays are the most difficult to stop and require concrete,
lead, or other heavy shielding to block them. Gamma rays and X-
rays can cause severe damage to the cell.
Figure 7.5
Penetrating Power of Three
Types of Radiation
(b) Some Radiation The majority of background radiation occurs naturally from
Sources minerals and a small fraction comes from man-made elements.
Naturally occurring radioactive minerals in the ground, soil, and
water produce background radiation.
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The human body even contains some of these naturally occurring

radioactive minerals. Cosmic radiation from space also
contributes to the background radiation around us. Hence,
radiation is all around us.
(i) Radioactive substances A trace amount of radionuclides, uranium and thorium, are
on the Earth and in the naturally found on the Earth. Traces of radioactive materials can
bodies be found in the body, mainly naturally occurring potassium-40. It
is found in the food, and water we ingest. The radioactive gas,
radon, can be found at higher levels in the air in houses and other
buildings, as well as in water from underground sources.
Prolonged exposure to radon gas can cause lung cancer.
(ii) Man-made sources Uranium-235, americium-241, and plutonium-239 are fissile

materials produced from a breeder reactor. Hydrogen-3 (tritium),
cobalt-60, iodine-129, caesium-132, and barium-137 are man-
made radiation sources. A small fraction of background radiation
comes from human activities. Ionisation smoke detectors use
americium-241 as a source of alpha particles. Alpha particles from
the americium source ionise air molecules. There is no health
threat from ionisation smoke detectors as long as the detector is
not damaged and used as directed. Radioactive materials used in
industry and even in some consumer products and healthcare are
a source of small amounts of background radiation.
(c) Uses of Radioisotopes The applications of radioisotopes have played a significant role in
improving the quality of life of human beings. Radiotracers are
widely used in medicine, agriculture, food preservation and
sterilisation, industry and civil engineering, and fundamental
research. Radiotracer is a radioactive isotope used to study the
dynamic behaviour of various chemical and biological changes in
a system.
A well-known use of carbon-14 is radiocarbon dating which can
be used to date wooden and organic objects, especially in
archaeology. Moreover, uranium-235 is used as fuel for nuclear
power plants and naval nuclear propulsion systems. Caesium-137
is used as a tracer in medical radiation therapy devices for treating
cancer, and in industrial gauges that detect the flow of liquid
through pipes.
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(d) The Nuclear Power Nuclear reactors generate electricity and are used in nuclear
and Nuclear Weapons marine propulsion. These reactors use fissile heavy atoms (233U,
235
U, 239Pu) as fuel instead of fossil fuels. Radioactive nuclides
such as plutonium-239 or uranium-235 are commonly used in
nuclear reactors and nuclear bombs.
Nuclear bombs are weapons having massive destructive power.
The explosion of a nuclear weapon releases a combination of heat,
blast waves and radiation. These forces have radiation causes
massive destruction of buildings and infrastructures. Severe
consequences on the environment last for many years.
(e) Impact of Radioactive Radionuclides found in water are potassium-40, radium-226 and
Substances on the radium-228. These isotopes originate from natural sources due to
Environment leaching from minerals. Water bodies are also polluted by
accidental leakage of waste material from uranium and thorium
mines, nuclear power plants and industries.
Radioactive materials can enter the human body through water
and food and may be accumulated in blood and certain vital
organs. They cause tumours and cancer.
Two related activities are suggested to enhance the students’
understanding of radioactive substances and the environment.
Other relevant activities could also be applied.
Objective To predict the penetrating power of ionising radiation
o Encourage each group to revise the radioactivity of substances
o Give each group the cards of three packages as given in the
support materials.
o 1st member: hold the cards of 1st package, and explain
these terms;
o 2nd and 3rd members: hold the cards of 2nd and 3rd packages,
respectively, that matched to get the proper meaning with
the word(s) in the card shown by the 1st member;
o Tabulate, through discussion, their answers.
198

understanding of the penetrating power and materials needed
to stop.)
o Coordinate their responses by telling them that the penetrating
power of alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays varies
greatly.
o What is the least penetrating type of radiation?
o What type of radiation(s) can cause severe damage to the
cell?
o What type of radiation can be called ionising radiation?
o Repeat explaining

Objective To find out the uses of radioactive materials that naturally occur
or are man-made
o Encourage students to discuss the radiation sources and the
application of radioactive materials before doing the activity.
o 1st member: mention natural radionuclides with their
occurrence;
o 2nd member: mention man-made radionuclides with their
sources;
o 3rd member: mention uses of some radiotracers;
and critical thinking skills to describe the uses of naturally
occurring radioactive minerals and man-made radiotracers.)
199

o Coordinate their responses to the description of sources and
application of radionuclides and explain that the majority of
background radiation occurs naturally from minerals and a
small fraction comes from man-made elements.
o What type of radiation is used in smoke alarms?
o Name one isotope that has been used as a tracer.
o Name the isotope that has been used in radioactive dating.
necessary.
Review Questions 1. Which of the following are fissile nuclides?

A. U-238 B. Co-60 C. Pu-239 D. Ba-137
2. Which of the following problems occurs due to the use of
nuclear energy?
A. Formation of compost
B. Safe disposal of radioactive wastes
C. Generation of electricity
D. Formation of gobar gas
3. Beta particles can penetrate ______.
A. paper B. aluminium foil C. concrete block D. lead
4. Radiation present in the environment but not produced by
humans is called _______.
A. radiometric radiation B. radioactive tracer
C. background radiation D. radio isotope
5. Which atoms are materials capable of sustaining a nuclear
fission chain reaction?
A. Radioactive B. Nuclide C. Fissile D. Fissile heavy
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7.4 ► Chemistry for Sustainable Environmental Development
Key Terms o Radioactivity is the process by which the nucleus of an

unstable atom loses energy by emitting radiation, including
alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays.
o Background radiation is a measure of the level of ionising
radiation naturally present in the environment at a particular
location.
o Fissile heavy atoms are materials capable of sustaining a
nuclear fission chain reaction.
7.4 Chemistry for Sustainable Environmental Development
Lesson Objectives o To describe the green techniques to minimise the

environmental pollution
Chemistry plays an essential role to achieve the United Nations

Sustainable Development Goals. Chemistry offers a wide range of
products and processes essential to our daily lives that are safe,
sustainable, and environmentally sound. As mentioned in Section
7.1 (c), some principles that reduce or eliminate the use of
hazardous substances in the design, manufacture and application
of chemical products to minimise environmental pollution are
especially highlighted in green chemistry.
(a) Agricultural Sector The agricultural sustainability is the area that requires green
chemistry strategies in the manufacturing of agrochemicals due to
their direct impact on human and environmental health.
Nowadays, organic farming that uses fertilisers of organic origin
such as compost manure, green manure, and bone meal instead of
chemical fertilisers may be one way or another to minimise the
environmental problems. Additionally, instead of using chemical-
based pesticides, plant-based pesticides that have minimum risks
including essential oils and insecticidal soaps can be used.
Plant-based pesticides These pesticides are safer than chlorinated hydrocarbons. For
instance, the neem leaves consist of insecticidal ingredients and
they can be used as an insecticide. To provide nutrients in a plant-
available form, agrochemists have developed formulation
technology to produce plant-based pesticides.
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These plant-based pesticides vastly improve the fraction of

nutrients in fertilisers absorbed by plants, significantly reduce
fertiliser application rates, and minimise runoff to nearby surface
water. Generally, a plant-based pesticide forms a stable water
soluble complex with nutrient molecules to prevent
mineralisationin the soil and facilitate foliar application directly to
the leaves.
Plant-based pesticidal soaps Plant-based insecticidal soaps can be used either on indoor plants
or on outdoor plants, including vegetables to eliminate small soft-
bodied insects. Insecticidal soaps have several advantages over
pesticides in that they leave no nasty residue, are non-toxic to
animals and birds, and do not harm beneficial insects.
(b) Energy Sector Some major themes in the green societal sector today include
reducing our reliance on non-renewable energy sources.
(i) Transformation of solid The municipal and non-hazardous industrial wastes have been
wastes to greener fuels converted to energy by direct burning. This process is known as
waste gasification or pyrolysis.
In this method, much of the organic content wastes in the reactor
produce a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The gas
mixture is sent to a catalytic system that converts it to ethanol and
methanol or other liquid fuels or chemicals. Vegetables and other
waste materials can also be used to produce greener fuels.
(ii) Renewable energy Solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, biorefineries, geothermal,

resources and tidal energy are important resources for future sustainable
development, so they will replace carbon-containing sources
(fossil fuels) and reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.
(iii)Biofuels Chemists are now researching new methods that are more
environmentally friendly and sustainable. It can be obtained from
biomass which is coming from sugar cane, rapeseed, corn, straw,
wood, animal and agriculture residues. The production of
bioethanol and biodiesels will be highlighted for the production of
biofuels.
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Bioethanol Ethanol is the most important alcohol which can be produced by

converting the sugar content of anystarchy material into alcohol
with the evolution of carbon dioxide (CO2) under controlled
environmental condition. Productions of ethanol are from
lignocellulosic materials such as corncob, cornstalk, cornhusk,
sugarcane bagasse and sugarcane bark.
Biodiesel Many vehicles around the world are fueled with diesel oil, and the
production of biodiesel oil is a promising possibility. Biodiesel oil
is produced from cultivated plant oil. It is synthesised from plant
oils by removing the by-product glycerine molecule, valuable raw
material for soap production.
Biodiesel oil also can be obtained from waste plant oils, e.g., oils
used in restaurants. In the technological process, potential waste
is transformed into valuable fuel. The combustion of fossil fuel
generates sulphur compounds whereas biodiesel does not.
(c) Wastewater Treatment Nowadays, water contamination is increasingly an important issue

in developing and under developed countries. Many clean water
resources are becoming increasingly scarce and many of them are
polluted by anthropogenic sources such as industrial purposes,
agricultural waste and household. Therefore, the treatment of
wastewater is a critical need. The main purpose of wastewater
treatment is to remove the various contaminants that are present
in the wastewater namely suspended solids, organic carbon,
nutrients, inorganic salts, heavy metals and pathogens.
The green materials such as agricultural waste adsorbent,
activated carbon, and rice huskderived ceramic materials are
usually applied in the wastewater treatment system. Moreover, the
photocatalysts binary metal oxides nanomaterials (e.g., TiO2,
ZnO, Fe2O3) are also used to mineralise, decompose, and oxidise
the pollutants from wastewater.
(d) Consumer Goods in Some eco-friendly materials used in consumer goods are given in
Societal Sector this section.
203
Unleaded petrol Previously, tetraethyllead (TEL) was used as an anti-knocking

agent. Nowadays, it is replaced by using methyl tert-butyl ether
(MTBE). It is a flammable liquid that has been used as an additive
for unleaded petrol. Thus, it reduces air pollutant emissions.
Bioplastics Bioplastics are derived from renewable biomass sources such as

corn starch, vegetable oils and fats. It is used for disposable items
such as packaging, pots, crockery, bowls, etc.
Daily life Chemicals Solvents like tetrachloroethene (Cl2C=CCl2) used in dry cleaning
of clothes, pollute the groundwater and are carcinogenic. In the
liquid CO2 cleaning process, liquid carbon dioxide and other non-
toxic cleaning materials replace tetrachloroethene. Dry cleaners
pressurise and then liquefy CO2 gas to make it a powerful solvent
for cleaning clothing items. After the dry-cleaning process, the
CO2 gas is safely stored in a storage tank for reuse. Although the
liquid CO2 cleaning process requires expensive and special
machines, it effectively reduces the environmental problems.
(e) Industrial Sector For reducing the environmental pollution in the industrial sector,
green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, can design
chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use
or generation of hazardous substances. Examples of green
processes used in industries are given below.
Green synthesis of adipic Large amounts of adipic acid, HOOC(CH2)4COOH, are used
acid each year for the production of nylon, polyurethanes, lubricants
and plasticisers. Benzene, a compound with convinced
carcinogenic properties, is a standard substrate for the production
of this acid.
Chemists developed a green synthesis of adipic acid using a less
toxic substrate. Furthermore, the natural source of this raw
material, glucose, is almost inexhaustible. Glucose can be
converted into adipic acid by an enzyme discovered in genetically
modified bacteria. Such a manner of production of this acid guards
the workers and the environment against exposure to hazardous
chemical compounds.
Chromium plating Hexavalent chromium plating is the method of chromium plating

(most commonly known as chrome plating) and can be used for
decorative and functional finishes.
204
This type of plating produces several by-products which are

considered as hazardous waste, including lead chromates and
barium sulphate. Hexavalent chromium itself is a hazardous
substance and carcinogen. Trivalent chromium is another method
of decorative chrome plating, and is considered as an
environmentally friendly alternative to hexavalent chromium,
with many of the same characteristics; just like hexavalent chrome
finishes, trivalent chrome finishes provide scratch and corrosion
resistance and are available in a variety of colour options.
Trivalent chromium plating uses chromium sulphate or chromium
chloride as its main ingredient, instead of chromium(VI) oxide;
making trivalent chromium less toxic than hexavalent chromium.
understanding of the design, manufacture and application of
chemical products to minimise environmental pollution. Other

manipulation, and critical thinking skills
Objective To design a simple water filtration system using natural materials
o Ask students to do the following instructions:
o 1st member: cut off the bottom of an old plastic bottle using
scissors or a knife. Place the bottle upside down into the
vase or tall drinking glass;
o 2nd member: place cotton inside the bottle as the first layer
(two inches thick). Add one inch of charcoal as the second
layer on top of the cotton layer;
o 3rd member: over the charcoal, add about two inches of
small stones as the third layer. Add about three to four
inches of clean sand on top of the small stones;
o 4th member: add gravel to the bottle as the final layer.
Leave about a half inch of space from the top of the upside-
down bottle;
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o 5th member: add garden dirt to a glass of water to create

muddy water. Alternatively, get creative and add other
things like glitter, beads, cooking oil, or other materials to
make dirty water. Pour the glass of muddy water on top of
the water filter and watch the water drip into the glass
below.
(By doing this activity, each group should develop critical
thinking and application skills for designing a water filtration
system.)
o Conclude by telling the student that the full performance can
evaluate the effectiveness of the filter by comparing the water
clarity before and after filtration.
o Mention the process used to separate solids and liquids by
using a filter medium that allows fluid to pass through but
not solid.
o How do you know whether the filter materials are working
or not?
o What will happen when several filter layers are used?
necessary.

Objective To describe some achievements in chemistry for the green
environment
o Distribute four cards of sectors to each group.
o Let each member of the group randomly collect one sector
from a set of four.
206
o Tell each member to describe (i) the conventional application

of the device/chemical (ii) the new design/safer chemical and
the advantages in the sector mentioned in his/her card. (By
doing this activity, each group should develop reasoning and
critical thinking skills to describe the achievement of
chemistry for the green environment.)
o Coordinate their responses by telling them green chemistry
can reduce or eliminate the use of hazardous substances in the
design, manufacture and application of chemical products to
minimise environmental pollution.
o For dry cleaning purposes, name the conventional solvent
used which was later confirmed to be a suspected
carcinogen.
o What is an excellent green solvent for dry cleaning
purposes?
o Give examples of biofuel.
necessary.
Review Questions 1. Which is the solid wastes to energy conversion techniques?

A. Combustion B. Gasification
C. Pyrolisation D. All of the above
2. What is the byproduct of biodiesel production?
A. Animal oils B. Glycerin
C. Grease D. Vegetable oils
3. Which method is considered as an environmentally friendly
alternative to hexavalent chromium?
A. Chromium (VI) oxide B. Trivalent chromium
C. Sodium chromate D. Chromium VI carbonate
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4. Why is green chemistry sustainable?

A. Helps to save and conserve resources.
B. Uses non-renewable resources.
C. Develops in nanotechnology.
D. None of the above.
5. Benzene, a compound with convinced carcinogenic
properties, is a standard substrate for the production of
______.
A. benzoic acid B. oxalic acid
C. adipic acid D. carbonic acid
Key Terms o Biodiesel is a form of diesel fuel derived from plants or

animals and consisting of long-chain fatty acid esters.
o Green chemistry is the design of chemical products and
processes that reduce or eliminate the generation of hazardous
substances.
Chemistry in Society o Vermilion is a dense, opaque pigment with a clear, brilliant

hue. The pigment was originally made by grinding a powder
of cinnabar (mercury(II) sulphide, HgS). It is used as a red
pigment in the production of lacquerware.
o Arsenic trisulphide (As2S3) is used as orpiment in works of art.
The orpiment (orange-yellow As2S3) is highly desirable as a
pigment mostly in lacquerware because of its bright yellow
colour, mimicking that of gold.
o Bananas are naturally high in potassium. Potassium is a mix
of isotopes, including the slightly radioactive isotope
potassium-40.
o Clove oil (eugenol), mint oil (menthol, pulegone), lemongrass
oil (citronellal, citral), cinnamon oil (cinnamaldehyde),
rosemary oil (1,8-cineole) and oil of oregano (carvacrol) are
the best-known essential oils containing organic compounds
(major components are given in the brackets) with bioactivity
against insects and other pests.
208
► Exercises
Exercises 1. What is the process of gas exchange between the atmosphere

and living organisms?
A. Photosynthesis B. Respiration
C. Combustion D. Sedimentation
2. In which process do the animal and plant residues become
sediment?
A. Fossilisation B. Respiration
C. Combustion D. Sedimentation
3. The oceans obtain carbon from the ______ by absorbing
carbon dioxide.
A. rivers B. atmosphere
C. lakes D. soil
4. ______ is one of the components that make up proteins and
vitamins.
A. Carbon B. Nitrogen C. Sulphur D. Phosphorus
5. _____ may be produced from dimethyl sulphide emitted to the
atmosphere by plankton species.
A. Sulphur B. Hydrogen sulphide
C. Sulphurdioxide D. Sulphuric acid
6. Natural sources of ______ can be, volcanic eruptions, and
bacterial processes.
A. sulphur B. nitrogen C. carbon D. phosphorus
7. The extraction of copper from sulphur-containing ores
releases_______.
A. gaseous sulphur B. hydrogen sulphide
C. sulphur trioxide D. sulphur dioxide
8. ______ pair of gases are involved in the formation of acid rain.
A. CO and CO2 B. CH4 and NO2
C. NO2 and CO D. SO2 and NO2
9. Which of the followings are not Persistent Organic Pollutants
(POPs)?
A. Benzene in paint thinners
B. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
C. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
D. Dioxins
10. Which mercury compound can accumulate in the body of
living things?
A. Methylmercury B. Liquid mercury
C. Inorganic mercury D. None of above
209
210
Chapter 8
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND

MACROMOLECULES
8.1 Organic Compounds
8.2 Determining the Fundamental Groups in Organic
Compounds
8.3 Macromolecules
Learning Outcomes

to:
o describe the nomenclature using the IUPAC
system, preparation methods, properties and uses
of aliphatic organic compounds: ethers,
aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters,
amines and amides;
o classify the organic compounds by using
chemical tests;
o identify the functional groups of simple organic
compounds by infrared spectroscopy;
o express some natural and synthetic polymers;
o explain the process of polymerisation to show
how monomers can combine in polymers;
o describe the chemical nature, reactions,
properties and uses of addition and condensation
polymers to recognise their importance in
society;
o describe the problem of pollution caused by
plastics;
o describe how polymers have been designed to act
as degradable plastics.
Chapter 8 ► Organic Compounds and Macromolecules
The chemical compounds found in living things are referred to as

Carboxylic acid “organic compounds” due to their link with organisms. Organic
(in citrus fruits)
compounds hold the key to life on the Earth. They make up the
majority of our bodies and are also an integral part of our lifestyle.
Cooking oil They can be found in the food we eat as well as the clothing we
and teflon wear. Moreover, medicines, washing powders, dyes, and fossil
coated pan
fuels are made of organic compounds. Additionally, plastics and
synthetic fibres, clothes and most other consumer goods contain a
Polyester significant portion of organic compounds.
sewing thread The majority of biochemical compounds are big organic
molecules that the body uses to carry out numerous biochemical
functions. These enormous molecules are termed
Wood macromolecules; they are formed by smaller molecules
connecting together as if they were holding hands. Carbohydrates,
proteins, and nucleic acids are natural polymers, a type of long-
Shampoo, chain biological macromolecules. Plastics, fibres, and elastomers,
conditioner and
body lotion on the other hand, are synthetic macromolecules manufactured in
the industry. Some major classes of organic compounds and their
reactions, the identification of the functional groups in these
PVC pipe compounds, polymerisation and also both addition and
condensation polymers are described in this chapter.
Lesson Objectives o To describe the nomenclature using the IUPAC system,

preparation methods, properties and uses of aliphatic organic
compounds: ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids,
esters, amines and amides
critical thinking
The simplest organic compounds that contain only the elements

carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons, which include
aliphatic hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes) and aromatic
hydrocarbons. Many other organic compounds in which carbon
atoms are covalently linked to oxygen atoms are alcohols, ethers,
aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters. Alcohols can be
used as solvents in marker pens, medicines, and cosmetics and as
fuels. Ethers can be used as organic solvents in the perfumery and
aroma industries.
212
8.1 ► Organic Compounds
The presence of simple carbonyl compounds is responsible for the

pleasant odour of several flowers. The characteristic odour of
cherries is due to benzaldehyde. The main component of nail
polish remover is acetone. Carboxylic acids are present in many
common household items such as vinegar (acetic acid), aspirin (a
derivative of salicylic acid), vitamin C (ascorbic acid), and lemons
(citric acid). Esters, with aromatic odours, are used in fragrances,
essential oils, food flavourings, cosmetics, and other products.
Some other organic compounds contain nitrogen atoms, such as
amines and amides. Amines are also found in many molecules
essential to life, such as amino acids, hormones, and DNA. Nylon
and paracetamol are examples of amides. In this section, aliphatic
organic compounds - ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids,
esters, amines and amides will be studied.
An ether is an organic compound with an O atom bonded to two

alkyl groups. In a symmetrical ether, the two alkyl groups are the
same (R and R). In an unsymmetrical ether, the two alkyl groups
are different (R and R').
Ethers have the general formula CnH2n+2O. The illustration shows

the ball-and-stick model of the simplest ether, dimethyl ether
(CH3OCH3).
Ethers are often called by their common names.

For common names, the two alkyl groups connected to the oxygen
atom are named separately and followed by “ether”.
In the IUPAC system, the oxygen atom and the smaller alkyl
group are named as an alkoxy substituent, and the rest of the
molecule is named as an alkane.
Ethers can be obtained from alcohol by the elimination of a

molecule of water from two molecules of alcohol. For example,
when ethanol is treated with a limited amount of sulphuric acid
and heated to 140 °C, ethoxyethane (diethyl ether) and water are
formed.
213
Methoxymethane and methoxyethane are colourless gases at room

temperature. The other lower homologues are colourless, volatile
liquids with the typical smell of ether.
There is no intermolecular hydrogen bonding between ether
molecules, which makes their boiling points much lower than
alcohol of similar molecular mass. Ethers with up to three carbon
atoms are soluble in water and the solubility decreases as the
number of carbon atoms increases.
On heating with concentrated hydrogen iodide (HI), the C−O bond

in ethers breaks forming alcohol and alkyl iodide. For example,
They are fairly inert and so they are often used as reaction
solvents. Ethoxyethane (diethyl ether), the most common member
of the ether family, was used for many years as a surgical
anaesthetic agent but has now been replaced by safer
nonflammable alternatives.
Aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds which contain the

carbonyl group, >C=O. In aldehydes, a carbonyl group located at
the end of a carbon chain is bonded to at least one hydrogen atom.
In ketones, a carbonyl group can be located within a carbon chain
rather than at the end. Aldehydes and ketones have the general
formula CnH2nO and form a homologous series. The illustrations
show the ball-and-stick models of the carbonyl group, the simplest
aldehyde, methanal (HCHO) and the simplest ketone, propanone
(CH3COCH3).
214
Aldehydes and ketones are often called by their common names.

The common names of aldehydes are given based on the names of
corresponding carboxylic acids: formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and
so on. The location of the substituent in the carbon chain is
indicated by the Greek letters α, β, γ, δ, and so on. An alpha (α)
carbon is a carbon atom bonded to a functional group; the beta (β)
carbon is next to the α carbon, and so on (γ, δ,...). The systematic
(IUPAC) names are derived from the names of the parent
hydrocarbons. The suffix –al instead of –e is added to the
characteristic stem. The chain is numbered, starting at the end
nearest to the carbonyl group.
The common name of a ketone consists of the names of the groups

attached to the carbonyl group followed by the term ketone. The
simplest ketone is called acetone.
The systematic (IUPAC) names are derived from their parent
hydrocarbons. The suffix –one instead of –e is added to the
characteristic stem.
In this method, alcohols are gently heated with an oxidising agent,

i.e., acidified potassium dichromate solution. Primary and
secondary alcohols give aldehydes and ketones, respectively.
The general equation for making an aldehyde is
[O] represents nascent oxygen (oxygen atom) produced from the

oxidising agent. To make the aldehyde, the primary alcohol is
heated gently with acidified potassium dichromate solution.
Note: The aldehyde product is obtained by distillation to remove

it immediately from the reaction mixture. This can be done
because the aldehyde will always have a lower boiling point than
215
its corresponding alcohol. If the aldehyde is not distilled off as

soon as it is formed, further heating with the acidified dichromate
solution will oxidise the aldehyde produced to a carboxylic acid.
The general equation for making a ketone is
To produce a ketone, secondary alcohol must be heated with this

oxidising agent. The ketone formed cannot be further oxidised,
even if the reaction mixture is refluxed and an excess oxidising
agent is added. Therefore, the ketone product is not needed to be
distilled off immediately.
The addition of water to ethyne in the presence of H2SO4 and

HgSO4 produces ethanal, whereas other alkynes produce ketones
in this reaction.
At room temperature, methanal is a gas and ethanal is a volatile

liquid. Other aldehydes and ketones are liquid or solid. Methanal,
ethanal, and propanone are water soluble, however their solubility
decreases as the chain length increases.
Aldehydes and ketones differ in their oxidation reactions.

Aldehydes are easily oxidised to carboxylic acids with common
oxidising agents such as potassium permanganate, potassium
dichromate, nitric acid, etc.
Ketones are generally oxidised under vigorous conditions, such as

with strong oxidising agents and at high temperatures.
Aldehydes and ketones are easily reduced to the corresponding

primary and secondary alcohols, using the reducing agent lithium
aluminium hydride, LiAlH4, in dry ether at room temperature.
216
[H] represents hydrogen from the reducing agent. Dry ether is

used because LiAlH4 reacts violently with water. At the end of the
reaction, the product is a complex aluminium salt. This is
converted to alcohol by treatment with dilute sulphuric acid.
Hydrogen cyanide, HCN, adds across the carbon-oxygen double

bond in aldehydes and some ketones to produce compounds
known as hydroxynitriles. The HCN is generated in the reaction
vessel by the reaction of sodium cyanide, NaCN, and dilute
sulphuric acid. Note: Nitriles are the organic compounds also
known as cyano compounds. Inorganic compounds with -CN
group are called cyanides.
Aldehydes are versatile compounds that can help make resins,

dyes and organic acids, as well as perfumes, detergents and soaps.
Formalin (40 % aqueous solution of methanal) is used as a
disinfectant and a preservative for biological specimens.
Cinnamic aldehyde is used in some perfumes of natural, sweet, or
fruity scents.
Ketones are popular solvents for other moderately polar
substances, including waxes, plastics, paints, lacquers, varnishes,
and glues. The simple ketone, propanone (acetone), is used as an
effective solvent in many nail polish removers, plastic cements,
resins and varnishes.
Carboxylic acids are organic compounds with a carboxyl

functional group -COOH. The carboxyl group is made up of a
carbonyl group and a hydroxyl group. They form a homologous
series with the general formula CnH2nO2. The ball-and-stick model
of ethanoic acid, CH3COOH, is shown in the illustration.
217
Several carboxylic acids have common names. Many carboxylic

acid members get their common names from the Latin names of
their natural sources. Formic acid was obtained by distillation of
ants (Latin formica, meaning “ant”) and acetic acid occurs in
vinegar (Latin acetum, “vinegar”).
For example, HCOOH formic acid
CH3COOH acetic acid
The IUPAC system: The -e from the name of the parent chain is
replaced by -oic acid.
For example, HCOOH methanoic acid
CH3COOH ethanoic acid
Since a carboxylic acid group must always be found at the end of
a carbon chain, it is always given the “1” location position in
numbering. If a particular compound contains more than one
functional group, the nomenclature is based on the carboxyl group
instead of other functional groups.
For example,
The general equation for the reaction in which a carboxylic acid is

made from primary alcohol is
Ethanoic acid is formed by the oxidation of ethanol. There are two

ways to produce ethanoic acid.
Ethanol is oxidised by warming it with the powerful oxidising

agent which is acidified potassium dichromate, using a reflux
condenser.
Note: Instead of a distillation set, a reflux condenser has to be used

so that the volatile components remain in the reaction for long
enough to complete their reaction. In this case, it is used to oxidise
primary alcohol to completion, to the carboxylic acid.
Ethanol is oxidised by atmospheric oxygen in the presence of

bacteria (Acetobacter).
218
At room temperature, carboxylic acids which contain up to nine

carbon atoms are colourless liquids with an unpleasant smell. The
carboxylic acids with up to four carbons are soluble in water.
Solubility decreases with the larger hydrocarbon portion. There
are strong intermolecular hydrogen bonds between carboxylic
acid molecules. As a result, when compared to other compounds
of comparable molecular mass, they have high boiling points.
Carboxylic acids are weak acids, and they can react with reactive
metals such as sodium, potassium, and magnesium to give salt and
hydrogen.
Carboxylic acids react with carbonates to give salt, water and

carbon dioxide.
Carboxylic acids react with bases to give salt and water.
Carboxylic acids are reduced to their corresponding primary

alcohols using the reducing agent, LiAlH4, in dry ether at room
temperature.
Carboxylic acids are used in the production of polymers,

pharmaceuticals, and food additives. Carboxylic acids are used in
the manufacture of drugs like antibiotics, antihistamines and so
on. The popular painkiller, aspirin, is the acetyl derivative of
salicylic acid. Carboxylic acids are used in many industries. For
instance, methanoic acid is used in the textiles, rubber, and leather
industries. Ethanoic acid and sodium benzoate (sodium salt of
benzoic acid) are used in the food industry.
219
Esters are carboxylic acid derivatives in which the hydroxyl (-OH)

group has been replaced by an alkoxy (-OR) group, producing the
following arrangement.
The ball-and-stick model of methyl ethanoate, CH3COOCH3, is

shown in the illustration.
The general ester, RCOOR' can be derived from the carboxylic

acid RCOOH and the alcohol R'OH. The name of an ester is
formed by writing the name of the alkyl group followed by the
name of the acid with the –ic acid ending replaced by -ate.
Examples are given below.
Generally, carboxylic acid can react with alcohol to form ester in

a process which is known as esterification. When ethanoic acid is
warmed with ethanol in the presence of a few drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid, water and ethyl ethanoate (an ester)
are formed.
Carboxylic acid esters of low molecular mass are colourless,

volatile liquids with pleasant odours. They are slightly soluble in
water. The solubility of esters in water decreases rapidly with an
increase in molecular mass. The boiling points of esters are lower
than those of the corresponding parent acids.
Acidic hydrolysis is simply the reverse of esterification. An ester

is hydrolysed by using an aqueous acid to yield a carboxylic acid
and an alcohol.
220
When an ester is refluxed with an alkali (a soluble base), such as

aqueous sodium hydroxide, it is fully hydrolysed. Unlike acid
hydrolysis, this is not a reversible reaction, so all the ester present
can be broken down by excess alkali. An alcohol and the sodium
salt of the carboxylic acid are formed.
The most common method of transesterification is the reaction of

the ester with an alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst.
Many esters occur naturally and are responsible for the flavours in
fruits and the smells of flowers. Esters are used in the preparation
of artificial food flavourings. Esters are used as an organic solvent
for cosmetics, perfumes and glues. Naturally-occurring esters
(animal fats or vegetable oil) mixed with NaOH produce soap that
is used for washing dishes and clothes.
An amine is a compound in which one or more hydrogen atoms of

ammonia have been replaced by alkyl groups. Amines are
classified as primary (1°), secondary (2°), and tertiary (3°),
depending on how many alkyl groups are attached to the nitrogen.
The ball-and-stick model for the simplest amine, methylamine

(CH3NH2) is shown in the diagram.
Amines are often called by their common names.

The common names are obtained by alphabetically arranging the
names of the alkyl substituents on the nitrogen and adding the
suffix -amine (e.g., ethylmethylamine).
In the IUPAC system, the -e from the name of the parent chain is
replaced by -amine. The presence of alkyl substituents attached to
nitrogen is designated by prefixing the letter N.
221
Ethanamine is prepared by heating bromoethane with an excess of

ammonia dissolved in ethanol in a sealed tube. (Excess hot
ethanolic ammonia is used to avoid the formation of secondary
and tertiary amines and ammonium salts.)
Bromoethane (ethyl bromide) can be prepared from the reaction

between ethanol and hydrogen bromide in the presence of a small
amount of sulphuric acid.
Methyl, dimethyl, trimethyl, and ethyl amines are gases under

standard conditions. Most common alkyl amines are liquids, and
high molecular mass amines are solids. The smell of gaseous
amines is similar to that of ammonia, while liquid amines possess
a fishy smell. Because more hydrogen bonds are formed in
primary amines, they are more soluble in water than secondary
and tertiary amines.
Primary and secondary amines have higher boiling points than
those of alkanes or ethers of a similar molecular mass because they
can form an intermolecular hydrogen bonding. However, their
boiling points are lower than those of alcohols which have the
same number of carbon atoms. Alcohol molecules have hydrogen
atoms bonded to a more electronegative oxygen atom.
Ethanamine (ethylamine) reacts with chloroform in the presence

of an alkali to form ethyl isocyanide (ethyl carbylamine) with an
unpleasant smell. This reaction is known as carbylamine reaction
used to identify the primary amines.
222
Amines are used in making azo-dyes and nylon apart from

medicines and drugs. They are widely used in developing
chemicals for crop protection, medication and water purification.
Amides are carboxylic acid derivatives in which the –OH of the

carboxylic acid has been replaced by –NH2, –NHR, or –NR2 of an
amine, producing the following arrangement.
The ball-and-stick model of ethanamide, CH3CONH2, is shown in

the illustration.
Amides are named as derivatives of the corresponding carboxylic

acids, the suffix -amide being substituted for –oic acid in the name
of the parent acid. The presence of alkyl substituents attached to
nitrogen is designated by prefixing the letter N.
The addition of ammonia (NH3) to a carboxylic acid forms an

amide. The reaction is a condensation reaction as a small
molecule, in this case water, is eliminated when the reactant
molecules join together.
The excess ethanoic acid is first converted into an ammonium salt

which then produces ethanamide on heating. The excess ethanoic
acid is there to prevent dissociation of the ammonium salt before
it dehydrates.
Methanamide is a liquid while all simple amides are solids.

Amides containing five or fewer carbon atoms are water soluble.
Like esters, aqueous solutions of amides are usually neutral.
Generally, the amides have high boiling points and melting points.
223
Generally, amides can be hydrolysed in either acidic or basic

solutions. If the amide is refluxed with hydrochloric acid, the
products are corresponding carboxylic acid and a primary amine.
The amine formed will react with excess acid in the reaction vessel
to make its ammonium salt.
With an alkali, such as aqueous sodium hydroxide, the products

are the sodium salt of the carboxylic acid and the primary amine.
Amides are widely used in industries in producing plastic, rubber,

paper, colour in crayons, pencils and ink as well as used in water
and sewage treatments. Amides such as nylon are used in textiles,
to produce ropes, bulletproof vests and tyre cords.
Two related activities are suggested to enhance the students’
understanding of nomenclature, preparation, properties, and uses
of organic compounds. Other relevant activities could also be
applied.
Objective To observe the reactions of carboxylic acids (with metal, metal
carbonate, or metal hydrogen carbonate)
o 1st member: fill the beaker with 20 cm3 of vinegar followed
by one or two pieces of magnesium ribbon;
nd 3
Resources and Support Materials o 2 member: fill the beaker with 20 cm of vinegar and put
o Vinegar, magnesium ribbon, 2 g of sodium carbonate into it;
sodium carbonate, sodium o 3rd member: fill the beaker with 20 cm3 of vinegar and put
hydrogen carbonate
o Beakers, glass rods 2 g of sodium hydrogen carbonate into it.
o Observe the changes and predict, through observation and
reasoning, which gas is liberated in the reaction.
224

understanding of the chemical reactions of carboxylic acid as
well as manipulation and critical thinking skills for
examining the reaction of carboxylic acid.)
o Conclude by telling the students that the salt of the carboxylic
acid is formed by the action of carboxylic acid on elemental
magnesium or salts. The reaction is accompanied by the rapid
evolution of hydrogen gas or carbon dioxide gas.
o Name the carboxylic acid that is the main constituent in
vinegar.
o Write down the chemical equation for the reaction of
acetic acid with Mg metal.
o Write down the chemical equation for the reaction of
acetic acid with sodium carbonate.
o Scan the written responses to assess the student’s
understanding.
necessary.
Activity (2) Group work to develop students’ collaboration, reasoning, and critical
thinking skills
Objective To describe the names and preparation methods of organic
compounds
o Encourage each group to revise the nomenclature of organic
compounds and their preparation methods before doing this
activity.
o Give each group four cards as mentioned in the support
materials and let each member of the group randomly collect
one card.
225
o Tell each member to describe the IUPAC name of the formula

Resources and Support
Materials
written on his/her card and explain the preparation method
o Cards with each of the (including reactants, conditions, and name of reaction) of it to
following formula: the rest of the group.
(1) C2H5OC2H5
o Tell them to tabulate their answers.
(2) CH3CHO
(3) CH3COOC2H5
and analysing skills to prepare organic compounds through the
(4) CH3CONH2
name and preparation method.)
o Ask 2 or 3 groups to share the names and preparation methods
of organic compounds with the class. After the group has
shared, make the class raise their hands if they agree with the
presentation. (If other groups have additional information,
they could discuss it with the class.) Monitor the class, check
their ideas and give feedback.
o Coordinate their responses to the description of the name and
preparation methods of organic compounds.
o Mention the common names of compounds given in this
activity.
o Name the type of compound for each formula.
o What are the uses of each of these compounds?
o Repeat explaining and questioning the same topics, if
necessary.
Review Exercises 1. Carboxylic acids are made by the oxidation of alcohols. Which
carboxylic acid is produced from CH3CH2OH?
A. butanoic acid B. ethanoic acid
C. methanoic acid D. propanoic acid
2. The formula of an ester is CH3CH2CH2COOCH2CH2CH3.
Which acid and alcohol react together to make the ester?
A. butanoic acid and butanol
B. butanoic acid and propanol
C. propanoic acid and butanol
D. propanoic acid and propanol
226
8.2 ► Determining the Fundamental Groups in Organic Compounds
3. Ethanol is oxidised by atmosphere oxygen in the presence of

bacteria. Which compound is produced by atmosphere
oxygen?
A. CH3CH2OH B. CH3COOH
C. CH3CH2CH2OH D. CH3CH2COOH
4. Which compound belongs to a different homologous series to
the others?
A. CH3OH B. CH3CH2OH
C. CH3CH2COOH D. CH3CH(OH)CH3
5. Which molecule contains only single covalent bonds?
A. propanone B. dimethylether
C. propanoic acid D. propyl propanoate
Key Terms o Primary alcohol is an alcohol with a -CH3 or R-CH2- group

bonded to the -OH group.
o Secondary alcohol is an alcohol with two R- groups bonded
to the carbon bearing the -OH group.
o Esterification is the reaction of an alcohol with an acid to
produce an ester and water.
o Transesterification is the reaction of an ester with an alcohol
to form a different ester.
o Condensation reaction is the reaction in which a small
molecule, such as water is eliminated when two molecules are
joined.
8.2 Determining the Fundamental Groups in Organic Compounds
Lesson Objectives o To classify the organic compounds by using chemical tests

o To identify the functional groups of simple organic
compounds by infrared spectroscopy
As mentioned in Section 8.1 of the Grade 11 Chemistry Textbook,
an alkane lacks functional groups whereas an alkene and an alkyne
have functional groups which are carbon-carbon double bond and
carbon-carbon triple bond, respectively. The groups of atoms that
are attached to the carbon backbone of organic compounds are
known as functional groups, which are responsible for the
characteristic chemical reactions of organic compounds. The most
common functional groups in organic compounds other than
hydrocarbons are carbonyl (C=O), hydroxyl (OH), carboxyl
227
(COOH), carboalkoxy (COOR), amine (NH2) and carboxamide

(CONH2). The identification of the organic compound is based on
simple chemical tests and spectroscopic techniques that indicate
the presence (or absence) of specific functional groups. The most
important common techniques are infrared (IR), ultraviolet/visible
(UV/Vis), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and mass
spectrometry (MS). In this section, infrared (IR) spectroscopy will
only be described.
The analysis and identification of unknown organic compound

constitute a very important aspect of experimental organic
chemistry. A chemical test is typically a fast reaction performed
in a test tube that gives a visual clue (a colour change, precipitate,
or gas formation) as evidence for a chemical reaction. The
functional group in an organic compound can undergo a structural
change in a reaction and also affect the solubility of the compound
in water or organic solvents.
228
A specific functional group in a molecule can be identified using

certain chemical tests. Table 8.1 shows some chemical tests to
identify functional groups of organic compounds - hydrocarbons,
alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters,
amines and amides. Table 8.1 Chemical Tests for Some Organic
Compounds.
The presence of a carbonyl group such as aldehyde or ketone can

be easily tested by using a solution of 2,4-DNP (2,4-
dinitrophenylhydrazine). If an aldehyde or ketone is present, a
deep-orange precipitate is formed.
The orange precipitate

formed from 2,4 DNP Test
Fehling’s solution can be used to distinguish aldehyde and ketone

functional groups. As described in Section 8.1 (b), aldehydes can
be further oxidised to form carboxylic acids, but ketones cannot
be oxidised easily. This difference can be used to distinguish
between an aldehyde and a ketone in a simple chemical test.
Fehling’s solution is an alkaline solution containing copper(II)
The reddish-brown ions. When the clear blue Fehling’s solution is warmed with an
precipitate formed from aldehyde, the reddish-brown precipitate is formed. However, a
Fehling’s Test ketone does not give precipitate with Fehling’s solution.
Chemical tests are handy but not always practical for the
identification of compounds with complex structures.
The spectroscopic techniques can be performed quickly on small

amounts of a compound and can provide much more information
about the compound’s structure. Additionally, they are also non-
destructive techniques compared to methods using chemical
reactions. Infrared (IR) spectroscopy is the study of the absorption
229
of light by a compound, in the infrared region of electromagnetic

spectrum. Hence, one should understand the interaction of matter
and electromagnetic radiation.
A continuum of different types of electromagnetic radiation, each

associated with a particular energy range, makes up the
electromagnetic spectrum (Figure 8.1). Because electromagnetic
radiation has wave-like properties, it is characterised by either its
frequency or its wavelength. The relationship between the energy
(E) and the frequency (n) or wavelength (λ) of the electromagnetic
hc
radiation is described by Planck’s equation, E = hν = , where h
𝜆
is Planck’s constant and c is the speed of light. Wavenumber
(measured in cm-1) which is the reciprocal of the wavelength, is
one way to describe the frequency of electromagnetic radiation,
and it is the one most commonly used in infrared spectroscopy.
High frequencies, large wavenumbers, and short wavelengths are
associated with high energies.
Each spectroscopic technique employs a different kind of

electromagnetic radiation. There are several spectroscopic
techniques which can be used to identify organic compounds.
IR spectroscopy detects frequencies of infrared radiation that are

absorbed by a molecule. Photons in the infrared radiation region
can cause bond vibrations in molecules. The frequency of the
absorbed radiation matches the frequency of the bond or group
that vibrates. Thus, all organic compounds will absorb infrared
radiation that corresponds to these vibrations. Stretching is a
vibration that occurs along the bond line and changes the bond
length. Bending is a vibration that occurs between two bonds and
changes the bond angle. Only those stretching and bending
motions that change the dipole moment of a molecule give rise to
the absorption of infrared radiation.
230
Hence, homonuclear diatomic molecules (e.g., N2) which have no

dipole moments are IR inactive. On the other hand, heteronuclear
diatomic molecules (e.g., CO) which have dipole moments are IR
active.
Each stretching and bending vibration occurs with a characteristic
frequency which depends on the bond strength and the masses of
the atoms. Light atoms, for example, vibrate at higher frequencies
than heavier atoms and multiple bonds vibrate at higher
frequencies than single bonds. It takes more energy to stretch a
bond than to bend it.
The instrument used to obtain an infrared spectrum is called an IR

spectrometer. When a sample is irradiated with electromagnetic
radiation in the infrared region, an IR spectrum is obtained. It is a
plot of the percent transmittance or absorbance of radiation versus
the wavenumber of the radiation transmitted. The IR spectrum of
propanone is given in Figure 8.2 as an example. The stretching
and bending vibrations of C=O and C-H are observed at the
corresponding frequencies (in terms of wavenumbers) in this
spectrum.
Different functional groups produce bond absorptions at different

locations and intensities (broad or sharp, strong or weak) on the
IR spectrum. Therefore, the presence or absence of different
functional groups can be identified from the
transmittance/absorbance pattern of an infrared spectrum. Each
functional group has characteristic absorption range of
wavenumbers. The wavenumber and intensity associated with the
vibrations of some common bonds in organic compounds are
shown in Table 8.2.
231
Wavenumber
Classes of compounds Bond Band intensity
(cm-1)
alcohols, ethers, esters,
C-O 1050-1410 strong
carboxylic acids
alkenes, aromatic
C=C 1620-1680 medium, weak
compounds
amides, ketones,
aldehydes, esters, C=O 1650-1750 strong, sharp
carboxylic acids
alkynes C≡C 2100-2260 medium, weak
carboxylic acids O-H 2500-3300 strong, very broad
aldehydes C-H 2720-2820 medium, weak
alkanes, alkenes C-H 2850-3090 strong
alcohols O-H 3200-3600 strong
amines, amides N-H 3300-3500 strong
The important factors that influence the intensity of an absorption

band are polarity of the bond and number of bonds. The higher
bond polarity and more number of bonds in molecules will give a
more intense absorption band.
The presence of hydrogen bonds in molecules also affects the
shape of the absorption bands. The polar O−H bond usually shows
strong and broad absorption bands that are easy to identify. The
broad shape of the absorption band results from the hydrogen
bonding of the OH groups between molecules. The OH bond of
alcohols usually has an absorption in the range of 3200-3600
cm-1, while the OH bond of carboxylic acids occurs in the range
of 2500-3300 cm-1.
Consider N−H stretches (stretching bands) in amine and amide
which are medium intensity and width compared to O−H
stretches. Although N−H and O−H stretches show up in the same
wavenumber region, N−H stretch is narrow and weak while the
O−H strech is broad and strong. This is due to the more polarity
and presence of stronger hydrogen bond of O−H.
Figures 8.3, 8.4, and 8.5 illustrate the infrared spectra of ethanol,
ethanoic acid and ethanamine, respectively.
232
expected to complete the learning indicated by the learning
outcomes. Two related activities are suggested to enhance
students’ understanding of the determination of the functional
groups of organic compounds. Other relevant activities could also
be applied.
Objective To determine the presence of a carboxyl (-COOH) functional
group in the samples
o Give each group a set of samples and 3 beakers as mentioned
o 1st member: put 10 cm3 of baking soda solution into three
beakers and label the beakers as 1, 2, 3;
Materials
o Lemon juice, vinegar, o 2nd member: fill beaker 1 with 5 cm3 of lemon juice;
paracetamol tablet, 5 % o 3rd member: add 5 cm3 of vinegar to beaker 2;
baking soda solution
o Beakers, glass rods o 4th member: add 1 tablet of paracetamol to beaker 3;
o Observe the changes and determine, through observation
and reasoning, which sample contains –COOH functional
group.
233
(By doing this activity, each group should develop the skills
for determining the presence or absence of a carboxyl
functional group.)
o Ask 2 or 3 groups to share the deduction on the functional
group of an organic compound with the class. After the group
has shared, make the class raise their hands if they agree with
the presentation. (If other groups have additional information,
they could discuss it with the class.) Monitor the class, check
their ideas and give feedback.
o Conclude by telling the students that functional groups are
very significant in the reaction of organic compounds.
o After adding samples into each of the beakers, what would
happen to the solution? Is the new substance formed? Give
reasons.
o What are the names of gases?
answered correctly.
o If necessary, explain and question the same topics again.

Objective To describe the characteristic IR absorption bands of the
functional groups of organic compounds
o Encourage students to study the characteristic infrared
absorption bands of the organic compounds by using Table 8.2
in the Grade 12 Chemistry Textbook before doing the activity.
o Distribute five cards of the name of organic compounds to
each group.
o Let each member of the group randomly collect one card from
a set of five.
o Tell each member to describe (i) the class of organic
compound (ii) the structural formula (iii) the functional group
(iv) the bonds present in the functional group (v) the
absorption range of wavenumber of the organic compound
mentioned in his/her card.
234
Resources and Support (By doing this activity, each group should develop the critical
Materials thinking and application of IR absorption bands for functional
o Cards labelled with any groups of organic compounds.
organic compounds, e.g.,
methoxyethane, ethanoic o Call on the group(s) randomly and ask them to share their
acid, ethanol, propanone, answers with the class. After the group has shared, the class
ethanamide
raises their hands if they agree with the presentation. (If other
groups have additional information, they could discuss it with
the class.) Monitor the class, check their ideas and give
feedback.
o Listen to the student conversations and coordinate the
response to describe the types of bonds in the functional group
by using relevant frequencies.
o The greater the change in the dipole moment, the _____
intense the absorption band. (more or less)
o The more polar the bond, the _____ intense the absorption
band. (more or less)
o Which occurs at a larger wavenumber, a C≡C stretch or a
C=C stretch?
answered correctly.
Review Exercises 1. Which compound gives both an orange precipitate with 2,4-
DNPH reagent and deep-orange colour precipitate with
Fehling solution?
A. Ethanol B. Methanal C. Propanal D. Propanone
2. Which compound reacts with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine
reagent but does not react with Fehling’s reagent?
A. CH3COOH B. CH3CH(CH3)CHO
C. CH3COCH3 D. CH3CH(OH)CH3
3. How many structural isomers with the molecular formula
C4H10O give infrared absorptions both at approximately 1200
cm-1 and at approximately 3400 cm-1?
A. 2 B. 4 C. 6 D. 7
235
4. The infra-red spectrum of an organic compound is shown.

Which compound could give this spectrum?
A. CH3C H2COOH B. CH3CH(OH)CH3
C. CH3COCH3 D. CH3CONH2
5. Compound Q reacts with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine to give a
precipitate. Compound Q does not produce a precipitate when
warmed with Fehling’s solution. What could be the identity of
compound Q?
A. CH3COCH3 B. CH2(OH)CH2CH3
C. CH3CH2COOH D. CH3CH2CHO
Key Terms o Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction of matter and

electromagnetic radiation.
o Electromagnetic radiation is the radiant energy that displays
wave properties.
o Frequency is the number of wave crests that pass by a given
point in one second.
o Wavelength is the distance from any point on one wave to the
corresponding point on the next wave.
o Wavenumber is the number of wave crests that pass in one
centimetre.
o Infrared spectroscopy is a technique for identifying
compounds based on the change in vibrations of particular
atoms when infrared radiation of specific frequencies is
absorbed.
8.3 Macromolecules
Lesson Objectives o To express some natural and synthetic polymers

o To explain the process of polymerisation to show how
monomers can combine in polymers
o To describe the chemical nature, reactions, properties, and
uses of addition and condensation polymers to recognise their
importance in society
o To describe the problem of pollution caused by plastics
o To describe how polymers have been designed to act as
degradable plastics
236
8.3 ► Macromolecules
A macromolecule is a very large molecule that contains thousands

of atoms or more, because "macro" means large. Many of the
things in the environment are made up of macromolecules.
Carbohydrates (starch, cellulose), proteins, and natural fibres
(cotton) are found in nature. The biologically important proteins
and nucleic acids are made up of macromolecular units. Some of
the synthetic macromolecules produced by industries are plastics,
resins, nylon, and rubber.
A polymer is a type of long-chain macromolecule that is linked

together by many small repeat units known as monomers. If a
polymer consists of only one kind of monomers then it is called a
homopolymer, while a polymer which consists of more than one
kind of monomers is called a copolymer. Polymers are either
found in nature or produced in a laboratory. Table 8.3 shows some
examples of natural and synthetic polymers.
Natural polymers Synthetic polymers
Proteins wool polyethene polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
DNA natural rubber nylon polyvinyl acetate (PVA)
starch silk terylene polystyrene
cellulose hair teflon polypropylene
When a polymer is made, monomers bond together one after

another in a rapid series of steps. The process of joining together
a large number of monomers to form a polymer is called
polymerisation.
Based on the kinds of reactions involved, polymerisation is

divided into two groups known as addition polymerisation and
condensation polymerisation. Addition polymerisation occurs
when unsaturated monomers join together without losing any
molecules or atoms. Condensation polymerisation occurs when
the monomers combine to form a polymer, with the removal of a
small molecule such as water.
An addition polymer is a polymer formed by addition

polymerisation between monomers that contain a double bond.
237
The simplest addition polymer is polyethene or polyethylene (PE).

It is produced by the addition polymerisation of ethene monomers.
At high temperature and pressure, and in the presence of a catalyst,
the carbon-carbon double bonds of the ethene molecules
(monomers) break. Each monomer forms single bonds with two
other monomers. Eventually, they join to form the polymer,
A ball and stick model
showing the part of polyethene.
polyethene
The repeat unit of polyethene is
The formula of a polymer can be written using its repeat unit

(monomer). The letter “n” represents a large number. The number
of ethene molecules in each polyethene molecule varies from
10,000 to 30,000.
Another example of an addition polymer is polychloroethene or

polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The substituted alkenes, such as
chloroethene (vinyl chloride), are monomer units.
A part of the structure of PVC is shown below.

A ball and stick model
showing the part of
polychloroethene
The –H2C—CHCl–, part of the polymer chain, is the repeat unit

of polychloroethene. In polyalkenes made of one type of
monomer, the repeat unit is the same as the monomer except that
the carbon-carbon double bond (C=C) is changed to a carbon-
carbon single bond (C−C).
Addition polymers are sometimes referred to as plastics. The

thermal stability of plastics depends on their types. They swell or
dissolve in organic solvents and have poor weather resistance. At
low temperatures, they lose plasticity and elasticity and become
brittle.
238
Polyethene is one of the most common plastics. Polyethene can be

easily moulded into various shapes. Thus, many plastic toys, bags
and buckets are made of polyethene. Polyvinyl chloride’s strong,
lightweight and durable characteristics make it ideal for pipes,
Polystyrene
raincoats, thin gloves and flooring mats. Many frying pans are
coated with a layer of teflon, ( F2C-CF2 ) n. Teflon is
heat-resistant and has non-stick properties. Polystyrene is hard,
light and brittle. Polystyrene (also known as styrofoam) is used to
disposable containers make disposable containers.
Condensation polymers are polymers whose process of

polymerisation involves a condensation reaction. Condensation
polymerisation is characterised by monomers that contain two
different functional groups. The presence of these two different of
functional groups is required within the same molecule or in two
different molecules.
Terylene is an example of condensation polymers. Terylene or

polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is formed from the reaction of
an acid monomer (terephthalic acid) and an alcohol monomer
terephthalic acid (ethylene glycol).
(dicarboxylic acid) The two monomers are represented as follows: (The blocks
HO−CH2−CH2−OH represent parts of the monomers.)
ethane- 1,2-diol
(ethylene glycol)
(dialcohol)
In the condensation polymerisation process, a hydrogen atom is
lost from the alcohol, and a hydroxyl group is lost from the
carboxylic acid. Together these form one water molecule which is
lost during condensation reactions. The monomers are joined
together by the ester linkage. Terylene is polyester as it contains
many ester linkages.
The repeat unit of nylon is

239
Nylon is an example of polyamides. Nylon is the first synthetic

fibre made from a dicarboxylic acid and a diamine. For example,
nylon 6,6 is formed from the reaction of an acid monomer (adipic
adipic acid acid) and an amine monomer (1,6-diaminohexane).
(dicarboxylic acid) The two monomers are represented as follows:
1,6-diaminohexane dicarboxylic acid diamine

(diamine) (an acid with two −COOH groups) (an amine with two −NH2 groups)
In the reaction, a water molecule is produced from each pair of
monomers. A new bond is formed between nitrogen and carbon
atoms to form an amide linkage. Nylon is a polyamide as it
contains many amide linkages.
The repeat unit of nylon is
A large protein molecule is one of the types of polyamides.

Proteins are made from thousands of amino acid monomers.
Amino acids contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and
some contain sulphur. The general formula of amino acid is
H2NCHRCOOH and its structure is as follows:
There are 20 different amino acids commonly found in proteins.

Each amino acid differs in terms of its -R group. The -NH2 group
of one amino acid can react with the -COOH of another amino
acid to form a dipeptide by a condensation reaction. The covalent
bond formed between these two amino acids is called a peptide
bond (amide link). Additional amino acids can then react to form
a tripeptide, a tetrapeptide, and so on. Eventually, a polypeptide,
containing many peptide bonds, is formed.
240
A polypeptide chain may contain 50 to 2000 amino acids. An

amino acid unit within a polypeptide chain is called an amino acid
residue.
Condensation polymers often have lower molecular masses than

addition polymers. The presence of polar functional groups on the
chains often enhances chain-chain attractions, particularly if
hydrogen bonding is involved, and thus, crystallinity and tensile
strength increase.
Terylene is resistant to stretching and shrinking. It is easily washed
and dry quickly. It is being used more and more in textiles. It is
Fishing lines
stretched out into fibres and can then be made into fabric and
articles of clothing. In the home, polyesters are used to make
clothing, carpets, curtains, sheets and pillows. Nylon is very strong
and resistant, and is used in fishing line, shoes, toothbrush bristles,
guitar strings and machine parts.
Plastics are particular types of polymers that can be moulded.

Increasingly, plastics can be used in place of natural materials such
as wood, metal, cotton, and leather. They are utilised in practically
almost every industry, including packaging, building and
construction, textiles, consumer goods, transportation, electronic
equipment, and industrial machinery. As rapidly increasing
production and use of disposable plastic products, plastic pollution
has become one of the most pressing environmental issues.
Since plastics are relatively cheap, easily moulded into various

shapes, light, tough, waterproof and are resistant to decay, rusting
and chemical attack, they are always in demand than other
materials for numerous applications. However, plastics are non-
biodegradable, that is, they cannot be broken down by bacteria in
the soil. So they can take hundreds of years to decompose and
throwing away plastics creates rubbish that will pollute the
environment for centuries.
241
Plastics are mostly flammable. Upon incineration, they produce

poisonous gases. For example, PVC produces corrosive hydrogen
chloride gas during combustion.
Plastics that are thrown into the sea endanger marine animals. For
example, turtles often mistake plastic bags for food and choke on
them. Plastics may clog up rivers and drains, increasing the
flooding in the area and serving as a breeding ground for bacteria
and germs that spread disease.
Plastics do not decompose. When plastic waste is buried in a

landfill, it can remain there for hundreds of years, contaminating
the soil.
The easiest way to deal with plastics is to reuse or recycle them.

When plastics are recycled, the various types must be separated
from one another. To aid in the separation, manufacturers require
to place a recycling symbol on their products to indicate the type
of plastic it is.
These symbols consist of three arrows around one of seven

numbers; an abbreviation below the symbol indicates the type of
polymer used to make the container. The lower the number in the
middle of the symbol, the greater is the ease with which the
Recycling symbols
material can be recycled. (1) PETE/PET stands for polyethylene
terephthalate, (2) HDPE for high-density polyethylene, (3) V/PVC
for polyvinyl chloride, (4) LDPE for low-density polyethylene, (5)
PP for polypropylene, (6) PS for polystyrene, and (7) for all other
plastics. These symbols are usually mentioned on plastic products.
Chemists are now developing degradable plastics that break down

when they are discarded. The use of degradable plastics is
becoming more common as people become increasingly aware of
the challenges associated with the disposal of polyalkenes due to
their non-biodegradability caused by their lack of reactivity.
Developments of biodegradable plastics and photodegradable
plastics are able to solve the problem of plastics.
242
Some plastics, when buried for many years, eventually become

brittle and break down into smaller pieces that can be decomposed
naturally by microorganisms in the soil. The smaller pieces of
plastics have larger surface areas, and hence, it could degrade
much more quickly when it is buried in soil. To degrade plastics
naturally by microorganisms (bacteria and fungi), plastics should
contain small amounts of starch granules. Biodegradable plastics
are made from monomers derived directly from plant materials,
such as polylactic acid (PLA). For instance, PLA which is made
from fermented plant starch (usually corn), is now being used as a
biodegradable alternative to petroleum-based plastics.
Polymer chains also have been designed that incorporate carbonyl

groups (C=O) at intervals down their length. These carbonyl
groups absorb energy from the ultraviolet rays of sunlight to
weaken and break down. As the polymer breaks into smaller
fragments, the plastic will biodegrade much more quickly.
understanding of the properties and uses of addition and
condensation polymers. Other relevant activities could also be
applied.
Objective To describe the properties and uses of addition and condensation
polymers
o Give each group one of the cards as mentioned in the support
materials.
o Encourage each group to review the addition and condensation
polymers before doing the activity.
o Tell each group to mention as follows:
o 1st member: the formula of polymer and its repeat unit;
Resources and Support Materials nd
o Cards labelled with each of the o 2 member: the formula of monomer and type of
following names of polymers: polymerisation;
polyethene, polyvinyl chloride, o 3rd member: properties of polymer;
polystyrene, teflon, terylene,
nylon o 4th member: uses of polymer.
243
conceptual understanding of addition and condensation

polymers by applying critical thinking skills.)
o Coordinate their responses to categorise the polymers with
their different uses concerning their different properties.
o Approximately how many ethene molecules might be
linked together in a polyethene molecule?
o What is the name of the monomer of teflon?
o What are the names of the monomers of terylene?
necessary.

Objective To examine the properties of different types of plastics
o Encourage each group to collect three plastic materials. (Prefer
to use waste plastic containers (bottles or boxes) that should
be collected before doing the activity.)
o Encourage each group to find the recycling symbol on the
container.
o Tell each group to mention the following:
o 1st member: the names of the polymers used to make these
Materials items;
o Grade 12 Chemistry o 2nd member: the formula of each of these items;
Textbook/ library/online
o 3rd member: transparency (opaque or transparent) and
resources
flexibility (easily bend or not) of each of these items.
(By doing this activity, each group should develop recycling
knowledge for plastic in daily life.)
244

the group has shared, make the students raise their hands if
Monitor the class, check their ideas and give feedback.
o Coordinate their responses to describe the name and formula
of polymer, and properties of plastic materials with their
recycling symbols.
o What is recycling?
o What is the recycling symbol on the plastic?
o What are the benefits of recycling?
o Take informal polls about how many questions students
answered correctly.
necessary.
Review Exercises 1. Which polymer is a synthetic polyamide?

A. nylon B. poly(ethene)
C. protein D. Terylene
2. Which statement about polymers is correct?
A. All synthetic polymers rapidly break down in landfill sites.
B. Nylon is a natural polymer.
C. Proteins are non-biodegradable natural polymers.
D. Synthetic polymers are harmful to marine life.
3. Which substance is a natural polymer?
A. ethene B. Terylene C. nylon D. protein
4. Which substance is a polymer?
A. diamond B. graphite
C. nylon D. sodium chloride
5. Hair contains a special class of polymer called keratins. What
is the name of this polymer?
A. polyethene B. protein
C. nylon D. polylactic acid
245
Key Terms o Polymer is a large molecule made by linking together

repeating units of small molecules.
o Monomer is a small, reactive molecule that reacts to make
long-chain molecules called polymers.
o Homopolymer is a polymer that contains only one kind of
monomer.
o Copolymer is a polymer formed from two or more different
monomers.
o Polymerisation is the process of linking up monomers to form
a polymer.
o Addition polymerisation is the polymerisation in which
monomers containing carbon-to-carbon double bonds react
together to form long-chain molecules.
o Condensation polymerisation is a polymerisation in which
two molecules are joined to form a larger molecule by
elimination of a small molecule, such as H2O.
o Biodegradable plastics are plastics that are designed to break
up when exposed to the presence of microorganisms.
o Photodegradable plastics are plastics that are gradually
broken down with exposure to light.
Chemistry in Society o When an ant bites, it injects the acidic liquid (formic acid) into
the skin.
o Rancid butter has a foul smell because of the presence of
butanoic acid.
o Most esters have the fragrant smell of fruits. For example,
methyl butanoate smells like an apple and ethyl butanoate
smells like a pine apple.
o No-touch or non-contact infrared thermometers measure
temperature through the forehead from a close distance in
seconds.
o Hair contains a special class of proteins called keratins, which
are also present in wool, nails, hoofs, and horns.
o Silk, a macromolecule, comes from the cocoon of the
silkworm.
o The windscreen of cars are made of perspex, a solid
transparent plastic made of polymethyl methacrylate.
o In the biomedical field, biodegradable polymers find immense
use in drug delivery and tissue engineering.
246
► Exercises
Exercises 1. What is the structure of propanoic acid?

A. CH3CH2COOH B. CH3COOH
C. CH3COCH3 D. CH3COOCH3
2. X is an organic compound which contains 2 carbon atoms, 6
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom with no double bond.
What is the structure of X?
A. CH3COCH3 B. CH3OCH3
C. CH3COOH D. CH3COOCH3
3. The structure of a compound X is HCOOH. Which name is the
same homologous series as X?
A. ethanol B. acetone
C. acetic acid D. methoxymethane
4. Compound X contains three carbon atoms. Part of a simplified
infra-red spectrum of compound X is shown. Which
compound could be X?
A. CH3CH2CHO B. CH3CH2COOH
C. CH3CH2CH2OH D. CH3COOCH3
5. An infrared spectrum shows a broad peak at 3000 cm-1 and a
strong peak at 1710 cm-1. Which substance could have
produced this spectrum?
A. methyl propanoate B. 2-propanol
C. propanoic acid D. propanone
6. The diagram shows the infra-red spectrum of Q. What could
be Q?
A. butan-1-ol B. butanoic acid
C. butanone D. 3-hydroxybutanal
7. Which type of compound is made of a protein?
A. alkene B. amino acid
C. carboxylic acid D. sugar
8. Which polymers have the same linkage between monomer
units?
A. polyethene and polyamide B. polystyrene and polyester
C. protein and polyamide D. protein and polyester
9. Some plastics are non-biodegradable. What is the meaning of
the term non-biodegradable?
A. cannot be recycled for further use
B. gives off greenhouse gases when burnt
C. harmful to animals and plants
D. not broken down by natural processes
10. Which polymers are constituents of perspex?
A. Nylon B. polymethyl methacrylate
C. Terylene D. Polylactic acid
247
248
GLOSSARY
Acid dissociation constant (Ka): an equilibrium constant for a weak acid

Acidity of a base: the number of molecules of a monoprotic acid that will neutralise one
molecule of the base
Activated complex: a temporary unstable arrangement of atoms that may form products or break
apart to reform the reactants
Activation energy: the minimum amount of energy that reacting particles must have to form the
activated complex and lead to a reaction
Addition polymerisation: a polymerisation in which monomers containing carbon-to-carbon
double bonds react together to form long-chain molecules
Amphiprotic molecule: a molecule which can have both proton-accepting (protophilic) and
proton-donating (protogenic) properties
Arrhenius acid: any substance that dissociates to produce hydrogen ions (H+) when it dissolves
in water
Arrhenius base: any substance that dissociates to produce hydroxide ions (OH–) when it
dissolves in water
Aufbau principle: a principle which states that electrons are filled in the lower energy atomic
orbitals before filling higher energy ones
Autoionisation of water: a reaction between two water molecules yielding hydronium and
hydroxide ions
Background radiation: a measure of the level of ionising radiation naturally present in the
environment at a particular location
Base dissociation constant (Kb): an equilibrium constant for a weak base
Basicity of an acid: the number of hydrogen ions that one molecule of an acid can produce
Biodegradable plastics: plastics that are designed to break up when exposed to the presence of
microorganisms
Biodiesel: a form of diesel fuel derived from plants or animals and consisting of long-chain fatty
acid esters
Biogeochemical cycle: the natural pathway by which essential elements of living matter are
circulated
Body-centred cubic unit cell: a cubic cell with an atom on each corner and another in the centre
of the cube
Bond angle: an angle between any two bonds that include a common atom, usually measured in
degrees
Bond energy (Bond enthalpy): amount of energy required in bond breaking or making of one
mole of chemical bonds in a molecular element or compound
Bonding pair: pair of electrons being shared between two atoms in a molecule
Brønsted-Lowry acid: any substance that can donate a proton
Brønsted-Lowry base: any substance that can accept a proton
Buffer solution: solution that resists changes in pH as a result of dilution or a small addition of
acids or bases
249
Catalyst: substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction but remains chemically unchanged
at the end of the reaction
Closed system: a system that allows energy to enter and exit, but matter can neither be gained
nor lost
Collision theory: a theory which states that a chemical reaction only takes place when two
reacting molecules collide in the correct orientation with sufficient kinetic
energy
Complex ion: an ion which has a metal ion at its centre with a number of other molecules or
ions surrounding it
Condensation polymerisation: a polymerisation in which two molecules are joined to form a
larger molecule by elimination of a small molecule, such as H2O
Condensation reaction: the reaction in which a small molecule, such as water, is eliminated
when two molecules are joined
Conjugate acid: a species that forms when a base gains a proton
Conjugate acid-base pair: an acid-base pair that consists of either an acid and its conjugate
base or a base and its conjugate acid
Conjugate base: a species that forms when an acid loses a proton
Coordinate bond (Dative bond): a covalent bond that consists of a pair of electrons donated by
only one of the two bonded atoms
Coordination number: the number of atoms or molecules or ions surrounding a central atom in
a complex
Copolymer: a polymer formed from two or more different monomers
Crystal lattice: a geometric arrangement of the points in space at which the atoms, molecules,
or ions of a substance occur
Diamagnetic substance: a substance that has no unpaired electrons and shows no attraction
(slight repulsion) from the external magnetic field
Dipole moment: a measure of the polarity of a covalent bond
Dipole: a pair of charges that are equal in magnitude and opposite in charge that is separated by
a distance
Dipole-dipole interaction: an interaction that results when two dipolar molecules interact with
each other
Dynamic equilibrium: an equilibrium in which the chemical reaction is still proceeding at equal
rates of the forward and reverse reactions, and the concentrations of the
reactants and products remain constant
Electromagnetic radiation: the radiant energy that displays wave properties
Electron-deficient molecule: a molecule in which there is an insufficient number of valence
electrons to complete the octet of the central atom
Electrostatic attraction: the attraction between a negatively charged ion and a positively
charged ion
Endothermic reaction: a reaction which absorbs heat from the surroundings
Energy transformation: the process of changing one form of energy into another
Enthalpy change: the heat change accompanying a chemical reaction at constant pressure
Enzymes: proteins that act as catalysts for specific biochemical reactions
250
Equilibrium constant: a ratio that expresses the relationship between the amounts of products
and reactants present at equilibrium in a reversible chemical reaction at a
given temperature
Esterification: the reaction of an alchol with an acid to produce an ester and water
Exothermic reaction: a reaction which releases heat into the surroundings
Expanded valence shell molecule: a molecule in which there are more than 8 electrons in the
valence shell of the central atom
Face-centred cubic unit cell: a cubic cell with an atom on each corner, and an atom at the centre
of each face
Ferromagnetic substance: a substance that is strongly attracted by the applied magnetic field,
and retains its magnetisation for some time even after the external
magnetic field is removed
Fissile heavy atoms: materials capable of sustaining a nuclear fission chain reaction
Frequency: the number of wave crests that pass by a given point in one second
Giant covalent structure: a three-dimensional structure of atoms that are joined by covalent
bonds
Green chemistry: the design of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the
generation of hazardous substances
Heterogeneous catalyst: a catalyst which is in a different phase from the reactants in a catalysed
reaction
Heterogeneous equilibrium: a chemical equilibrium in which the reactants and the products are
all in more than one phase
Homogeneous catalyst: a catalyst which is in the same phase as the reactants in a catalysed
reaction
Homogeneous equilibrium: a chemical equilibrium in which the reactants and the products are
all in a single phase
Homopolymer: a polymer that contains only one kind of monomer
Hund’s rule: every orbital in a subshell is singly occupied with one electron before any one
orbital is doubly occupied, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals
have the same spin
Hydrogen bonding: the electrostatic attraction between a hydrogen atom in one polar molecule
and a small electronegative atom (as of oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine) in
another molecule of the same or different polar substances
Infrared spectroscopy: a technique for identifying compounds based on the change in
vibrations of particular atoms when infrared radiation of specific
frequencies is absorbed
Intermolecular forces: the weak forces between atoms, molecules, and ions
Intermolecular hydrogen bonds: the hydrogen bonds that occur between two atoms of same
or different molecules
Ion-dipole interaction: an interaction that results from the electrostatic interaction between an
ion and a neutral molecule that has a dipole
Ionic compounds: compounds that consist of ions and predominantly contain ionic bonding
251
Ionic product of water: the equilibrium constant for the autoionisation of water which is the
product of the molar concentrations of H+ and OH– ions at a particular
temperature
Law of Conservation of Energy: in any physical or chemical process, energy can neither be
created nor destroyed
Lewis acid: any substance that can accept an electron pair
Lewis base: any substance that can donate an electron pair
London dispersion force: a temporary attractive force that results from the temporary dipoles
formed due to the occupying positions of electrons in two adjacent atoms
Lone pair (unshared pair): pair of electrons that is not involved in bonding with other atoms
Molecular orbital (MO) theory: a method for describing the electronic structure of molecules
based on quantized energy levels
Molecular shape: the three-dimensional arrangement of the atoms that constitute a molecule
Monomer: a small, reactive molecule that reacts to make long-chain molecules called polymers
Negative catalyst: a catalyst that decreases the rate of a chemical reaction
Neutral aqueous solution: a solution in which the concentrations of hydrogen ions and
hydroxide ions are equal at the value of 1.0 × 10–7 mol dm–3 at 25 °C
(298 K) (pH = 7)
Non-polar covalent bond: a covalent bond in which the bonding electrons are shared equally
between two atoms
Non-polar molecules: molecules that have an equal distribution of charge
Ocean acidification: a reduction in the pH of the ocean over an extended period of time, caused
primarily by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
Organisms: living biological entities, such as animals, plants, fungi, or bacteria
Paramagnetic substance: a substance that has unpaired electrons and shows weak attraction
towards the external magnetic field
Pauli’s exclusion principle: no more than two electrons can occupy the same orbital, and two
electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs): carbon-based organic compounds that have the special
abilities to be long-lasting and to resist breakdown into safer substances
pH: the negative logarithm to base 10 of the molar concentration of the hydrogen ions
Phase: a portion of a physical state (solid, liquid, gas) that is homogeneous throughout, and can
be separated physically from other phases
Phosphorus cycle: a biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of phosphorus through
the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere
Photochemical reaction: a chemical reaction initiated by the absorption of light energy
Photodegradable plastics: plastics that are gradually broken down with exposure to light
Photodegradation: a process by which substances are broken down by the action of sunlight
pOH: the negative logarithm to base 10 of the molar concentration of the hydroxide ions
Polar covalent bond: a covalent bond in which the bonding electrons is unequally shared
between two atoms
Polar molecule: a molecule in which one end of the molecule is slightly positive while the other
end is slightly negative
252
Polarity: a separation of charge, leading to one part of a bond or molecule becoming positively
charged and the other negatively charged
Polymer: a large molecule made by linking together repeating units of small molecules
Polymerisation: the process of linking up monomers to form a polymer
Positive catalyst: a catalyst that increases the rate of a chemical reaction
Primary alcohol: an alcohol with a -CH3 or R-CH2- group bonded to the -OH group
Radioactivity: the process by which the nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by emitting
radiation, including alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays
Rate of a reaction: the change in amount of a reactant or a product per unit of time
Reversible reaction: a reaction that can proceed in the forward as well as in the reverse
directions under the appropriate conditions
Salt hydrolysis: the reaction of an anion or a cation of salt, or both, with water
Secondary alcohol: an alcohol with two R- groups bonded to the carbon bearing the -OH group
Simple cubic unit cell: a cubic cell with an atom in each corner of the cube
Specific heat capacity of liquid: the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of liquid by
1 °C
Spectroscopy: the study of the interaction of matter and electromagnetic radiation
Strong acids: acids (strong electrolytes) that completely ionise in water
Strong bases: bases (strong electrolytes) that ionise completely in water
Successful collision: a collision that causes a chemical reaction
Sulphur cycle: a biogeochemical cycle in which the sulphur moves between rocks, waterways,
atmosphere, and living systems
Surroundings: everything in the universe other than the system
System: the specific part of the universe that contains the reaction or process which is studied
Transesterification: the reaction of an ester with an alcohol to form a different ester
Transition elements: the elements that have partially filled d subshells (orbitals) which can give
rise to cations with incomplete d subshells (orbitals)
Transition state (an intermediate state): a highly energetic state that would be highly unstable
Unit cell: the smallest repeating unit of a crystal lattice that shows the three-dimensional pattern
of the entire crystal
Valence electrons: the electrons in the outermost shell of an atom
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory: to predict the shapes of molecules
and ions, based on the repulsive interactions of the electrons around a
central atom
van der Waals forces: weak intermolecular forces that bind molecules together
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): organic chemicals that can vaporise
Wavelength: the distance from any point on one wave to the corresponding point on the next
wave
Wavenumber: the number of wave crests that pass in one centimetre
Weak acids: acids (weak electrolytes) that partially ionise only to a limited extent in water
Weak bases: bases (weak electrolytes) that ionise to a very limited extent in water
253
CURRICULUM REVIEW
Chapter 1
CHEMICAL BONDING AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Must Should Could
1.1 Basic Concepts to Understand Chemical Bonding ✔
Electronic structure and energy levels of electrons ✔
Valence electrons and Octet rule ✔
Electronegativity, Electron affinity and Ionisation energy ✔
Types of chemical bonding ✔
Suggestion for Practising ✔
Review Questions ✔
Key Terms ✔
1.2 Ionic Bonding ✔
(a) Formation of Ionic Bond - Nature of ionic bonding ✔
(b) Structures of Ionic Compounds ✔
Key Terms ✔
1.3 Covalent Bonding ✔
(a) Formation of Covalent Bonds ✔
Nature of covalent bonding ✔
Formation of coordinate bonds ✔
(b) Lewis Structures of Molecules and Polyatomic Ions ✔
Drawing Lewis structures ✔
Exceptions to the octet rule ✔
(c) Prediction of Molecular Shapes (VSEPR Model) ✔
Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory ✔
Prediction of the shape of a covalent molecule ✔
(d) Giant Structures of Covalent Molecules ✔
Key Terms ✔
1.4 Intermolecular Forces ✔
254
Must Should Could

(a) Polar and Non-polar Molecules ✔
Polar and non-polar covalent bonds ✔
Polar and non-polar molecules ✔
(b) van der Waals Forces ✔
Dipole-dipole interaction ✔
Ion-dipole interaction ✔
London dispersion forces ✔
(c) Hydrogen Bonding ✔
Key Terms ✔
1.5 Metallic Bonding ✔
(a) Metallic Bonds ✔
(b) Strength of Metallic Bonding ✔
Chemistry in Society ✔
Exercises ✔
Chapter 2
Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
Must Should Could
2.1 Energy Changes ✔
(a) Chemical Energy Changes ✔
(b) Changes of Energy in Chemical Reactions ✔
(i) Spontaneous and non-spontaneous reactions ✔
(ii) Exothermic and endothermic reactions ✔
Energy transfer in chemical reactions ✔
Example 1 ✔
Key Terms ✔
2.2 Enthalpy Changes in Chemical Reactions ✔
255
Must Should Could

(a) Enthalpy Changes and Standard Enthalpy Changes ✔
(i) Writing thermochemical equations ✔
(ii) Standard enthalpy changes of reactions ✔
Example 1 ✔
(b) Measurement of Enthalpy Changes ✔
Enthalpy changes of reactions in solution ✔
Bomb calorimeter ✔
Example 3 ✔
Example 4 ✔
Key Terms ✔
2.3 Hess’s Law ✔
(a) Enthalpy Cycle ✔
Constructing the enthalpy cycle ✔
Calculating involving the enthalpy change of reaction ✔
from enthalpy changes of formation
Calculating the enthalpy change of formation from ✔
enthalpy changes of combustion
Example 6 ✔
(b) Bond Energy and Enthalpy Changes ✔
Example 7 ✔
Calculating the enthalpy change without using the ✔
enthalpy cycle
Example 8 ✔
Key Terms ✔
Chemical in Society ✔
Exercises ✔
256
Chapter 3
Chemical Kinetics: Rates of Reaction
Must Should Could
3.1 Reaction Rates ✔
Example 1 ✔
Example 2 ✔
Example 3 ✔
Example 4 ✔
Key Terms ✔
3.2 Collision Theory and Activation Energy ✔
(a) Collision Theory ✔
Collision orientation and sufficient energy ✔
(b) Activation Energy ✔
Key Terms ✔
3.3 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates ✔
(a) Effect of Concentration of Reactants ✔
(b) Effect of Particle Size ✔
(c) Effect of Pressure ✔
(d) Effect of Temperature ✔
(e) Effect of Light ✔
Key Terms ✔
Exercises ✔
Chapter 4
Chemical Equilibrium
Must Should Could
4.1 State of Dynamic Equilibrium ✔
(a) Reversible Reaction and Equilibrium ✔
257
Must Should Could

(b) Dynamic Nature of Equilibrium ✔
(c) Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Chemical Equilibria ✔
(i) Homogeneous Chemical Equilibria ✔
(ii) Heterogeneous Chemical Equilibria ✔
Key Terms
4.2 Le Chatelier’s Principle and Factors Affecting the Chemical ✔
Equilibrium
(a) Le Chatelier’s Principle ✔
(b) Factors Affecting the Chemical Equilibrium ✔
Effect of Concentration on Equilibrium ✔
Example 1 ✔
Effect of Temperature on Equilibrium ✔
Example 2 ✔
Effect of Pressure on Equilibrium ✔
Example 3 ✔
Example 4 ✔
Example 5 ✔
(c) Applying Le Chatelier’s Principle in Industry ✔
(i) Ammonia production ✔
(ii) Methanol production ✔
Key Terms ✔
4.3 Equilibrium Constant ✔
(a) Deriving Equilibrium Constants ✔
The equilibrium constant, Keq ✔
(b) Equilibrium Constants for Homogeneous and ✔
Heterogeneous Equilibria
Example 6 ✔
Example 7 ✔
Example 8 ✔
258
Must Should Could

Example 9 ✔
(c) Calculation Concerning Equilibrium Constants ✔
Example 10 ✔
Example 11 ✔
Key Terms ✔
Exercises ✔
Chapter 5
Acid-Base Reactions
Must Should Could
5.1 Theories of Acids and Bases ✔
(a) Arrhenius Theory ✔
(b) Brønsted-Lowry Theory ✔
Example 1 ✔
(c) Lewis Theory ✔
Suggestion for Practising
Key Terms ✔
5.2 Ionic Dissociation of Water and pH ✔
(a) Acid-base Behaviour of Water ✔
(b) The Ionic Product of Water ✔
Example 2 ✔
(c) The pH and pOH ✔
Example 3 ✔
Example 4 ✔
Key Terms ✔
5.3 Ionisation of Acids and Bases ✔
(a) Strong Acids and Weak Acids ✔
259
Must Should Could

Basicity of an acid ✔
Example 5 ✔
(b) Strong Bases and Weak Bases ✔
Acidity of a base ✔
Example 6 ✔
(c) Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases ✔
Acid dissociation constants ✔
Example 7 ✔
Base dissociation constants ✔
Example 8 ✔
Key Terms ✔
5.4 Salt Hydrolysis ✔
(a) Salts of Strong Bases and Strong Acids ✔
(b) Salts of Strong Bases and Weak Acids ✔
(c) Salts of Weak Bases and Strong Acids ✔
(d) Salts of Weak Bases and Weak Acids ✔
Example 9 ✔
Key Terms ✔
Exercises ✔
Chapter 6
Transition Elements
Must Should Could
6.1 The 3d Series Transition Elements ✔
(a) The First Series 3d Transition Elements ✔
(b) Electronic Configurations of the 3d Series Transition ✔
Elements
(i) Electronic configurations of atoms ✔
(ii) Electronic configurations of the ions ✔
260
Must Should Could

Example 1 ✔
Key Term ✔
6.2 Characteristic Properties of the 3d Series Transition Elements ✔
(a) General Properties of the 3d Series Transition Elements ✔
Physical Properties ✔
Chemical Properties ✔
Comparison of some properties of 3d series transition ✔
metals with the Group I alkali metals
(b) Characteristics of the 3d Series Transition Elements ✔
Variable oxidation states ✔
Formation of coloured compounds and ions ✔
Example 2 ✔
Example 3 ✔
Key Terms ✔
6.3 Uses of the 3d Series Transition Elements ✔
Applications in building materials ✔
Applications in industry ✔
Applications in the medical field ✔
Key Terms ✔
Exercises ✔
Chapter 7
Our Environmental World
Must Should Could
7.1 Our Environmental World ✔
(a) Natural Matter Cycling ✔
(i) Carbon cycle ✔
261
Must Should Could

(ii) Nitrogen cycle ✔
(iii) Phosphorus cycle ✔
(iv) Suphur cycle ✔
(b) Effect of Human Activities on Natural Processes ✔
(i) Effect on the carbon cycle ✔
(ii) Effect on the nitrogen and phosphorus cycles ✔
(iii) Effect on the sulphur cycle ✔
(c) Green Environment ✔
Key Terms ✔
7.2 Pollutants and Impacts on the Environment ✔
(a) Heavy Metals and Their Compounds ✔
Arsenic and their compounds ✔
Cadmium and their compounds ✔
Lead and their compounds ✔
Mercury and their compounds ✔
(b) Pesticides ✔
(c) Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and volatile organic ✔
compounds (VOCs)
Key Terms ✔
7.3 Radioactive Substances and the Environment ✔
(a) Radioactivity ✔
(b) Some Radiation Sources ✔
(i) Radioactive substances on the Earth and in the bodies ✔
(ii) Man-made sources ✔
(c) Uses of Radioisotopes ✔
(d) The Nuclear Power and Nuclear Weapons ✔
(e) Impact of Radioactive Substances on the Environment ✔
262
Must Should Could

Key Terms ✔
7.4 Chemistry for Sustainable Environmental Development ✔
(a) Agricultural Sector ✔
Plant-based pesticides ✔
Plant-based pesticidal soaps ✔
(b) Energy Sector ✔
(i) Transformation of solid wastes to greener fuels ✔
(ii) Renewable energy resources ✔
(iii)Biofuels ✔
Bioethanol ✔
Biodiesel ✔
(c) Wastewater Treatment ✔
(d) Consumer Goods in Societal Sector ✔
Unleaded petrol ✔
Bioplastics ✔
Daily life Chemicals ✔
(e) Industrial Sector ✔
Green synthesis of adipic acid ✔
Chromium plating ✔
Key Terms ✔
Exercises ✔
Chapter 8
Organic Compounds and Macromolecules
Must Should Could
✔
(i) Nomenclature ✔
(ii) Methods of preparation ✔
Dehydration of alcohols ✔
263
Must Should Could

(iii) Properties and uses ✔
Reaction with hydrogen iodide ✔
Uses of ethers ✔
✔
(ii) Methods of Preparation ✔
Oxidation of alcohols ✔
Hydration of alkynes ✔
Oxidation ✔
Reduction ✔
Addition with HCN ✔
Uses of aldehydes and ketones ✔
✔
Oxidation by acidified potassium dichromate ✔
Oxidation by atmospheric oxygen ✔
Reaction with metal ✔
Reaction with metal carbonate ✔
Reaction with bases ✔
Reduction ✔
Uses of carboxylic acids ✔
✔
Acid hydrolysis ✔
Basic hydrolysis ✔
Transesterification ✔
Uses of esters ✔
264
Must Should Could

✔
Carbylamine reaction ✔
Uses of amines ✔
✔
Condensation reaction ✔
Hydrolysis ✔
Uses of amides ✔
Review Exercises ✔
Key Terms ✔
8.2 Determining the Fundamental Groups in Organic Compounds ✔
✔
2,4-DNP Test ✔
Fehling’s Test ✔
✔
(i) Electromagnetic radiation ✔
(ii) Molecular vibration ✔
Obtaining the IR spectrum ✔
(iii)Characteristic IR absorption bands ✔
Key Terms ✔
8.3 Macromolecules ✔
✔
✔
(i) Polyethene ✔
265
Must Should Could

(ii) Polyvinyl chloride ✔
✔
(i) Polyesters ✔
(ii) Polyamides ✔
✔
(i) Plastics and pollution ✔
Air pollution ✔
Water pollution ✔
Soil pollution ✔
(ii) Recycling plastics ✔
(iii) Degradable plastics ✔
Biodegradable plastics ✔
Photodegradable palstics ✔
Key Terms ✔
Chemistry in Society ✔
Exercises ✔
REFERENCES
Basic Education Curriculum, Syllabus and Textbook Committee. (2023). The Textbook of
Chemistry Grade 12. Yangon: The Government of the Republic of the Union of
Myanmar, Ministry of Education
Basic Education Curriculum, Syllabus and Textbook Committee. (2023). The Teacher Guide of
Chemistry Grade 12. Yangon: The Government of the Republic of the Union of
Myanmar, Ministry of Education
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Ministry of Education

National Unity Government of Myanmar

The Grade 12 Chemistry Text Book consists of eight chapters.

Chapter 1 CHEMICAL BONDING AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

Collaboration In lessons, students will be working in groups, to share

Chapter 1 CHEMICAL BONDING AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES 1

Chapter 2 ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS 41

Chapter 3 CHEMICAL KINETICS: RATES OF REACTION 72

Chapter 4 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 95

Chapter 5 ACID-BASE REACTIONS 122

Chapter 6 TRANSITION ELEMENTS 159

Chapter 8 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND MACROMOLECULES 211

CHEMICAL BONDING AND

After completing this chapter, students will be able

Chapter 1 ► Chemical Bonding and Intermolecular Forces

Atoms of elements are rarely found by themselves in nature.

1.1 Basic Concepts to Understand Chemical Bonding

Lesson Objectives o To indicate some basic concepts to understand chemical

Since the discovery of the electronic structure of atoms (refer to

1.1 ► Basic Concepts to Understand Chemical Bonding

Chapter 1 ► Chemical Bonding and Intermolecular Forces

Chemical bonding is any of the interactions that allow for the

1.1 ► Basic Concepts to Understand Chemical Bonding

Generally, the higher the first ionisation energy of an element, the

Activity (1) Group work to develop students’ collaboration, critical thinking,

Instruction o Form students into groups of three.

Chapter 1 ► Chemical Bonding and Intermolecular Forces

o Tell each member to get any three elements as mentioned in

Activity (2) Group work to develop students’ collaboration, communication,

Objective To apply Lewis symbols to describe valence electronic

1.1 ► Basic Concepts to Understand Chemical Bonding

Instruction o Form students into groups of three.

Chapter 1 ► Chemical Bonding and Intermolecular Forces

1.2 Ionic Bonding

Lesson Objectives o To describe the formation of ionic bonds and ionic

Ionic bonding (electrovalent bonding) results from the transfer of

1.2 ► Ionic Bonding

(a) Formation of Ionic Bond

In the case of magnesium oxide (MgO), since the electronegativity

Chapter 1 ► Chemical Bonding and Intermolecular Forces

1.2 ► Ionic Bonding

Activity 1 Group work to develop students’ communication, reasoning, and

o Form students into groups of four.

Chapter 1 ► Chemical Bonding and Intermolecular Forces

Activity 2 Group work to develop students’ collaboration, communication,

Objective To apply Lewis symbols to describe valence electronic

Instruction o Form students into groups of three.

o 1.2 ► Ionic Bonding

Key Terms o Electrostatic attraction is the attraction between a negatively

Chapter 1 ► Chemical Bonding and Intermolecular Forces

1.3 Covalent Bonding

Lesson Objectives o To describe the formation of covalent bonds and Lewis

Covalent bonding can occur between similar or even identical

1.3 ► Covalent Bonding

By overlapping orbitals, the outer shells of all the bonding atoms

A coordinate bond, or dative bond, is a special type of covalent

Chapter 1 ► Chemical Bonding and Intermolecular Forces

A coordinate bond is formed when one of the participating atoms

Similarly, a water (H2O) molecule that possesses two lone pair

1.3 ► Covalent Bonding