EEE406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES DRIVES

3 Credits 44Hrs

Course objectives: To study the fundamental principles of ac machines and the characteristics
and performance of induction motors.

Demonstrate the understanding of the basic construction and principle of operation of induction
motors.

CHAPTER ONE: FUNDAMENTALS OF AC MACHINES

I.1. Introduction

AC machines are AC motors and AC generators. There are two types of AC machines:
Synchronous machines, the magnetic field current is supplied by a separate DC power source.
Induction machines, the magnetic field current is supplied by magnetic induction (transformer
action) into their field windings. The field circuits of most AC machines are located on their
rotors. Every AC (or DC) motor or generator has two parts: rotating part (rotor) and a stationary
part (stator).
➢ Classification of AC machines
Ac machines are
classified as shown in
the figure1 below

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Fig1.1. Classification of ac machine
I.2. the rotating magnetic field
The basic idea of an electric motor is to generate two magnetic fields: rotor magnetic field and
stator magnetic field and make the stator field rotating. In this situation, the rotor will constantly
turning to align its magnetic field with the stator field. The fundamental principle of AC machine
operation is to make a 3- phase set of currents, each of equal magnitude and with a phase
difference of 120o, to flow in a 3-phase winding. In this situation, a constant magnitude rotating
field will be generated. The 3 phase winding consists of 3 separate windings spaced 120o apart
around the surface of the machine. Consider a simple 3-phase stator containing three coils, each 1200 apart.
Such a winding will produce only one north and one south magnetic pole; therefore, this motor would be called a two
pole motor.

Assume that the currents in three coils are:

The directions of currents are indicated. Therefore, the current through the coil aa’ produces the
magnetic field intensity

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Where the magnitude of the magnetic field intensity is changing over time, while 00 is the spatial
angle of the magnetic field intensity vector. The direction of the field can be determined by the
right-hand rule.

Note, that while the magnitude of the magnetic field intensity Haa’varies sinusoidally over time,
its direction is always constant. Similarly, the magnetic fields through two other coils are

The magnetic flux densities resulting from these magnetic field intensities can be found from
B = μH

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We note that the magnitude of the magnetic field is constant but its direction changes.
Therefore, the constant magnitude magnetic field is rotating in a counterclockwise direction.

This case in not representative of real ac machines (flux in real ac machines is not constant in
either magnitude or direction). However, the factors that control the voltage and torque on the
loop are the same as the factors that control the voltage and torque in real ac machines.

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I.2.1.The voltage induced in a simple rotating loop
If the rotor (loop) is rotated, a voltage will be induced in the wire loop. The voltage on each
segment is given by equation
eind = (v x B) . l

(1)
From here we may conclude that the induced voltage is dependent upon:
• Flux level (the B component)
• Speed of Rotation (the v component)
• Machine Constants (the l component and machine materials)
I.2.2.The Torque Induced in a Current-Carrying Loop
Assume that the rotor loop is at some arbitrary angle θ and that current is flowing in the loop.
The force on each segment of the loop is given by:

(2)
The total induced torque on the loop = rilBsin𝜽 (3)
Note: the torque is maximum when the plane of the loop is parallel to the magnetic field, and the
torque is zero when the plane of the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

I.3. Relationship between electrical frequency and rotating magnetic field

The relationship between the electrical angle θe (current’s phase change) and the mechanical
angle θm (at which the magnetic field rotates) in this situation is:
𝜃𝑒 = 2𝜃𝑚 (4)

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Figure1.2
Therefore, for a four-pole stator:

(5)

For an AC machine with P poles in its stator:

𝑃
𝜃𝑒 = 2 𝜃𝑚 (6)
𝑃
𝑓𝑒 = 2 𝑓𝑚 (7)
𝑃
𝜔𝑒 = 2 𝜔𝑚 (8)

Relating the electrical frequency to the motors speed in rpm:

𝑃
𝑓𝑒 =120 𝑛𝑚 (9)

I.4. Magneto-motive force and flux distribution in ac machines

Assumptions:
- Flux produced inside an ac machine is in free space
- Direction of flux density produced by a coil of wire is perpendicular to the plane of the coil
- Direction of flux given by the right hand rule.
However, the flux in a real machine does not follow these assumptions, since there is a
ferromagnetic rotor in the centre of the machine with a small air gap between the rotor and the
stator. The rotor can be cylindrical (a) (nonsalient-pole), or it can have pole faces projecting out
from its surface (b) (salient pole).

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In this course, the discussion will be restricted to machines with cylindrical rotors.
The reluctance of the air gap in this machine is much higher than the reluctances of either the
rotor or the stator, so the flux density vector B takes the shortest possible path across the air gap
and jumps perpendicularly between the rotor and the stator.
To produce a sinusoidal voltage in a machine like this, the magnitude of the flux density vector B
must vary in a sinusoidal manner along the surface of the air gap. The flux density will vary
sinusoidally only if the magnetizing intensity H (and mmf) varies in a sinusoidal manner along
the surface of the air gap.

A cylindrical rotor with sinusoidally varying air-gap flux density

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To achieve a sinusoidal variation of mmf along the surface of the air gap is to distribute the turns
of the winding that produces the mmf in closely spaced slots around the surface of the machine
and to vary the number of conductors in each slots in a sinusoidal manner.

An ac machine with a distributed stator winding designed to produce a sinusoidally varying air
gap flux density. The number of conductors in each slot is indicated in the diagram.

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The number of conductors in each slot is nC = NC cos α where NC is the number of conductors
at an angle of 0 degree. The distribution of conductors produces a close approximation to a
sinusoidal distribution of mmf. The more slots there are and the more closely spaced the slots
are, the better this approximation becomes.
In practice, it is not possible to distribute windings exactly as in the nC equation above, since
there are only a finite number of slots in a real machine and since only integral numbers of
conductors can be included in each slot
Previously, discussions were made related to induced 3 phase currents producing a rotating
magnetic field. Now, let’s look into the fact that a rotating magnetic field may produce voltages
in the stator.
The Figures below show a rotating rotor with a sinusoidally distributed magnetic field in the
centre of a stationary coil.

A rotating rotor magnetic field inside a stationary stator coil

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b). the vector magnetic flux densities and velocities on the sides of the coil.
c). the flux density distribution in the air gap.
Assume that the magnetic of the flux density vector B in the air gap between the rotor and the
stator varies sinusoidally with mechanical angle, while the direction of B is always radially
outward. The magnitude of the flux density vector B at a point around the rotor is given by:
B = BM cos α
Note that α is the angle between the maximum flux density (Bm) and the current magnetic flux
density phasor B. Since the rotor is itself rotating within the stator at an angular velocity ωm the
magnitude of the flux density vector B at any angle α around the stator is given by:
B = BM cos (ωt - α)
Induced voltage in a wire is e = (v x B) l

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Therefore total induced voltage:

(10)
And the angular mechanical velocity should be equal to the angular electrical velocity,

(11)
Remember: This derivation goes through the induced voltage in the stator when there is a
rotating magnetic field produced by the rotor.
The induced voltage in a 3-phase set of coils
In three coils, each of NC turns, placed around the rotor magnetic field, the induced in each coil
will have the same magnitude and phases differing by120𝑜 :

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A 3-phase set of currents can generate a uniform rotating magnetic field in a machine stator, and
a uniform rotating magnetic field can generate a 3-phase set of voltages in such stator.
The rms voltage in a 3-phase stator
The peak voltage in any phase of a 3-phase stator is:

(12)
The rms voltage at the terminals will depend on the type of stator connection: if the stator is Y-
connected, the terminal voltage will be √3 𝐸𝐴 . For the delta connection, it will be just EA.
1.5 Induced torque in an AC machine
In an AC machine under normal operating conditions two magnetic fields are present: a field
from the rotor and a field from the stator circuits. The interaction of these magnetic fields
produces the torque in the machine.
Assuming a sinusoidal stator flux distribution peaking in the upward direction

( where BS is the magnitude of the peak flux density) and a single coil of wire mounted on the
rotor, the induced force on the first conductor (on the right) is

(13)

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Note that B=𝜇𝐻

I.6. winding insulation, power flow and losses, voltage and speed regulation

1.6.1 Winding insulation in AC machines

Winding insulation is of critical importance. If insulation of a motor or generator breaks down,

the machine shorts out and the repair is expensive and sometimes even impossible.
Most insulation failures are due to overheating. To limit windings temperature, the maximum
power that can be supplied by the machine must be limited in addition to the proper ventilation.
1.6.2 AC machine power flows and losses
The efficiency of an AC machine is defined as

* (14)
Since the difference between the input and output powers of a machine is due to the losses
occurring inside it, the efficiency is

(15)
➢ AC machine power losses
Losses occurring in an AC machine can be divided into four categories:
1. Electrical or Copper losses
These losses are resistive heating losses that occur in the stator (armature) winding and in the
rotor (field) winding of the machine. For a 3-phase machine, the stator copper losses and
synchronous rotor copper losses are:

(16)

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Where IA and IF are currents flowing in each armature phase and in the field winding
respectively. RA and RF are resistances of each armature phase and of the field winding
respectively. These resistances are usually measured at normal operating temperature.
2. Core losses
These losses are the hysteresis losses and eddy current losses.
3. Mechanical losses
There are two types of mechanical losses: friction (friction of the bearings) and windage (friction
between the moving parts of the machine and the air inside the casing). These losses are often
lumped together and called the no-load rotational loss of the machine.
4. Stray (miscellaneous) losses
These are the losses that cannot be classified in any of the previous categories.
They are usually due to inaccuracies in modeling. For many machines, stray losses are assumed
as 1% of full load.
The power-flow diagram
The most convenient technique to account for power losses in a machine is the power-flow
diagram.
• AC generator:
The mechanical power is input, and then all losses but copper are subtracted. The remaining
power Pconv is ideally converted to electricity:
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 =𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑚

=
• AC motor:
Power-flow diagram is simply reversed.

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1.6.3 Voltage regulation
Voltage regulation (VR) is a commonly used figure of merit for generators:

Here Vnl and Vfl are the no-load full-load terminal voltages of the generator. VR is a rough
measure of the generator’s voltage-current characteristic. A small VR (desirable) implies that the
generator’s output voltage is more constant for various loads.
1.6.4 Speed regulation
Speed regulation (SR) is a commonly used figure of merit for motors:

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Here 𝑛𝑛𝑙 and 𝑛𝑓𝑙 are the no-load full-load speeds of the motor. SR is a rough measure of the
motor’s torque-speed characteristic. A positive SR implies that a motor’s speed drops with
increasing load. The magnitude of SR reflects a steepness of the motor’s speed-torque curve.
TUTORIAL No1

EXERCISE 1

The peak flux density of the rotor magnetic field in a simple 2-pole
3-phase generator is 0.2 T; the mechanical speed of rotation is 3600 rpm; the stator diameter is 0
5 m; 0.5 the length of its coil is 0.3 m and each coil consists of 15 turns of wire. The machine is
Y-connected.
a) Determine the flux and the rotor speed of this machine
b) What are the 3-phase voltages of the generator as a function of time?
c) What is the rms phase voltage of the generator?
d) What is the rms terminal voltage of the generator?
EXERCISE 2

The simple loop is rotating in a uniform magnetic field shown in Figure 4-1 has the following
characteristics:
B = 0.5 T to the right, r=0.1m, l=0.5m, 𝜔=103rad/s
(a) Calculate the voltage 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (t) induced in this rotating loop.
(b) Suppose that a 5 Ω resistor is connected as a load across the terminals of the loop. Calculate
the current that would flow through the resistor.
(c) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the induced torque on the loop for the conditions in
(d) Calculate the electric power being generated by the loop for the conditions in (b).
(e) Calculate the mechanical power being consumed by the loop for the conditions in (b). How
does this number compare to the amount of electric power being generated by the loop?
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Note that the amount of mechanical power consumed by the loop is equal to the amount of
electrical power created by the loop. This machine is acting as a generator, converting
mechanical power into electrical power.
Develop a table showing the speed of magnetic field rotation in ac machines of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,
and 14 poles operating at frequencies of 50, 60, and 400 Hz.

EXERCISE 3

A three-phase four-pole winding is installed in 12 slots on a stator. There are 40 turns of wire in
each slot of the windings. All coils in each phase are connected in series, and the three phases are
connected in Δ.
The flux per pole in the machine is 0.060 Wb, and the speed of rotation of the magnetic field is
1800 r/min.
(a) What is the frequency of the voltage produced in this winding?
(b) What are the resulting phase and terminal voltages of this stator?
EXERCISE 4
A three-phase Y-connected 50-Hz two-pole synchronous machine has a stator with 2000 turns of
wire per phase. What rotor flux would be required to produce a terminal (line-to-line) voltage of
6 kV?

EXERCISE 5

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A motor’s shaft is spinning at a speed of 3000 r/min. What is the shaft speed in radians per
second?
EXERCISE 6
A flywheel with a moment of inertia of 2 kg. 𝑚2 is initially at rest. If a torque of 5 Nm
(Counterclockwise) is suddenly applied to the flywheel, what will be the speed of the flywheel
after 5 s?
Express that speed in both radians per second and revolutions per minute.
EXERCISE 7
A force of 5 N is applied to a cylinder, as shown in Figure P1-1. What are the magnitude and
direction of the torque produced on the cylinder? What is the angular acceleration α of the
cylinder?

EXERCISE 8
A motor is supplying 60 N m of torque to its load. If the motor’s shaft is turning at 1800 r/min,
what is the mechanical power supplied to the load in watts? In horsepower?
EXERCISE 9
A linear machine has a magnetic flux density of 0.5 T directed into the page, a resistance of 0.25
Ω, a bar length l = 1.0 m, and a battery voltage of 100 V.
(a) What is the initial force on the bar at starting? What is the initial current flow?
(b) What is the no-load steady-state speed of the bar?
(c) If the bar is loaded with a force of 25 N opposite to the direction of motion, what is the new
steady state speed? What is the efficiency of the machine under these circumstances?

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EXERCISE 10
A linear machine has the following characteristics has the following characteristic:
B= 0.33T into page, R=0.50Ω, L=0.5m and 𝑉𝐵 =120v
(a) If this bar has a load of 10 N attached to it opposite to the direction of motion, what is the
steady-state speed of the bar?
(b) If the bar runs off into a region where the flux density falls to 0.30 T, what happens to the
bar? What is its final steady-state speed?
(c) Suppose B V is now decreased to 80 V with everything else remaining as in part (b). What is
the new steady-state speed of the bar?
(d) From the results for parts (b) and (c), what are two methods of controlling the speed of a
linear machine (or a real dc motor)?

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