CONDUCTION AND RADIATION

I.THERMAL CONDUCTION
4.1 Introduction
Conduction of heat is defined as the flow of heat through an unequally heated body from
places ofhigher temperature to places of lower temperature without the actual motion of the particles.
Conduction of heat takes place in solids, liquids and gases. When one end of a metal rod is
heated, the other end soon becomes warm because heat is conducted through the rod.
When one end of a metal rod is heated, the molecules at the heated end vibrate with higher
amplitude and hence with greater kinetic energy. They transmit the heat energy from one particle to
the next and so on. However, the particles remain in their mean
equilibrium position.
4.2 Coefficient of thermal conductivity
Consider aslab of material of length x
and area of cross section A Fig. 4.1]. The
opposite faces of the slab are maintained at Cold
temperatures , and e, where , >,. Assume
that no heat is lost from the sides of the slab. Hot

The quantity of heat Qconducted from Heat flow

one face to the other is
() directly proportional to the area of
Cross-section A.

(i) directly proportional to the difference

of temperature between the ends
(e, -0,),
(iii) directly proportional tothe time of conduction :on Fig. 4.1
length x
(iv) inversely proportional to the
A(0, - e, )! or
or

constant called the

Here K is a coefficient
represents the
of
thermal conductivity of the slab.
-bz)X rate of
The quantity( ,gradient. Consider aa slab of fall of material of the
called the
temperature temperature
infinitesimal with respect to distance. It i5
d. Then the temperature gradient is de thickness dx, across which thereis a
temperature
difference
dx
74
CONDUCTION AND RADIATION
e
is with distance.
negative, since it represents rate of fall of temperature
Q=- KA(e/dx) 1.
d9
IfA= 1m?,
du =l and t= 1second, then Q=K.
numerically
Definition. The coefficient of thermal conductivity
equal to the quantity of heat conducted per second of a material is defined as
normally across unit area of cross-section of the
material per unit temperature
The unit of Kis Wm gradient.
K.
Thermal diffusivity. Let Cbe the specific heat capacity of the material and pits density. Then
the ratio Klp Cis called the
thermal diffusivity.
wnen oneend ofa metalbar is heated diffusivity determines the rate at which the
of any part of the material temperature
changes before a steady state is reached.
LXample 1. Show that thermal conductivity can be expressed as watts per metre
kevin.
Sol. KA(e, - 6,)! or K = Q.x
A(6, - 0,)
Units of K = Unit of heat xUnit of length
Unit of area x Unit of temperature x Unit of
time
Unit of heat 1
Unit of time Unit of length x Unit of
temperature
Unit of power
Unit of length x Unit of temperature
= W/m/K.
Example 2. The total area of glass window pane is 0.5 m.
conducted/hr through the pane ij thicknesS J gass IS O.6cm, the insideCalculate how much heot ie
temperature is 220
outside temperature is 2° C. Kfor glass is 1.0 W/m/K.
Sol. Here, A = 0.5 m², x = 0.6 cm = 6 x 10-3 m, , - e, = 23 -2 =
21° C,
(Bharathiar, Nov. 94)
t=| hr =3600 s, Q=? K= 1.0 W/m/K.
KA(O, -,)_lx0.5x 21 x3600 =6.3 x 10 J.
6x 10-3
Example 3. Aglass vessel with.an insulating cover
mm thick is filed with ice at O° C
and placed in a second andwitha surface area
vessel of 100cm² and
1.5
100°C. Find the mass of the ice that melts per minute when the maintained at a
flow of heat becomes temperature of
latent heat of ice =3.3 x l0 J7 kg and Kfor glass = 1.0 WImiK steady. Specific
Sol. Quantity of heat conducted per minute is
KA(0, - , ) 1.0 x 10 x 100 x 60 = 4x 10 J
Q= 1.5 x 10-3
in one minute
Let m be the mass of ice melted
(3.36 x 105)
Heat required to melt m kg of ice = m
=4 x 104
m x (3.36 × 10)
m =0.1190 kg.
or
76

Example 4. An ice box is built of wood

temperature of the inner surface of the cork is 0°C1.75andcmthatthick,
THERMAL PHYSIs
lined with cork 3 cm thick
what is the temperature of the of the outer surface of wood is If the
interface? The thermal 120
and 0.00012 cgs units
respectively. conductivities of wood and cork are 0.000
Sol. Suppose the temperature of the
In the steady state, heat interface is after the steady state is reached.
conducted by wood and cork are equal.
K, A(12 - 0) K, A(0
-0)
Here, K, =0.0006, K, =
Note. K, and K, are in cgs 0.00012, x, = 1.75 cm, x, =3 cm.
units. Hence x, and x, are in
cm.
0.0006(12 - 0) 0.00012(0)
1.75
3
e = 10.74°C

halves Example
5. Abar of length 30
AB of copper and BC cm and uniform area
of
end Cat 0°C. The sides of of iron welded together
when the steady state is the bar are thermally at B. The cross-section
endA is
5 cm
consists of two
maintained at
insulated. ofFind the rate offlow ofheat200°C and the
conductivity of iron is 51.3reached.
Wm! K-IThermal conductivity copper is 385 WmK- along the bar
Sol. Suppose the and thermal
temperature at the interface Bis 0 after the steady
state is reached (Fig. 4.2).
200°C Copper
Iron
A
0°c
C
Fig. 4.2
K,A(200 -0) K, A( -o)
385 x (200 0) =51.3(0 0)
0=176.5° C.
After the steady state is reached, the rate of flow of heat is the same in
K, A(e, -0) both the bars.
385 x(5 x 10" )(200-- 176.5)
0.15
=30.16 W

Example 6. The opposite faces of a metal plate of 0.2 cm

temperature of 100°C and the area of the plate is 200 sqcm. Find
the thickness areof at a difference
through the plate in one minute ifK= 80 WmK!. quantity heat that will flow
Sol.
KA(e, - ,)!
cONDUCTION AND RADIATION 77

80 x(200 x10)x 100 x60

=4.8 x10 J.
(0.2 x102)
Example 7.A bar of length0. 3m and uniform cross-section 5 x10+ m² consists oftwo halves,
AB of copper and BC iron, welded together at B. The end A is maintained at 473 K and end C at
273 K, and the sides are thermally insulated. Find the rate of flow of heat along the bar when the
sleady state has ben reached Thermal conductivities of copper andiron are 385 and 60Wm 'K!
reçpectively.
Sol. Let the temperature of junction B of the composite bar AC be T, when the steady state has
been reached.

Rate of heat flow along

A k A(T, -T)
portion AB of copper L
Here, k, -385 Wm K-,A =5 x 10- m², T= 473 Kand L, =0.15 m.
385 x(5x1o*)x(473 -T)
0.15 .()
Rate of heat flow along Agk A(T - T))
portion BC, of iron L
Here, k, = 60 WmK-,A -5 x 10 m', T, = 273 K and L, =0.15 m.
60 x(5x 10)(T - 273)
At 0.15 ..(ii)
During the steady state, the rate of heat-flow is constant all along the bar.
Rate of heat-flow along AB= rate of heat flow along BC.

385 x(Sx10)x(473 - T) 60x(5x 10")(T -273)

0.15 0.15

38S (473 - ) = 60 (T-273) or T= 446 K.

Substituting for T in Eg. (), rate of heat flow along the bar,
385(5 x10)(473 - 446) = 34.65W
0.15

of a Bxample 8. Calculate approximatelythe heat passing per hour throughthe walls and windows
room 5 by. 5 metres, ifthe walls are of bricks of thickness room
30 cm and have
windows ofglass 3 mm
thick and total area 5square metres. The temperature of the is 30°C below
that of the outside
and the conductivities of bricks and of glass are 0.5136 and 1.07 W/m/K
thermal respectively.
Sol. Area ofthe four brick walls ofthe room, inclusivee of the windows =4x5x5 m'= 100 m²

Total area ofthe windows = 5 m².

rea of the brick walls alone = 95 m.
C
difference = , - , =30°
Temperature
Time = 1 hour = s=3600
60 x 60 s.
78
THERINA
() Heat passing intothe room through the brick walls alone is
0.5136 x 95 x 30 x 3600
= 0.1757 x 10°J
X 0.3
(i) Heat passing through the glass windows is
1.07 x S x 30 x 3600
X = |.92 x 10 J
(3x10)
total heat passing through the walls and
windows is
Q-0, t,-0.1757 x10J+1.92 x 108 J
4.3
=2.0957 x 10J.
Steady state
Consider a rod heated at one end,
end (Fig. 4.3). and an element PO of Some distance fr
80
THERMAL PHYSICA
II. THERMAL RADIATION

4.5 Introduction
conduction or convection. It is fousd
Ifa hot body is placed in vacuum, it cannot lose heat by radiations are called thermal radiationg
that this body still loses heat by radiating energy from it. These visible light.
The average wavelength of thermal radiation is greater than
that of
Radiation is theprocess in which heat is transferred from one place toanother directly
reaches earth due to radiation
without the aid of intervening medium. Heat from the sun
without affecting the intervening medium.
emittedper unit timefrom
Totalemissive power. This is the radiant energy of all wavelengths
Jm 's .
unitsurface area ofa radiatingbody It is denoted by E. Unit :
aparticular wavelength is the
Spectralemissive power. The spectral emissive power ofa body at wavelength range
a unit
radiant energy emited per unit time per unit surface area of the body within
It is denoted by E,:
E= E da.
of whatever
Black body. Aperfectly black body is one which absorbs all theheat radiations, wavelengths.
wavelength, incident on it. When such a body is heated, it emits radiations ofallpossible
It is found that inside a black body, the nature of radiation becomes independent of the shape,
size and material of the body and depends only upon the temperature ofthe body. This radiation is calleda
black body radiation. Also the black body completely absorbs heat radiations of all wavelengths. So
perfectly black body is agood absorber as well as a good radiator
Characteristics of black body radiation
Aperfectly black body absorbs radiations of all wavelengths which fall on it. According
to Kirchhoff's law, such abody will emit all wavelengths when heated to a suitable high
temperature. The radiation emitted by a black body is known as black radiation or full radiation
or total radiation.
The wavelengths ofthe radiation emitted depends only on the temperature and is independenl
of the material ofthe body.
Absorptive power. It is the ratio or tne amount oTheat absorbed ina given time by the surfac*
the surface in the same time
to the amount of heat incident on
Emissive power. It is the ratio of the amount of heat radiations emitted by unit area of
second to the amount of heat radiated by a perfectly black body per unit area
a surface in one identical conditions.
in one second under
Kirchhoff's law. The ratio of emissive power and the absorptive power of all bodies isthe
of a perfectly black hod,
same and is equal to the emissive power
4.6 Fery's black body
Fery's black body is shown in Fig. 4.5. It is in the form of
the
double walled conducting sphere. The interspace between and
by conduction
walls is evacuated to prevent loss of heat incs
convection. It has a small hole O and a conical projection p
opposite the hole0. It is lamp-blacked inside and nickel polished
outside.

Fig. 4.5
cONDUCTION AND RADIATION 81

When the radiation is incident on the hole, it passes inside the enclosure. The radiation suffers
multiple reflections inside the enclosure and is completely absorbed. There is hardly any possibility
of the radiation to get out except by direct reflection from the surface opposite to hole. This is eliminated
by the projectionP. Inthis way, any radiation that enters the body does not escape and is absorbed.
Therefore, the body appears as perfectly black. Here the hole behaves very closely like ablack body,
Ifthe enclosure is heated to a definite temperature, it is filled with black radiation having all possible
wavelengths.
4.7 Wien's black body
Wien's black body isshown in Fig.4.6. It consists of a long metallic tube C blackened inside
and surrounded by concentric porcelain tubes P, P. The tube is heated by electric current passing in
the coil(Heating coil)wound around it. The temperature of the central part of the tube is measured by
thermocouple T. Heat radiations emerge out of the hole O. The radiation from the inner chamber can
be limited with the helpof diaphragms shown by dotted lines. The hole acts as a black body radiator.
P

Heat Therm0-COuple
radiation
N
Heating
coils

P.Porcelain tube

Fig. 4.6
4.8 Energy distribution in black body radiation
If the radiation emitted by ablack body at a fixed temperature is analysed by means of a
Suitable spectroscopic arrangement, it is found to spread up into a continuous spectrum. The total
energy is not distributeduniformly over the entire range of the spectrum.
The distribution of energy in black body radiation for different wavelengths and at various
temperatures was determined experimentally by Lummer and Pringsheim. The experimental
arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.7 (a).
The radiation from the black body is rendered into a parallel beam by the concave mirror
MË. It is then allowed to fall on a fluorspar prism to resolve it into a spectrum. The spectrum is

Locus of Amax
4,
M, 2000 K

Flour-spar
Radiation 1750 K
prism E,
from black 1500 K
body Bolometer 1250 K

M
Wavelength à
Fig. 4.7()
Fig. 4.7 (a)
82
THERMAL PHYSICs
The bolometer i
brought to focus by another concave mirror M, on to a linear bolometer.
connected to a galvanometer. The deflections in the galvanometer corresponding to different )
are noted by rotating the prism table. Then curves are plotted for E, versus A. The experiment s
done with the black body at different temperatures.
The curves obtained are shown in Fig. 4.7 (b).
Results. () At any given temperature, E, first increases with A, reaching a maximum value
corresponding to aparticular wavelength and then decreases for longer wavelengths.
(i) The value of E, for any increases as temperature increases.
(i) The wavelength corresponding to the maximum energy shifts to shorter
as the temperature increases. This confims Wien's wavelength side
displacement law, A T= constant.
(iv) Total energy emitted per unit area of the source
per second at a given temperature is
JE aA. It is represented by the total area
) betveen the curve for that temperature and the axis. This
area is found to be proportional to the fourth
law. power of the absolute temperature. This
verifies Stefan's
4.9
Planck's hypothesis
According to the classical theory of radiation,
continuously. The energy changes of radiators take place
in the spectrum ofclassical theory failed to explain the experimentally
a black body. Planck
with experimental results. succeeded in deriving observed
a formula which distribution of energy
as the law of He discarded both the of radiation being a agrees extremely well
are : equipartition of energy. He suggestedidea the quantum theory of continuous stream as well
() A radiation. His assumptions
black-bodyor radiation chamber is filled up not only
harmonic oscillators resonators of molecular dimensions. They with radiation, but also
frequencies. can vibrate with allwith simple
(2) The oscillators or possible
resonators
of frequency vcan only radiate or absorb cannot radiate or absorb
constant called PlanckK's constant. The energy in units or energy
emission of radiation quanta of continuously.
But an oscillator
amplitude of an oscillator correspondsmagnitude
to an increase in the energy and hv. his a universal
to adecrease and absorptio1
4.10 Planck's law of radiation
Statement. The energy density ofr
in the range Ato tdh is radiation in an enclosure at
8 hcà-5 temperature Thaving wavelengths
Ej dh = dh

Here, h= Planck's constant;

C= speed of light;
k= Boltzmann's constant.
T= temperature of the enclosure.
Explanation. Planck proposed the quantumtheory of radiation.
basis of quantum theory. According to quantum
theory, energy is emittedPlanck'
photons. The energy of asingle photon of frequency in thes law isof derived called
onthe

Planck's law curve agrees well with the

vis E h. form quanta
experiment in the entire
planck's formula reduces to Wien's formula for small wavelengths. range of
wavelengths.
 cONDUCTION AND RADIATION
Planck's formula reduces to Rayleigh Jean's formula for longer wavelengths. Plancks
formulais
So,
Rayleigh Jean's law and Wien's law are ofPlanck'slaw. Hence differentlawsof
the correct formula for special Icases to
according
black body radiation. thermal radiation Fig. 4.8 shows energy VS curves

240

200 Rayleigh Jeans curve

160

120 Planck's curve

(coinciding with experiment)
E 80
Wein's
Curve
40

2 4 6 10 12
(in microns)
Fig. 4.8
4.11 Wien's law
() Wien's displacement law in the continuous spectrum
Statement. The wavelength ()ofthe strongly emitted radiation
absolute temperature (T) of that body
of ablack body is iversely proportional to the
T= b.
2.898 x 10- m K.
Here, b is Wien's constant =
is the wavelength at which the emissive power E, is a maximum at the absolute
Explanation. ,m variation of , with Tie
temperature T. This relation implies an inverse

that as the temperature increases, the maximum intensity of radiation

emittedThis
shifts (or getsshows
relation displaced) towards shorter wavelengths. Hence it is called Wien's displacement

law.
by Lummer-Pringsheim experiments
confirmed
lawisis used in measurement of high temperature. The temperature of the sun can be
Thislaw
This
displacement law.
calculated using Wien's Wien also showed that ifE, isthe
Wien's fifth-power
law: maximum value of E,
lO
(ú)
at temperature
T, we have corresponding
Constant x TS
or Em =

= constant.
fifth-power law.
called the
This is distribution
of energy
law in an. enclosure at
( ) Wien's densiy ofradiation temperature
Statement.The
n the range
energy
to t dh is =8 hc-e-hclk? a Thaving wavelengths
 Here, h = Planck's constant; c= speed of light :k= Boltzmann's constant;
{SICS
the enclosure.
T=temperature o
Explanation. Wien's lawmay be written in the form
E, =Gae
Here, E, is the energy emitted by ablack-body at agiven wavelength à and|at a
temperature ‘
C;and C, are called the first and second radiation constants.
Wien's formula agrees with experimental results in the region of shorter wavelengthe
It fails in the longer wavelength region.
Derivation of Wien's law from Planck's law
Planck's radiation law is
8n hch-$
E, dà = dh

When is smallAT
e is large when compared to 1.
he,
Henceo/kT -|=e he/
So Eq. (1)reduces to

E, dà = 8T hcae dn .2)
This is Wien's law.
Thus Planck's law reduces to Wien's law for shorter
wavelengths.
Example 1. In the year 1911 Abbot found that the wavelength of maximum energy in
spectrum was 4753 x 10 m. lf Wien's constant is 0.293 × 10 mK, the solar
temperature.
calculate the effective solar
Sol. Am T= b (Wien's displacement law)
T= 0.293 x 10-2
=6165 K.
m 4753 x 10-10
Example 2. Two stars radiate maxinum energy at
respectively. What is the ratio of their temperatures? wavelengths 3.6 x 10-7 m and 4.8 x 10
Sol. T =m T = constant (Wien's
displacement law).
T 4.8 x 107
T' = 1.333
Am 3.6 x 10-7
4.12 Rayleigh-Jean's law
Statement. The energy
in the range to + dh is density radiation in an enclosure at
of
temperature Thaving wavelenglb
E, dh = 8 kTA-4 dn
Explanation. Rayleigh-Jean's law agrees with the
region. It fails in the shorter wavelength region. experimental results in the longer wavelengt
 RADIATION 85
CONDUCTION AND
Derivation of
Rayleigh-Jean'slaw from Planck's law
is
Planck'sradiation law
8n hcà-5
E, dh = helAkT da
.(1)
1)
he/T hc
When à is large, |+
AkT
Hence Planck's law reduces to
8n he-5 hcà-5
E, dà = dh = 8N -dh
hc hc
l+
kT |2kT
E, dà = 87 kTA-4 da ..2)
This is Rayleigh-Jean's formula.
Thus Planck's formula reduces to Rayleigh Jean's formula for longer wavelengths.
4.13 Derivation ofWien's law
Consider a spherical enclosure Bwith perfectly reflecting walls
and capable of expansion radially outwards (Fig. 4.9).
Let it be filled with black body radiation of energy density u at B
a temperature T.
Let Vbe the volume of the enclosure.
Totalinternal energy U
of radiation is
...(1)
Let us imagine that the walls of enclosure move outward such
that radiation inside it expands adiabatically. Let dV be the change in Fig. 4.9
volume andp, the pressure of radiation on the walls of enclosure.
Work done by the pressure of radiation on the walls of enclosure is
dW=p dV.
From first law of thermodynamics, we have
dQ = dU+ dW
or d(u)+p dV= 0 (:: dQ =0 for adiabatic change)
1 1
d(uV)+u
3
dV =0 (rp=)
or udV +Vdu +udV =0
4
or
3
udV+V du = 0
4 dV du
= 0
3 V
Integrating the above expression, we have
4
log, V+ log, u = 0
3
86 THERMAL PHYSICs
y4/3 u= constant

From Stefan's law, u=o T,

yB (oTd)= constant
yl3 T= constant
Let us calculate the change in wavelength when a radiation wave is reflected by slowly movin.
reflecting wall of the enclosure, due to Doppler's effect.
Let OA be aray of wavelength à incident at an angle
e on the wall in position S, (Fig. 4.10). A particular wave M
crest strikes the wall at Aand is reflected along 4C. Let
AC= . As the reflected wave crest reaches C, the next
crest will reach A in time T. 90° B
Here, T is the period of wave motion. When the
next crest reaches A, the wall has moved a distance AM,
equal to vT. Here, v is the velocityof the expansion of the
wall. Now the crest is reflected from the point B of the new D
position S, ofthe wall. The crest is reflected in the direction
BD. Fig. 4.10
Let AB + BD =,:
The change inwavelength is
dh =, -=(AB + BD)- AC
=(AB + BN + ND) 4C
= AB + BN (: ND= AC)
=A'B + BN ( AB A'B)
=A'N= AA'cos
=2 AM cos
=2 vT cos
- 2cose ...3)
C

Here, c is velocity of radiation.

Every ray inside the spherical enclosure undergoes repeated
reflections. The path of asingle ray is shown in Fig. 4.1 I.
Between two successive reflections, say at Aand B, the wave
travels a distance 2r cos 0.

C
number of reflections per sec. =
2r cos 0

Number of reflections in time dt = cdt

2r cos 0
The change in wavelength in time dt is
dh = change in wavelength in one reflection x number of
reflections in time dt.
2và cos cdt
dh =
2r cos
cONDUCTION AND RADIATION 87
da vdt dr dr
dt
Integrating this expression,
log, A= log, r + log, C
Here, C is a constant.
=rC
4- 2r cos
(/r) =constant Fig. 4.11
...(4)
From Eq. (2), pl/3 T= constant
4
T = Constant

r T= constant
...(5)
From Eqs. (4) and(5), we get
x rT = Constant

AT = constant = T
...(6)
This is called Wien's displacement law. This is the first of the two so-called Wien's
laws.
displacement
Let us now suppose that the waves of wavelengths lying between Aand + da in the spherical
chamber are isolated and are allowed to undergo adiabatic expansion. Its energy will be U, da. Now
Aas well as dà will change.
From the first law of thermodynamics,
d(U, dh) tp dV= 0
1
or d(u, Vda) + , dh dV =0
Vd(u, d) + u, dhdV +u, dA dV = 0
4
Vd(u, da) +;4, dA =0
d(u, da) 4dV
3V

Integrating this expression, we get C(constant).

r= log,
log,. (u, dh) + 4 log, constant
Or u, dh r =
constant
u, drr = (:Acr or dhc dr)
Integrating over r, we get r constant
u, T-=constant
is proportional
Ito energy [See Eq. (5)]
spectral radiancy E,
E, (T)-5 density U,. Therfore
We know that constant =
E T-= .(7)
 THERMAL PHYSIC
88

EX
laws.
This is the second of Wien's displacement a constant, we get E,. 35
and E, ()
Combining the two relations viz., AT= a constant
constant.
function of(27), i.e.,
Wien supposed that E,.2' should be some

Here, A is an absolute constant.

of energy in a black body spectrum.

Eq. (8)is Wien's general lawfor distribution
able to deduce the relation
With certain assumptions, Wien was
f(ar) =Ce T
Here, C is a constant.
..9)

Here, C and C, are constants.

of energy in the spectrum of black body
Eq. (9) represents the Wien's law for distribution
radiation.

4.14 Derivation of Rayleigh-Jean's law

Consider ahollow cubic enclosure of side / with perfectly reflecting walls. Let us place a black
reflected by the walls. According
particle inside the enclosure. The radiations emitted by the particle will be waves. The waves in the
of number of
to electromagnetic theory, the radiation issupposed to consists reflections from the various walls of
enclosure travel in all possible directions. They undergo multiple
stationary waves of all wavelengths.
the enclosure. In course oftime, the enclosure will be filled with the
wave to form stationary
The reason is that reflected wave interferes with the corresponding incident
Wave.
When a wire of length / is fixed at both ends and plucked at its mid point,the stationary waves
stationar)
are formed with nodes at the fixed points. If the wire vibrates in n loops due to formation of
waves, then
..()
-Ior à=(2l/n)
Here, n =1,2, 3.. o. Z

Similar is the case with an enclosure filled with radiation.

Let / be the distance between the walls.
The corresponding allowed frequencies (overtones) are
Ch

2/ ...(2) B
Here, c is velocity of light.
The number of overtones may be referred to as the
several degrees offreedomwith which the system is capable
of vibrating. Moreover, every allowed frequency is called
amode of vibration.
Fig. 4.12
CONDUCTIONAND RADIATION 89
Let the three edges of the cube form the three axes in the
space.
The number of loops, in each direction n,, n, and n,
are given by
2/
n,=
from Eq. (1).
|=n, ..(3)
The waves can be inclined at any
angle to the rectangular axes.
For waves making an angle a, B andy with the three
axes (Fig. 4.12), we have
l cos a= n,
(4)
lcos ß =n, ()
...4)
l cos y n, ()
Here the direction cosines obey the
relation
cos² a +cos² B + cos² y= 1
From Eqs.(3) and (4), we can write ..(5)

..(6)
2
If n, + n,2 + n, = ,then

or

Eg. (6)represents an ellipsoid with n,

of n, n, and n, satisfying the above equation n, and n, directions as coordinate axes. Each set of
corresponds
modes of vibration are the total number of possible to one mode of values
set vibration. The total
of modes ofnumber
in wavelength interval Aand 7 + of (n,, n,, n). The of
da can be found using the above number
equation. vibration
To make the picture clear, let us consider the
plane. For two dimensional plane, Eq. (6) has the formnumber modes of vibration in
of
two dimensional
2

n, y

This equation represents acircle when we plot

n, on X-axis and n, on Y-axis as shown in Fig. 4.13.
Every point of intersection gives amode of vibration.
Since positive values of n, and n, are allowed, we
have to consider intersections in positive quadrant ny
Only. The area of each square is unity. Hence the
number of squares in the positive quadrant is
2 6

Fig. 4.13
So the number of modes of vibration with wavelength lying
obtained bydifferentiating the above equation. between 2 and 2+ dh can be
 sphere
If we now
extend the above dimensional space,the circle will bewavelength
and each
unit square will be a idea to three vibrations/upto
unit cube. Inumber of modes of
Now the total wil
be those in the
octant of the spherical shell of radii(21/). So,
4/
The number of modes of vibration i.e., degree3Aof freedom between and
..T)
t dh is obtained by
differentiating the above expression.
df =
4n/
3
..<8)
Neglecting negative sign as da is positive, we have
4nV
df = -dh ..(9)
Here, V is the volume of enclosure.
The above number should be multiplied by 2 as transverse electromagnetic waves have two
polarisations for each mode.
Thus the total number of modes of vibration is given by
8V
df = dh
..(10)
Number of modes of vibration per unit volume
8n dn
...()
Ravleigh and Jeans assumed that the law of equipartition of energy holds
radiation also. According tothis law, the average energy good in case of
per mode of vibration is kT.
Energy density within wavelength Aand A+ dà is given by
E. dA = Total number of modes of vibration x
average energy per mode
8n da
x kT

E, dh =8n kTA-4 dn
This is Rayleigh-Jean's formula for energy distribution.
Example 1. The cavity of aback. body radiator is in the
modes of vibration per unit volume in the wavelength range shape a cube. Find the number of
of
Sol. Number of modes of vibration per' unit
between 499,5 nm and 500.5 nm.
volume in the
+dh =
8T
wavelength
Aand
range
499.5 + 500.5
Here, -nm = 500 nm = 5x 10-7
2 m

da = (500.5 - 499.5) nm =lnm = 10-9

8x3.14
Number of modes of vibration = x 10-9
=4.022 x10!7
(sx10)
 91
cONDUCTIONAND RADIATION

of Planck's law
16 Derivation quantum theory of radiation
Planck's hypothesis. Planck introduced the
are : but also with simple
Hsassumptions chamber is filled up not only with radiation,
with all possible
L Ablack-body radiation dimensions. They can vibrate
resonators of molecular
armonic oscillators or
oscillator
frequencies.
cannot radiate or absorb energy continuously. But an
2. Theoscillators or resonators in units or quanta of magnítude hv. The
emission of
absorb energy
offrequency vcan only radialc or absorption to an and amplitude of an
increase in the energy
radiation corresponds to a decrease and
Oscillator.
possible values of the energy are given by
Ingeneral for an oscillator of frequency v, the
E= nhv.
constant.
Here, n is any positive integer and h is Planck's
energy
Let Nbe the total number of Planck's resonators and E their total energy. Then, average
per oscillator = E = E/N. Now,
-2x/
N = No t Noe + Noe + ... + o e t..

Here N, number of resonators having 0 energy.

N, e = number of resonators having energy E,
N,e 2ukl = number of resonators having energy 2[,
N,e nk =number of resonators having energy re and so on.
Putting e/kT= x,
N= N, + N,e+N, e t N,e +
N= No
1-e* ...(1)
The total energy of Planck's resonators is
E-0N, t[ N, e + 2E x N,e... + re x N,e n ...

Ee =N, e t 2[ N, e Mt.. +r[ N, e (r+ 1)x +...

-
Subtracting, E(1 - e ) e N,etEN,e + [ N, e 3x +...
ENoe

E=
eN, e
(1 ...(2)
Average energy E Ee
of a resonator N |-e

According to Planck's hypothesis, e hv. Further v = %.

hc hc
and x =
kT
 CONDUCTION AND RADIATION 91
s Derivation of Planck's law
Planck's hypothesis. Planck introduced the quantum theory of radiation
Hisassumptions are :
1Ablack-body radiation chamber is filled up not only with radiation, but also with simple
rmonic oscillators or resonators of molecular dimensions. They can vibrate with all possible
egucncies.
) The oscillators or resonators cannot radiate or absorb energy continuously. But an oscillator
of frequency vcan only radiatc or absorb energy in units or quanta of magnitude hv. The emission of
Tdiation corresponds to a decrease and absorption to an increase in the energy and arnplitude of an
oscillator.
In general for an oscillator of frequency v, the possible values of the energy are given by
¬ = nhv.

Here, n is any positive integer and h is Planck's constant.

Let Nbe the total number of Planck's resonators and E their total energy. Then, average energy
per oscillator = &= E/N. Now,

N= No + Noe + Noe + .. + Noe kT

Here N, =number of resonators having 0 energy.
N,e ckT = number of resonators having energy [,
N,e2ekT = number of resonators having energy 2[,
N, e ekT = number of resonators having energy rE and so on.
Putting [/kT= x,
N= N, t N,e+ N,et N,en +

N=
No
1-e* ...(1)
The total energy of Planck's resonators is
E-0 x N, te x N, e + 2[ x N,e t... +re x N, e n+
Ee = [N, e2r + 2[ N, e x + ... t re No e-(rt 1)x + ..
Subtracting, E(1 -e ) [ N, e + e N,e+e N, e t ...

I- e
e No e
E =
..(2)
(
E Ee
Average energy
of aresonator N |-e

According to Planck's hypothesis, e - hv. Further v =%.

hc hc
and x =
kT AkT
cONDUCTION
A
15
AND RADIATION 91
Derivation of Planck's law
Planck's hypothesis. Planck
His assumptions are:
1. A
introduced the quantum theory of radiation.
black-bodyor radiation chamber is filled up not only with radiation, but also with simple
harmonic oscillators
frequencies. resonators of molecular dimensions. They can vibrate with all possíble
2. The
of oscillators or
frequency can only resonators cannot radiate or absorb energy continuously. But an oscillator
v
radiation radiate or absorb energy in The emission of
oscillator. corresponds to a units or quanta of magnitude hv. amplitude
decrease and absorption to an increase in the energy and of an
In general for an
oscillator of frequency v, the possible values of the energy are given by
E = nhv.
Here, n is any positive
integer and h is Planck's constant.
Let N be the total number of
Planck'sresonators and Etheir total energy. Then, averag
per oscillator = E = E/N. Now,

N = N, + Noe kr + Noe +. .+ N,e kT +..

Here N, = number of resonators having 0
energy.
N,e ekT = number of resonators having energy [,
N,e ekl = number of resonators having energy 2[,
N, e rekT = number of resonators having energy re and so on.
Putting e/kT= x,
N=N, t+ N, e+ N,e 2i+ N, e + ...

N=
No
1-e .(1)
The total energyof Planck's resonators is
E=0 x N, +[ x N,e+2[ x N, e +... + r[ x N,e+ ...

(r+l)x 4
Ee= EN, e + 2[ N, e +... t re N,e
N,e3 +
Subtracting, E(1 -e)=[ N,e t [Nete
...

[Ne
I-e
[N, e
E=
..(2)
E Ee
Average energy e-1
of aresonator
hypothesis, [ =hv. Further v= %.
According to Planck's
hc
hc and X= kT AkT
 AERMAL PHY
hc, r
e A
h/
-) 1648 K

Number of oscillators per unit volume in the

wavelength range and + dh = 8n 24 d. ...(4)
h489
Hence,energy density of radiation between wavelengths
and +à =(average energy of aPlanck's oscillator) x(number h259
of oscillators per unit volume).
hc/ 1095
904 K
E, dà = x 8 dh
12 3 4
in Micons

8rhca-s Fig 4.14

E, dà = hc
dà
Or
e - 1

Eq. (5) represents Planck's radiation law.

Planck's formula agrees well with the experimental curves throughout the whole
wavelengths (Fig. 4.14). range

Planck's formula reduces to Wien's formula for small wavelerngths. When 2 is

large when compared to 1. Hence Eq. (5)reduces to small,

Ej dà = 8rhc1-5 AkT dh
This is Wien's law.
Planck's formula reduces to Rayleigh Jean's formula for
hc/. longer wavelengths. When . is lag
Hence Planck's law reduces to
hcn-$
E, da = 87¬ dà = 8rkTA- d

This is Rayleigh-Jeans
formula.
Example 1. Using Planck's radiation law,
Eo aT*, where a =8r provethat the total energy density givens)
k*/1sh c) E,oal S

Put h%= x.

15
 e lc lees ol

93
cONDUCTION AND RADIATION
E, aT4,
15
This is Stefan's law,
Example 2. Deduce Wien' s displacement lawjfrom Planck sradiationformula.
Sol. Planck's radiation
formulaais E- 8nhc (A-en-1
The value of m is obtained by solving the equation (:)=0
max
- he
+2*(-)e -
0

hc
5=
AkT (ehe/aT - 1)

Putting uT = X, we get%) +e=1

This equation has a single root given by x =4.965. That is,
hc
Amax T = =b.
4.965k
This is Wien's displacement law.
Example 1. Calculate the average energy of an oscillator offrequency 5.6 x102 per second
at T=330 K, treating itas () classical oscillator, (ii) Planck's oscillator.
Sol. The average energy of a classical oscillator is

E =kT = (1.380 x 10)x330 = 4.554x 10"J

is
The average energy of Planck's oscillator
hv
E=

(-1)
(6626 x10*x(5.6 x10)
6.626 x 10- x 5.6 x 102
1.380 'x 102 x 300

10-21J.
= 2.9450x
4.16 Stefan's law
heat radiated by a perfecily
Statement. Thetotal amount of
black-body second per unit
area is directly proportional lto the fourth power of its absolute temperature, i.e.,per
E T or E=o T4.
called Stefan's constant.
Here, o is a constant
experimentally foundto be S.67 x 10- Jm sK-4
value is
ItsIfthe bodyis not perfectly black and its relative
emittance is e, then
Eeo T4,
94 THERMAL PHYSIC%
perfectly
e= 1.
e varies between 0 and 1, depending on the nature of the surface. For a black bod
thermodynamics.
Boltzmann gave atheoretical proof of Stefan'slaw onthe basis of Therefore
this law is also called
Stefan-Boltzmann law.
Explanation. This law implies that the emissive power of a black surface depends o
lemperature alone. If the temperature of ablack body isdoubled, total radiationemitted by the surfac:
becomes 2 = 16 times. The above equation refers to emission only and not to the net loss of heat h
the bodyafter exchange with the
surroundings.
But the law can be extended to represent the net loss of heat by a body. It may be stateda
follows:
ifablack-body at absolute temperature Tis surrounded by another black body at absola
temperature Th the amount of heat lost bythe former per second per uni areais given by
E-o(r
E=
-r)
This form of the law is a law of cooling.
If the body has an emissivity, (i.e., relative emittance) e, then
E=eaT - r)
425 Solar constant
Definition. Solar constant is defined as the amount of solar energy received per second by
rea of aperfectly black surface, held perpendicular to the sun's rays and placed at a mean
tance of the earth rom the sun, in the absence of the atnosphere.
Explanation. The sun is a source of thermal energy. It emits radiant energy continuously in all
Cirections, but only a part of the energy thus radiated is received by the earth. Fromthe amount of
Chergyreceived by the earth, the temperture of the sun can be estimated. For this purpose,
m's-
a constant
The
called solar constant has to be defined. The value of thepyrheliometers.
solar constant Sis 1400 J

instruments used to measure the solar constant are called

 A29 Temperature of the Sun
The surface temperature of the Sun
may be estimated
uming that the Sun radiates energy like a
The temperature so estimated is known as the black body.
temperature of the Sun. Let R be the
black body
Eio 4.27). Then itsS surface area is 4 nradius
of the sun
R. Let T be the
absolute temperature of the sun. Sun
According to Stefan's law, total energy emitted by R
the sun per second =4 n R' xo T4
Here, o is Stefan's constant.
This energy is spread in all directions. Let us
consider a sphere of radius r concentric with the sun. r is
the mean distance of the earth from the sun. Then this
radiated energy willbe spread over thesurface area 4 n. Earth
Let S be value of the solar constant. Fig. 4.27
Total energy received by the surface 4 rper second = 4n rS
4 n R' x o T4= 4 T x S
Sp2
T4
R'o

xSx

Thus temperature of sun can be calculated by determining values of S, r, Rand o.

Example 1. Calculate the temperature ofthe sunfrom the following data :
Solar constant = 1400 Wm?
Radius of the sun =6.96 x 10 m
Distance of thesun from earth = 1.496 x 10 m
Stefan's constant 5.6697 x 10-8 Wm 2 K-4.
Sol. Here, r= 1496 x 10!! m, R= 6.96 x10® m, S= 1400 Wm2
o= 5.667 × 108 Wm2 K-4
The black body temperature of the sun is given by
nomett

peratu

1/4
2
|(1.496x 10'") 1400
T=

manga
(6.96 x10 (5.6697 x10-)
= 5812 K.