D.A.V.

School
(Affiliated to C.B.S.E. New Delhi)
SreeNandeeswarar Campus, Adambakkam, Chennai – 600 088
11 std PHYSICS LAB MODULE

EXPERIMENTS:
E1 Use of Vernier Callipers to (i) measure diameter of a small spherical body
E2 Use of Vernier Callipers to (i) measure volume of the cylinder or beaker.
E3Use of screw gauge to (a) measure thickness of a given sheet / wire
E4Usinga Simple Pendulum plot L – T2 graphs, hence find the effective length of
second's pendulum using appropriate graph
E5To find the force constant and effective mass of a helical spring by plotting T 2 - m
graph using method of oscillation
E6 To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given liquid by measuring the terminal
velocity of a spherical body
E7a To study the relation between frequency and length of a given wire under constant
tension using a sonometer
E7b To study the relation between the length of a given wire and tension for constant
frequency using a sonometer
E8 To determine the velocity of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance
tube

ACTIVITIES
A1 To make a paper scale of given least count: (a) 0.2 cm and (b) 0.5 cm
A2 To determine the mass of a given body using a metre scale by the principle of
moments
A3 To study the variation in the range of a jet of water with the change in the angle of
projection
A4 To observe the change of state and plot a cooling curve for molten wax
A5 To study the effect of detergent on surface tension of water by observing capillary
rise
 Expt. 1
Vernier Callipers - Measure diameter of a small spherical body

Aim: To measure the diameter of a spherical or body.

Apparatus Required : Vernier Calipers, spherical body, etc.

Formula : Diameter = MSR+VSR (cm)

Least count = 1MSD-1VSD

9
= [1- ] mm
10
1
= [ ] mm
10
LC = 0.01 cm
Theory:
Introduction to Vernier Callipers:
Vernier Callipers : This instrument is used to measure accurately up to
0.1mm. It was designed by French mathematician Pierre
Vernier and hence the name Vernier Callipers, after the
name of the inventor.

The main parts of Vernier Callipers are:

a) Main Scale :The main scale ‘M’ is graduated in mm and cm on one side.
b) Vernier Scale :It is sliding scale. The side of Vernier scale lying towards the
mm side of the main scale has 10 equal parts (divisions) and
10 div. of Vernier scale coincides with 9 div. of main scale as
shown in diagram.
c) Jaws: It has two jaws PC and QD. The jaw PClies on the zero end of main scale
and QDis attached to vernier. Jaw PC is fixed while QDmoves with
vernier. The upper jaws are used to measure internal diameter and lower
jaws are used to measure length, external diameter, etc.

d) Strip: It is attached to VS and is used to measure the depthsof hollow objects

(cylinder, beaker, etc.)
Determination of Zero Error.
If the zero of main scale coincides with zero of Vernier Scale when jaws C and D
are brought in contact with each other, then the instrument is free from error
or it is said to have no zero error. But in actual practice, it is never so. Due to
wear and tearof jaws and sometime due to manufacturing defects, the zero
mark of the Vernier scale does not coincide with zero of main scale. It gives
rise to an error called zero error. Zero error can be positive or negative.

i) Positive zero error and its correction.

The zero error is positive when the zero mark of the Vernier scale lies
towards theright side of the zero of the main scale when jaws C and D are
made to touch each other. In such a case measure length will be more than
theactual length and, therefore, the zero error is called positive zero error.
In the given diagram, positive zero error is calculated from the vernier
division coinciding with main scale.
Zero error = 0.00 + 4 × VC
= 0.00 + 4 × 0.01
Zero error = 0.04 cm
To get correct reading 0.04 cm is to be subtracted from the observed value.

ii) Negative zero error and its correction.

The zero error is negative when the zero mark of the Vernier scale lies towards
the left side of the zero of the main scale when the jaws are in contact as
shown in diagram. The length measured by such instruments is less than the
actual length and, therefore, the zero error is called negative zero error.
From diagram
Zero error = 0.00 – (10 −5) × VC
= −5 × 0.01 = −0.05 𝑐𝑚
 Correct reading = Observed reading −(−0.05)
= OR + 0.05cm
PROCEDURE :
a) Determine the Vernier Constant or least count of the callipers as explained
above.
b) Bring the movable jaw in contact with the fixed jaw. If zero of vernier
coincides with zero of main scale, then there is no zero error. If it does not
coincide, then find the zero correction as explained above.
c) With the help of lower jaws, grip the body gently without undue pressure
as in diagram.
d) Note themain scale reading just before the zero of the Vernier scale and
Vernier scale divisioncoinciding with some main scale division.
e) Determine the diameter by adding the product of number of divisions
coinciding and the VC to the main scale reading.
f) Similarly, measure the diameter of the sphere along EF i.e., ⊥ AB.
g) Repeat the observations three times and take the mean.

Tabular column
To measure the diameter of the given body:

LC = 0.01 cm ZC=

s.no MSR VSD CVSD=VSD+ZC VSR=CVSDxLC TR=MSR+VSR

cm cm cm
Precautions:
(i) Motion of vernier scale should be frictionless.
(ii) Undue pressure on the body of vernier calipers should be avoided.

Sources of Error:
(i) Body may not be perfectly spherical or cylindrical.
(ii) Main scale and jaws may not be at a right angle to each other.

Result:
The diameter of the given body using vernier calipers is __________ cm.
 Exp No. 2
Vernier Calipers - Measure the volume of the calorimeter/beaker
Aim: To measure the internal diameter, depth and volume of a beaker/calorimeter
using vernier calipers and hence to find its volume.
Apparatus Required : Vernier calipers, calorimeter or beaker, etc.,

Formula : Diameter = MSR+VSR (cm)

Least count = 1MSD-1VSD
9
= [1- ] mm
10
1
= [ ] mm
10
LC = 0.01 cm
Theory:
Introduction to Vernier Calipers:
Vernier Callipers : This instrument is used to measure accurately up to
0.1mm. It was designed by French mathematician Pierre
Vernier and hence the name Vernier Calipers, after the
name of the inventor.

The main parts of Vernier Calipers are:

a) Main Scale : The main scale ‘M’ is graduated in mm and cm on one side.
b) Vernier Scale : It is sliding scale. The side of Vernier scale lying towards the
mm side of the main scale has 10 equal parts (divisions) and
10 div. of Vernier scale coincides with 9 div. of main scale as
shown in diagram.

c) Jaws: It has two jaws PC and QD. The jaw PC lies on the zero end of main scale
and QD is attached to vernier. Jaw PC is fixed while QD moves with
 vernier. The upper jaws are used to measure internal diameter and lower
jaws are used to measure length, external diameter, etc.

d) Strip: It is attached to VS and is used to measure the depths of hollow objects

(cylinder, beaker, etc.)
Determination of Zero Error.
If the zero of main scale coincides with zero of Vernier Scale when jaws C and D
are brought in contact with each other, then the instrument is free from error
or it is said to have no zero error. But in actual practice, it is never so. Due to
wear and tear of jaws and sometime due to manufacturing defects, the zero
marks of the Vernier scale does not coincide with zero of main scale. It gives
rise to an error called zero error. Zero error can be positive or negative.
i) Positive zero error and its correction.
The zero error is positive when the zero mark of the Vernier scale lies
towards the right side of the zero of the main scale when jaws C and D are
made to touch each other. In such a case measure length will be more than
the actual length and, therefore, the zero error is called positive zero error.
In the given diagram, positive zero error is calculated from the vernier
division coinciding with main scale.
Zero error = 0.00 + 4 × VC
= 0.00 + 4 × 0.01
Zero error = 0.04 cm
To get correct reading 0.04 cm is to be subtracted from the observed value.

ii) Negative zero error and its correction.

The zero error is negative when the zero mark of the Vernier scale lies towards
the left side of the zero of the main scale when the jaws are in contact as
shown in diagram. The length measured by such instruments is less than the
actual length and, therefore, the zero error is called negative zero error.

From diagram
Zero error = 0.00 – (10 −5) × VC
= − 5 × 0.01 = −0.05 𝑐𝑚
Correct reading = Observed reading −(−0.05)
= OR + 0.05 cm
Procedure:
a) For measuring internal diameter, upper jaws are to be used. They are
inserted inside the beaker and made to touch the inner surface without
undue pressure on beaker.
b) For measuring depth of calorimeter, the strip N of Vernier
calipersis used. Put the edge of the main scale of the Vernier calipers
on the peripheral edge of the calorimeter in such a way that strip N is
able to go inside the calorimeter along its length. Now, keep on sliding
the movable jaw until end of strip touches the bottom surface of
beaker. Note the main scale reading and vernier division coinciding.
Repeat the process for three different readings at three different points
on the circumference of beaker.
Tabular column
To measure the depth of the given body:
LC = 0.01 cm ZC=
s.no MSR VSD CVSD=VSD+ZC VSR=CVSDxLC TR=MSR+VSR
cm cm cm

To measure the internal diameter of the given body:

LC = 0.01 cm ZC=
s.no MSR VSD CVSD=VSD+ZC VSR=CVSDxLC TR=MSR+VSR
cm cm cm
Precautions:
(i) Motion of vernier scale should be frictionless.
(ii) Undue pressure on the body of vernier calipers should be avoided.

Sources of Error:
(i) Body may not be perfectly spherical or cylindrical.
(ii) Main scale and jaws may not be at a right angle to each other.

Result:
The diameter of the given body using vernier calipers is __________ cm.
 Expt No. 3
Screw gauge - measure thickness of a given sheet / wire

Aim: To measure the thickness or diameter of the given wire.

Apparatus Required: Screw guage, wire/sheet, etc.
Formula:
Diameter = PSR+HSR [mm]
Least count: Pitch / no. of divisions on the head scale
Pitch = distance moved by the screw/ no. of complete rotations
L C = Pitch / no. of divisions on the head scale
L C = 1mm/100
= 0.01mm

Theory:
A screw gauge is a measuring instrument used for measuring very small distances of the
1
order th part of a mm (say thickness of a needle, a wire, etc.). A screw gauge works
100
on the principle of a screw i.e. a screw moves forward or backwards linearly when its
head is rotated forward or backwards.
Pitch of a screw is defined as the distance moved forward by the screw when its head is
given a complete rotation. A screw gauge consists of the following main parts as shown
in the figure.

(i)Main scale (ii) Circular scale (iii) Studs (iv) U-shaped metallic frame.

The two studs serve as two jaws. There is a reference line on the body of the screw as
shown. A millimetre scale is engraved along the reference line. This Scale is called the
main scale. The circular scale having 50 or 100 divisions is fitted on the screw. The screw
can be moved forward or backward with a ratchet arrangement. When the screw moves
forward and the studs come in contact ratchet becomes free. It indicates that the
contact has been established. It helps to avoid any undue pressure on the object held
between the studs.
To use a screw gauge for measurement, we first find its pitch and least count.

To find pitch:
Rotate the screw so that the zero of the circular scale is in line with the reference line.
Note the reading on the main scale. Give four complete rotations to the head of the
screw and note the final reading on the main scale. Let d be the distance moved on the
main scale i.e., difference of the final and initial readings.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑑
The pitch = =
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 4
The pitch of the screw is usually 1 mm or 0.5 mm.
Note the number of divisions on circular scale. Let it be 100
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 1 𝑚𝑚
Then, least count = = = 0.01 𝑚𝑚
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 100
Zero Error :
When the two studs of a screw gauge are brought in contact with each other, the
zero of the circular scale should coincide with the reference line on main scale. In that
case, there is no zero error. However, when the zero of the circular scale does not
coincide with the reference line, the screw gauge is said to have zero error. A correction
is then applied to the observed thickness or diameter to get the correct value. Zero
error may be +ve or -ve.

Positive Zero Error : The zero error is said to be positive, if on bringing studs in contact,
the zero of the circular scale is below the reference line.
Negative Zero Error: The zero error is said to be negative, if on bringing studs in contact,
the zero of the circular scale is above the reference line on the main scale.
To find the error bring the two studs in contact and note on the reading on the linear as
well in circular scale. Let it be x mm.
Then zero error is ± (𝑥 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛 × 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡)
Zero correction is always negative of zero error
If the linear scale reading is zero and circular scale reading is 5 and zero of CS is above
the reference line, then zero error is given by :
Zero error = −[0 + 5 × 0.01 𝑚𝑚] = −0.05 𝑚𝑚
Zero correction = −[−0.05] = 0.05 𝑚𝑚
Procedure:
(a) Calculate least count and zero error (if any).
(b) Place the object between the jaws and fix it in between them by moving or rotating
the ratchet.
(c) Observe and note the linear and circular scale readings.
(d) Repeat the above procedure several times all along the length of the wire in two
mutually perpendicular directions at each point. This eliminates the error due to the
non-uniformity of the wire.

Tabular column
To measure the diameter of the given body:
LC = 0.01 mm ZC=
s.no MSR VSD CVSD=VSD+ZC VSR=CVSDxLC TR=MSR+VSR
cm cm cm

Precautions:
(i) Always use ratchet R to rotate the screw. Do not put undue pressure on it.
(ii) Use proper sign for zero correction.
(iii) Rotate the screw only along one side during observation. This is to avoid backlash
error.
(iv) Measure the diameter in two perpendicular directions.
(v) Avoid error due to parallax.

Sources of error:
(i) The screw may not be frictionless.
(ii) The sheet / wire may not be of uniform thickness.

Result: Diameter of the given wire is D = ………… mm = …………cm

Expt. No.4 Simple Pendulum - L – T2 graph

Aim: Using a Simple Pendulum plot L – T2 graphs, hence find the effective length of
second's pendulum using appropriate graph

Apparatus Required:

A clamp with stand, A split cork ,A cotton thread (about 2 meters long), A bob, Vernier
caliper, Stop /watch and metre scale.

Formula:

T2 ∝ L
Theory:
A simple pendulum consists of spherical metallic bob suspended from a rigid support.
When taken to one side from the position of rest and left, it executes periodic simple
harmonic vibrations.
Time period of a body executing S.H. vibrations is defined as the time taken by it to
completed by it in one sec. It is denoted by n.
Amplitude: The distance between the mean and the extreme position is called the
amplitude. The time period of the simple pendulum is measured with a stopwatch or
stopclock.
The time period T of simple pendulum of length L is given by
𝐿
T = 2𝜋√
𝑔

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

Procedure:
a) Find the vernier constant and zero error of the vernier calipers.
Determine the diameter of the given pendulum bob in three different
positions and find the mean diameter and then radius of the bob.
b) The one end of the thread to the hook of the bob. Pass other end of
the thread through the two split half pieces of cork firmly in the clamp
stand See that cut of the cork is at right angle to the edge of the table.
c) Place the stand on the table in such a way that the bob is just 1 to 2cm
above the ground.
d) Adjust the length of a thread below the cork pieces so that sum of
 length of thread, length of hook and radius bob comes out to be exactly
equal to 60cm.
f) Displace the pendulum bob from its mean position to the point A gently
on the line parallel to the edge of the table through a small distance is
2cm and release it so that the bob starts vibrating.
Ensure that the vibration is along the straight line AB and the bob does
not spin along with oscillation. Wait for a few seconds.
g) Find the least count of the stopwatch or stopclock. After checking the
stop clock start it when the bob passes through the mean position.
Count twenty vibrations and when after completing 20 vibrations, the
bob passes through the mean position, stop the stopclock. Note the
reading of the stop clock. This gives us the time of 20 vibrations.
Repeat the observation for same length.
h) Increase the length of pendulum by 10cm and again measure the time
for 20 vibrations. In this manner go on increasing the length in steps of
10cm and measure the time for 20 vibrations till the length becomes
100cm.
i) Dividing the time obtained by 20, calculate the time period T of the
pendulum in each case.
j) Find the value of T2 for various observations.
k) Plot a graph between L and T2 by taking L along 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and T2 along
𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Tabular column
s.no. Length of the Time for 20 Time period
pendulum oscillations T T2
(cm) (s) (s) (s2)

Precautions:
i) The amplitude of the vibrations should be kept small.
ii) Vibrations should be in a vertical plane.
Sources of Error:
i) The string may not be inextensible.
ii) Point of suspension may not be rigid.
iii) The amplitude may not be small.

Result:

i) Length of second’s pendulum.

ii) Graph between L and T2 is a straight line.