Accepted Manuscript

Plant-based natural fibre reinforced cement composites: A review

Obinna Onuaguluchi, Nemkumar Banthia

PII: S0958-9465(16)30026-9
DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.02.014
Reference: CECO 2608

To appear in: Cement and Concrete Composites

Received Date: 24 December 2014

Revised Date: 17 July 2015
Accepted Date: 16 February 2016

Please cite this article as: O. Onuaguluchi, N. Banthia, Plant-based natural fibre reinforced
cement composites: A review, Cement and Concrete Composites (2016), doi: 10.1016/
j.cemconcomp.2016.02.014.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Plant-based natural fibre reinforced cement composites: A

review

Obinna Onuaguluchi*, Nemkumar Banthia

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Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science
Lane, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada

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*Corresponding author: luchiobinna@yahoo.com Phone: +1 778 6838478

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Abstract

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The quest for sustainability in construction material usage has made the use of more renewable resources in
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the construction industry a necessity. Plant-based natural fibres are low cost renewable materials which can be

found in abundant supply in many countries. This paper presents a summary of research progress on plant-
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based natural fibre reinforced cement-based composites. Fibre types, fibre characteristics and their effects on

the properties of cement-based materials are reviewed. Factors affecting the fresh and hardened properties of
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cement-based composites reinforced with plant-based natural fibre are discussed. Measures to enhance the

durability properties of cement-based composites containing plant-based natural fibres are appraised.
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Significant part of the paper is then focused on future trends such as the use of plant-based natural fibres as

internal curing agents and durability enhancement materials in cement-based composites. Finally, applications
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and recommendations for future work are presented.

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Keywords: Natural fibres; sustainability; cement composites; strength; durability; nano-reinforcement

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1.0 Introduction

Sustainability was defined by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) as meeting

the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [1].

One major problem facing mankind is the increasing world population and the associated pressure on the built

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environment. Demands for built infrastructure have caused significant waste generation, energy and material

consumption by the construction industry. According to Melchert [2], the building construction industry is not

only a major consumer of energy, raw materials and land; it also contributes immensely to environmental

pollution, especially greenhouse gas emission. To improve sustainability in construction materials usage, the

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construction industry must embrace the reuse of industrial by-products and renewable materials in

construction.

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Presently, because of their proven performance, the use of synthetic fibres in cement composites is becoming

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increasingly popular. Cement research literature is replete with studies showing that the ductility, tensile

strength, toughness, fatigue strength, impact resistance and absorbed energy of cement-based materials could

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be enhanced significantly through the addition of steel and polymer fibres [3-6].
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There are three types of natural fibres available for concrete reinforcement: animal-based, mineral-derived
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and plant-based. Animal fibers, comprising specific proteins, include silk, wool, and hair fibre. Mineral-

derived fibres include asbestos, wollastonite and palygorskite. Finally, plant-based fibres include cotton,
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hemp, jute, flax, ramie, sisal, bagasse, specialty fibres processed from wood and etc.
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Significant enhancement in the properties of cementitious materials is also possible by reinforcing them with

plant-based fibres described above. Opportunely, such fibres are obtained from renewable sources and are
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readily available at relatively low cost compared to man-made fibres. The benefits from large scale utilization

of plant-based natural fibres as raw materials for cement-based composites are immense in terms of
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environmental, energy and resource conservation.

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Several investigations on plant-based natural fibre reinforced cement composites have been undertaken by

researchers in the past three decades. This paper will present the current state-of-the-art knowledge on the use

of short and pulp fibres from plant sources as reinforcement for cement paste and mortar. Emphasis will be on

fibre characterization, fresh and hardened properties of composites. The mechanical and durability

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performance of plant-based natural fibre reinforced cement composites will be discussed. Information on

recent developments, future trends and applications for cement-based materials reinforced with plant-based

natural fibres will also be presented.

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2.0 Types of plant-based natural fibres

2.1 Bast fibre

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Bast fibres are usually extracted from the outer bark of plant stems. Some examples of bast fibres are jute

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(Corchorus olitorius/Corchorus capsularis), flax (Linum usitatissimum), abaca (Musa textilis), and kenaf

(Hibiscus cannabinus). Retting is the process through which these bast fibres are extracted, and is

accomplished through biological or chemical degradation of cut plant stems. Long fibre bundles with high

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tensile strength is the typical characteristics of bast fibres, hence they are traditionally used in making yarn,
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textile, rope, sack, etc.
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2.2 Leaf fibre

Leaf fibres are coarse and hard fibres obtained from leaf tissues by hand scraping after beating/retting process
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or mechanical extraction. Owing to the relatively high strength, leaf fibres are typically used for the
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production of ropes, fabrics, carpets and mats. Some examples of leaf fibres are sisal (Agave sisalana), caroa

(Neoglaziovia variegate), henequen (Agave fourcroydes) and pineapple (Ananas comosus).

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2.3 Seed fibre

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Coir fibre is a typical example of seed fibre, and it is extracted from the coconut husk. These lightweight and
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strong fibres are mainly used in the production of ropes, mats, sacks, brush, geotextile and etc. Another set of

seed fibres are also extracted from the pod or boll of some plant seeds. Examples are cotton, kapok (Ceiba

pentandra), and milkweed floss which are widely used in textile, water safety equipment, insulation,

upholstery and mattress products as a result of their softness and buoyancy.

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2.4 Stalk fibre

These are fibres from plant stalks, and are typically extracted from plants such as sugarcane, corn, eggplant,

sunflower, wood and the straw of various grain crops such as barley, wheat, rice and etc. Pulp from some of

these fibres has been utilized in paper and paperboard products.

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2.5 Grass and other fibre crop residue

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Widely available tall grasses such as ryegrass (Lolium perenne), elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum),

switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) and bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) are important sources of fibres.

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Furthermore, The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimated a 55% increase

in world crop cultivation over the period from 1997/99 to 2030 [7]. Hence, fibrous crop residues such as pulse

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seed coat, peanut shell, hazelnut husk, corn husk, millet stover, and etc. can potentially be used as fibre
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reinforcements in cement-based composites.
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2.6 Wood and specialty fibres

Wood fibres are sourced from a wide variety of trees. Hence, they are in abundant supply across the world.
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Wood fibres are broadly divided into two groups, softwood and hardwood. The major difference between
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these two groups is that while softwood fibres are generally longer than hardwood fibres, the cell wall of

hardwood fibres are thicker and stiffer. On the other hand, specialty cellulose fibres are industrially processed

plant-based natural fibres with unique attributes such as bond enhancement and alkali resistance features.
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Furthermore, quality controlled manufacturing of these type of fibres ensure that the huge variability in

dimensional and mechanical properties associated with unprocessed plant-based fibres is significantly
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reduced.
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3.0 Fibre extraction processes

After the retting process, single fibres from plant-based strand fibres are mostly obtained by manual

mechanical separation or the use of a decorticator. On the other hand, pulping procedure is used to reduce

strand fibres or wood chips to individual fibres. In mechanical pulping, fibre strands or wood chips are ground

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in three different ways; without steaming, with steaming (thermo-mechanical pulping) and chemical/steam

pre-treatment (chemithermo-mechanical pulping). Conversely, in chemical pulping, heat and chemicals (kraft

and sulfite process) are utilized in removing lignin from strands and wood chips thereby individualizing

bundled fibres. Although chemical pulping yields lower quantities of pulp, the produced fibres are longer,

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stronger and brighter. Depending on application, further post-pulping processing of fibres such as bleaching

and mechanical beating are also performed.

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4.0 Hygric, chemical and mechanical structure

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Micrographs of some non-woody fibre bundles [8] are shown in Figure 1. From the longitudinal view of these

fibres, the surface of coir fibre did not only contain significant number of small indentations, it appears to be

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rougher compared to the surfaces of the other fibres. Cross-sections through these fibres also indicate that
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while the cell walls of the abaca fibre were thicker than those of coir and sisal fibres, the lumen diameter of

all the fibres varied from 3 to 15 µm. Hence, given the open lumen of these fibres and the existence of pores
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on the cell walls, plant-based fibres could absorb significant quantity of water. Symington et al. [9] reported

moisture absorption variation of 70% to 164% in several plant-based fibres they investigated. Their findings
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indicated that coir and abaca fibres recorded the lowest and highest moisture content, respectively. The poor
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water absorption of coir fibre was attributed to the existence of air entrapping indentations on its surface as

shown in Figure 1a. In a related study, Ramadevi et al. [10] observed 135% to 200% increase in the moisture

content of untreated abaca fibre immersed in different types of water solution.

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Plant-based natural fibres consist of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, extractives and ash. The concentrations
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of these components depend on factors such as fibre type, growth condition, dimension, age, location on
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plant, extraction and processing method. Table 1 shows the variations in chemical composition of some

selected fibres [11-13]. These natural fibres are also very hydrophilic, and this is traceable to the presence of

hemicelluloses and the hydroxyl group in the cell walls. Alvarez et al. [14] were of the opinion that the high

content of hydroxyl group in cellulose increases moisture absorption properties of plant-based fibres. Hence,

the cumulative effect of open lumen, cell wall pores and the presence of hydroxyl group makes plant-based

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fibres susceptible to moisture sorption induced dimension instability. Faruk et al. [15] suggested that the

moisture content of plant-based fibres has a tremendous effect on their mechanical properties and

performance in composites.

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Previous studies have shown that the chemical composition of plant-based fibres has a great influence on its

mechanical properties. This is because cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are mainly responsible for the bond

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behavior and degradation of natural fibres in composites. According to Li et al. [16], the strength and stiffness

of natural fibres depends on the cellulose content and the orientation of microfibrils in the cell wall. The

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chemical composition and mechanical properties of natural fibre is also influenced by fibre extraction

methods. While chemical or chemithermo-mechanical pulping reduces the amount of lignin and other

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chemical components in fibres, chemically produced pulps are stronger than those produced mechanically.
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Further refinement of pulp fibres by mechanical beaten not only softens fibres, it also increases the surface

area of fibres.
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Mechanical properties of some plant-based fibres are also highlighted in Table 2 [15]. Despite the low
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modulus of elasticity and high variability of the strength values shown, the tensile strengths of these fibres are
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reasonably high. Hence, given the low density and cost of these fibres, they have potential for use as

reinforcement materials in cement composites.

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5.0 Fibre-cement composite properties and performance

5.1 Fresh properties

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5.1.1 Consistency
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Mansur and Aziz [17] observed decrease in the workability of cement paste and mortar as the length and

content of jute fibre increased. Compared to the reference mixture without fibre, Savastano et al. [18]

observed reduced workability of cement composites reinforced with eucalyptus pulp, coir or eucalyptus pulp

combined with sisal fibres. These reported decreases in workability are as a result of moisture absorption by

hydrophilic natural fibres. The key factors which influence the degree of workability loss in natural fibre

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reinforced cement mixtures are fibre aspect ratio and volume fraction in mixtures. The reduced workability of

mixtures could be remedied by fibre pre-treatment to reduce the water absorbing chemical components of

fibres. Natural fibres could also be pre-wetted before inclusion in mixtures. Alternatively, fairly workable

natural fibre reinforced cement mixtures could be produced by considering the water absorption property of

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fibres in mixture design.

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5.1.2 Setting time

Some studies have shown that plant-based natural fibres have a negative effect on the hydration of cement

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composites. Bilba et al. [19] observed delayed setting time and reduced heat of hydration in sugarcane

bagasse fibre reinforced cement composites. They attributed this occurrence to water soluble sugars formed as

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a result of the alkaline hydrolysis of lignin and partial solubilization of hemicellulose contained in these
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fibres. Likewise, Sudin and Swamy [20] suspected that the delayed setting time they recorded in bamboo

flakes reinforced Portland cement matrix was caused by high quantities of sugars in the fibre. The dissolution
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of these soluble sugars produces calcium compounds in the cement matrix. These compounds lower cement

hydration temperature and delay the formation of hydration products. Similar delay in the setting time of
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cement composites containing hemp fibres was also observed by Sedan et al. [21], and this was attributed to
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the presence of pectins contained in these fibres, which acted as a calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) growth

inhibitor. In a more recent study, Fan et al. [22] suggested that the reduced cement hydration in wood–cement

composites they investigated was caused by carbohydrates and hemicelluloses contained in the wood.
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Vaickelionis and Vaickelioniene [23] were of the opinion that delay in hydration depends on the

concentration of soluble sugars in mixtures, and could be mitigated through the addition of pozzolan. The
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negative effect of plant-based natural fibres on cement hydration could also be reduced through the use of pre-
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treated fibres containing low amounts of lignin in cement composites. Furthermore, increased curing

temperature, the addition of chemical accelerators and supplementary materials with high surface area such as

finely ground limestone powder to mixtures could also help in enhancing early age hydration.

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5.1.3 Plastic shrinkage

Plastic shrinkage cracking occurs as a result of restrained volume contraction associated with the evaporation

of water from the exposed surface of fresh cement based mixtures. Several studies have shown that the

incorporation of different types of plant-based fibres can ameliorate the tensile stresses generated in plastic

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cement mixtures. According to Sanjuán and Tolédo Filho [24], low volume sisal and coconut fibres were

effective in controlling cracking in mortars and also seem to delay slightly the initiation of reınforcement

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corrosion in samples. In a related study, Toledo Filho and Sanjuan [25] observed that low volume sisal fibre

was very effective in reducing free plastic shrinkage and crack development in cement mortars. Similarly,

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Toledo Filho et al. [26] investigated the effect of low volume fraction of short sisal and coconut fibres on the

shrinkage of fresh and hardened mortar matrices. Their findings indicated that both fibres reduced free plastic

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shrinkage and delayed initial cracking for restrained plastic shrinkage. This improved plastic shrinkage
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resistance was probably as a result of higher elastic modulus of fibres compared to the cement matrix at early

age and crack abridgement induced by these fibres [25- 26]. Boghossian and Wegner [27] showed that low
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volume fraction of short flax fibres were also effective in reducing restrained plastic shrinkage cracks in

cement mortar. Figures 2 and 3, adapted from [27] show that maximum crack width and crack area reduced as
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flax fibre content of mixtures increased. At a fibre length of 10 mm and volume fraction of 0.3%, about
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99.5% reduction in maximum crack width and 99.9% reduction in total crack area relative to the reference

mixture were recorded. The increased plastic shrinkage resistance of specimens may have been as a result of

enhanced fibre-matrix bond induced by hydrophilic flax fibres [27]. Reduced rate of settlement of particles
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and decreased bleeding induced by fibres could also contribute to the increased plastic shrinkage resistance

observed in these aforementioned studies. Compared to the reference mixture, Soleimani et al. [28] observed
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that the number of cracks and crack width in mortar mixtures containing 0.25- 0.75% estabragh (Asclepias
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procerais) fibre reduced by 67% and 90%, respectively. These reductions in plastic shrinkage were attributed

to crack abridgment by the fibres.

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5.2 Hardened properties of cement composites

5.2.1 Drying shrinkage

In hardened cement-based mixtures, free and restrained drying shrinkage problems do occur regularly. Some

studies have shown that the addition of plant-based natural fibres to cement mortar could not curtail these

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problems. Results from studies by Toledo Filho et al. [26] showed that the drying shrinkage of cement

mortars increased with 2-3% by volume addition of short sisal and coconut fibres. They further reported that

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drying shrinkage was higher in composites containing sisal fibre due to the high water absorption and less

smooth surface of sisal fibre compared to coconut fibre. Silva et al. [29] equally observed high drying

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shrinkage in their study of sisal fibre reinforced cement matrix. They attributed this occurrence to the

increased porosity of samples induced by these fibres. Hence, it seems that the drying shrinkage behavior of

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plant-based natural fibre reinforced cement mortar mixtures depend on fibre characteristics, fibre volume
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fraction and the consequent effect on matrix pore structure.
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5.2.2 Mechanical strength

Generally, the addition of synthetic fibres to cement composites enhances toughness, ductility and impact
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resistance properties [3-6]. Similar results have also been reported for some cement composites containing
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plant-based natural fibres. Excerpts from the impact resistance test results reported by Ramakrishna and

Sundararajan [30] are shown in Figure 4. The results show that the impact resistance of plant-based fibre

reinforced mortar slabs was 3-18 times higher than those of the unreinforced slabs. The impact resistance of
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all the slabs increased as the volume fraction and length of the reinforcing fibres increased. However, the

highest impact resistance was recorded in coir fibre reinforced slabs. The good performance of coir fibre may
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be attributed to its high elongation at break (Table 2) compared to the other fibres. According to Munawar et
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al. [31], coconut fibre is the toughest natural fibre, and their strain capacity is about 4-6 times greater than

those of other natural fibres. The high ductility of coir fibres is very beneficial in reducing the brittleness

associated with cement based composites.

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An overview [32-36] of the 28d mechanical properties of air cured cement composites reinforced with

different pulp fibres are shown in Table 3. From Table 3, the mechanical strength of strand sisal fibre

reinforced cement paste was lower than those of the composites containing sisal pulp fibres. The higher

strength of the sisal pulp reinforced composite is as a result of the reduced stiffness and increased specific

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surface area of the pulp fibres which enhanced fibre-matrix interaction. Further refinement of pulp fibres by

beating, and increased aspect ratio of fibres equally influence fibre-matrix interaction. The high aspect ratio of

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abaca fibres, increased fibre softening and high specific surface area engendered by refinement contributed to

the very high mechanical strength of the abaca fibre reinforced cement composite. Table 3 also shows that

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flexural strength and toughness exhibit different trends. While toughness increased as fibre volume increased

in composites, the optimum fibre content for flexural strength is 8-10%.

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Moisture content has a significant effect on the mechanical strength of plant-based natural fibre reinforced

cement composites. Table 4 shows the percentage change in flexural strength and toughness of composites
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due to water absorption. While water saturation of specimens caused 18-51% reduction in flexural strength,

the toughness of composites increased significantly. According to [37], water absorption destroys the
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hydrogen bonds between fibres or between fibres and matrix. Consequently, the flexural strength of
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composites containing softened fibres with weakened fibre-cement matrix bond became reduced. Moreover,

due to the weakened bond interface, the failure mode of the fibres is predominantly by pull-out. On the other

hand, improvement in toughness is due to increased frictional stress and pull-out force induced by swollen
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fibres [38]. A related study [39] equally showed that moisture content of specimens influence the mechanical

strength and failure mechanism of cement composites. They reported that oven-dried pulp fibre reinforced
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mortar specimen recorded higher flexural strength and lower toughness compared to air or wet cured
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specimens. From the foregoing, it is apparent that for effective performance of composites, moisture

absorption by plant-based natural fibres should be controlled.

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5.2.3 The effect of fibre degradation on the durability properties of cement composites

Durability is a very important consideration in the design of cement-based materials since it has a significant

impact on the long-term resistance of composites to deleterious substances. Studies have shown that plant-

based natural fibre reinforced cement composites are susceptible to deterioration in cement matrices due to

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absorbed water and alkaline pore solution weakening of these fibres. Deterioration of composites is also

expedited by weathering. One major reason for the deterioration of plant-based natural fibre in cement

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composites is the dissolution of lignin and hemicellulose linking individual fibre cells by alkaline pore

solution [40]. Degradation is further exacerbated by alkaline hydrolysis induced de-polymerization of fibres,

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whereby linked glucose molecules are disrupted and molecular chain length shortened [40, 41]. The rate of

degradation depends on the crystallinity and fibrillar morphology of the cellulose contained in these fibres

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[42]. Hence, degradation rate is slower the higher the crystallinity of cellulose.
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Ramakrishna and Sundararajan [11] observed reductions in lignin, hemi-cellulose and cellulose content of
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coir, sisal, jute and hibiscus fibres exposed to water, saturated lime and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solutions.

Further use of these corroded fibres in cement mortar caused a reduction in sample mechanical strengths.
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Tolédo Filho et al. [40] investigated the strength loss of sisal and coconut fibres immersed in alkaline
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solutions, as well as the durability of cement mortars containing these fibres on exposure to weathering

conditions. They observed that the immersed fibres completely lost their flexibility while the mortar

composites suffered significant loss of toughness. Mohr et al [43] reported significant reduction in the
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mechanical strength of kraft pulp fibre reinforced cement paste specimens after exposure to 25 wet/dry cycles.

Studies by Roma Jr et al. [25, 44] on the mechanical properties of cement-based roofing tiles reinforced with
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sisal and eucalyptus fibres, indicated that on exposure to weathering, the toughness of these fibre reinforced
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cement composites decreased substantially. From these aforementioned studies, it is clear that poor resistance

of plant-based natural fibres to alkaline pore solution and weathering limits its successful utilization as

reinforcement in cement-based composites. Hence, various approaches have been explored in order to

mitigate the degradation of these fibres in cement-based materials.

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6.0 Enhancement of the properties of plant-based fibre reinforced cement composites

6.1 Use of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs)

By reducing the soluble alkali content of cement and the depletion of portlandite through pozzzolanic

reaction, partial substitution of cement with SCMs reduces the alkalinity of cement-based mixtures. Studies

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by Tolédo Filho et al. [45] revealed that early carbonation and reduced alkalinity through partial replacement

of cement by undensified silica fume was very effective in preventing the deterioration of plant-based natural

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fibres in cement composites. Mohr et al. [46] reported that binary and ternary blends of slag, metakaolin and

silica fume were effective in reducing the degradation of pulp fibre reinforced cement composites exposed to

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wet-dry cycles. In a another study, Tolédo Filho et al. [47] suggested that the loss of toughness and the long-

term embrittlement of sisal fiber–cement based laminates could be eliminated through the use of calcium

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hydroxide free cement matrix. Similarly, Silva et al. [29] reported that sisal fibre-cement composites modified
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with metakaolin and calcined waste crushed clay brick showed an ultimate bending strength, approximately 4

times higher and toughness 42 times higher than those of the control specimens. John et al. [48] reported that
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despite some lignin decomposition observed in coir fibres, extracted from 12 years old low alkaline ground

granulated blast furnace slag cement composite, these extracted fibres appeared undamaged. Thus, these cited
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studies have shown that the durability of plant-based natural fibre reinforced cement composites could be
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enhanced through the addition of SCMs to mixtures.

6.2 Fibre pre-treatment and its impact on composite properties

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Dimensional instability of plant-based natural fibres which is traceable to the propensity of these fibres to

readily absorb and loss water under varying humidity conditions has a significant influence on fibre-cement
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matrix bond behavior. Consequently, various processes such as silane treatment, acetylation, acrylation, alkali
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treatment, pulping, hornification etc. has been explored by researchers as a means of reducing dimensional

instability of plant-based fibres. Pre-treatment of fibres with alkalis can remove natural and artificial

impurities and break down fibre bundle into smaller fibres, thereby increasing the effective surface area. It

also produces a rough surface topography which can offer higher resistance to the pull-out of the fibre from

the matrix [47]. Bledzki and Gassan [49] reported improvements in the fibre–matrix adhesion of acetylized

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and silane surface treated natural fibres; they attributed this to the reduced moisture absorption property of the

fibres. Li et al. [50] observed improved fibre-cement paste bond and toughness in alkalized coir fibre

reinforced cement mortar. Sedan et al. [21], observed that alkali treatment not only improves the fibre

strength, it also enhances the fibre–matrix adhesion in a positive way. Other modification approaches were

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also explored by researchers. Findings by Tolédo Filho et al. [45] indicated that the immersion of sisal and

coconut fibres in a silica fume slurry before their addition to cement mortar was very effective in reducing the

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embrittlement of the composite.

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Bleaching removes residual lignin and extractives from fibre cell wall thereby improving the

whiteness/brightness of pulp fibres. Although, depolymerization reaction during the bleaching process softens

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fibres, thereby reducing its tensile strength [51-52]; the bleaching process equally has a significant effect on
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the permeability and bond behavior of fibres in cement composites. Coutts [53] was of the opinion that fibre-

cement bond is largely influenced by the hydroxyl group present on the surface of fibres and the
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refining/bleaching induced softness of fibres which promotes intimate interaction with cement paste.

Similarly, improved fibre-cement matrix bond Mohr et al. [54] and increased bonding index of bleached
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fibres Tonoli et al. [52] were ascribed to fibre surface modification induced by the bleaching process. Hence,
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with enhanced fibre-cement paste interface, the peak mechanical strengths of composites are expected to

increase. However, there are some drawbacks associated with the use of bleached fibres in cement

composites. Enhanced fibre-cement paste bond reduces pull-out fibre failure mechanism or transforms it to
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fracture failure mode thereby lowering the ductility of cement composites. Compared to unbleached fibre

reinforced cement composites, reduced fiber pull-out length Mohr et al. [43] and decreased ductility of
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bleached pulp fibre reinforced cement composites Tonoli et al. [52] have been reported. Furthermore,
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bleached fibres are also susceptible to accelerated mineralization due to increased permeation of calcium

hydroxide through the cell wall. Research findings by [43, 52] showed that degradation was slower in

composites containing unbleached fibres. The reduced mineralization of unbleached fibres in these

aforementioned studies was attributed to the protective layer of lignin and other extractives which impeded

the ingress of cement ions.

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Fibre pre-treatment can also be done mechanically by beating. According to [53], mechanical refinement not

only increases the fineness of vegetable fibre, it also softens these fibres. Hence, by making these fibres finer

and less stiff, mechanical refining promotes fibre-cement matrix interaction. Savastano Jr et al. [55]

confirmed that low-temperature thermo-mechanical and chemical-thermo-mechanical pulped fibre reinforced

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cements had good adhesion between the phases. Their results equally showed that the highly porous

interfacial areas usually associated with strand fibre reinforced materials were absent. In a related study,

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Tonoli et al. [56] submitted that moderate refinement and pulp beating of sisal fibre, improved fibre-paste

adhesion and matrix densification thereby enhancing the modulus of rupture, limit of proportionality and

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modulus of elasticity of cement composites.

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Hornification, whereby fibres are alternately dried and re-wetted to irreversibly decrease its water retention
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value has also been shown to enhance fibre-cement bond [57] and fibre durability in cement matrix [58-59].

Recent study by Ferreira et al. [57] showed that compared to 25 mm long untreated fibres, the adhesion stress
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and frictional stress of hornified fibres of the same length, in a cement mortar matrix increased by 40% and

50%, respectively. Claramunt et al. [58] reported that the hornification of kraft pulp and cotton linter fibres
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reduced the water retention capacity thereby improving the dimensional stability of these fibres in cement
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mortar composites. In a related study, Claramunt et al. [59] confirmed that these hornified fibres improved the

mechanical strength and resistance of cement mortar composites to accelerated aging induced by alternate

wetting and drying cycles. Similarly, heat treatment (pyrolysis) of fibres at 200 ˚C has also been reported to
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improve the adhesion of vegetable fibres to cement matrix. According to Arséne et al. [60], oxygen free

pyrolysis dehydrates the chemical components of plant-based fibre, increases its surface roughness thereby
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enhancing fibre-matrix adhesion.

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Table 5 shows that with the exception of acid treatment, alkaline and pyrolysis pre-treatment of fibre could

enhance the flexural strength of composites [21, 60, 61]. However, the level of improvement is influenced by

fibre type and matrix composition. For composites exposed to different accelerated aging conditions, Figure

5a and 5b adapted from [62] shows that compared to untreated agave lecheguilla fibre reinforced composites,

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paraffin fibre pre-treatment reduced the flexural strength loss of samples considerably. Moreover, except for

samples exposed to sulfate environment, the performance of composites were further enhanced due to the

addition of fly ash to the mixtures.

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6.3 Specialized composite processing

Accelerated carbonation curing of cement based materials is generating attention because of its carbon

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dioxide (CO2) sequestration potential and its positive impact on the durability properties of cement

composites. Reports by [63-64] showed that CO2 uptake during accelerated curing enhances early strength

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gain, improves the resistance of cement composites to sulfate attack, water absorption and chloride ion

penetration. Thus, given that accelerated carbonation curing not only reduce the alkalinity of a cement-based

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material, but also improves its durability. Some studies have investigated the effect of accelerated carbonation
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curing on cement composites reinforced with plant-based fibres. Research findings show that decreasing

matrix alkalinity and the precipitation of dense calcium carbonate through accelerated carbonation improves
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the mechanical and durability properties of plant-based fibre reinforced cement composites [65-67]. Carbon

capture from increased cultivation of fibre plants and the use of accelerated carbonation in curing plant-based
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fibre reinforced cement composites presents enormous environmental benefit. Moreover, these
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aforementioned fibre durability improvement techniques could be combined to yield much better

performances.
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The performance of accelerated carbonation cured (ACC) and non-carbonation cured (NCC) eucalyptus pulp

reinforced cement composite is shown in Figure 6. Results show that accelerated carbonation curing increased
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the 28d flexural strength of samples substantially and prevents strength loss under different aging conditions.
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This curing method not only reduced the alkalinity of cement matrices, the precipitation of dense carbonate

products reduced the pore volume of composites [67]. Hence, approximately 110–131% increase in strength

relative to the un-aged NCC samples was observed. Thus, given the ongoing world concern about greenhouse

gas (GHGs) emission, and research efforts at CO2 gas sequestration; accelerated carbonation curing of small-

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sized plant-based natural fibre reinforced cement composites presents an enormous potential that should be

explored.

7.0 Recent developments and future trends

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7.1 Cellulose fabric reinforcement

Reinforcing of cement composites with fibre fabrics is an emerging technique that is promising. With fibre

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fabric reinforcement, fibre content of composites could be increased without the workability and fibre

dispersion difficulties usually experienced in discrete plant-based fibre reinforced composites. While many

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studies have investigated the performance of synthetic fibre fabric reinforced cement composites [68-72],

only few studies have reported the mechanical performance of cellulose fabric reinforced cement composites

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[73-75]. Similarly, Silva et al. [74] reported that the modulus of elasticity and tensile strength of a five-layer
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sisal fabric reinforced cement composite containing 10% by volume of fibres were 34 GPa and 12 MPa,

respectively. Hakamy et al. [75] reported that the addition of a two-layer hemp fabric containing about 2.5
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wt% fibres to plain cement paste increased the flexural strength from 5.18 to 6.87 MPa and the fracture

toughness from 0.356 to 0.656 MPa. m1/2. Presently, the main drawbacks to the use of cellulose fabrics as
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reinforcements for cement composites is the dearth of information on production techniques, failure
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mechanism, the effect of fabric geometry/fibre alignment on mechanical properties. Hence, more studies are

required in order to optimize the performance of cellulose fabric reinforced cement composites.
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7.2 Fiber as an internal curing agent

Internal curing is another emerging technology for the design of high performance cement composites with
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reduced internal cracking potential. Several studies [76-82] have investigated the internal curing mechanism
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of superabsorbent polymers (SAP) and pre-wetted fine light-weight aggregate [LWA] in cement-based

materials. Research findings indicate that SAPs and LWA effectively reduce autogenous cracking in cement

composites. Though, these few studies [83-86], have also shown that saturated cellulose fibres can potentially

serve as internal curing agents in cement paste and mortar. More research on the effect of fibre type, fibre

hornification, fibre content, fibre moisture sorption and desorption mechanism are required. Detailed

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information on mixture design, fibre dispersion and the effect of fibre properties on the fresh and hardened

performance of cement composites internally cured with saturated cellulose fibres is also required.

7.3 Durability enhancement

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To achieve sustainable infrastructures, innovative and cost effective methods of reducing degradation

processes such as curling, corrosion, water and chloride permeability which impair the functionality and

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serviceability of cement composites are required. In comparison to plain unreinforced slab, recent study by

Banthia et al. [87] reported reduced curling and cracking in concrete slabs incorporating 0.3% volume fraction

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of specialty cellulose fibre. Hence, compared to other approaches of reducing the curling of flatworks such as

the use of thicker end sections, the addition synthetic fibres and continuous top reinforcements in slabs, the

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use of low volume fraction of cellulose fibres could be more economical.
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Banthia et al. [88] used cryoporometry (CP) and Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) to investigate the
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effects of 0.1% and 0.3% volume fraction of cellulose fibres on cement paste pore volume and size

distribution. While MIP results in Figure 7 [88] indicated decreasing volume of 60-80 nm sized pores as the
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fibre volume fraction of cement paste increased, CP results showed increased volume of 5-6 nm sized pores
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as the cellulose fibre content of mixtures increased. Thus, by refining and redistributing large pores to very

fine pores, the latter results indicate that cellulose fibres could potentially reduce the ingress of deleterious

substances into cement composites.

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Reduced water permeability of stressed and unstressed concrete specimens as the cellulose fibre content of
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mixtures increased was reported by Banthia and Bhargava [89]. Figure 8 adapted from [89] showed that at a
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0.5fu (ultimate compressive strength) stress on specimens, maximum decrease in water permeability induced

by pore compression and crack suppression was observed in specimens containing 0.5% volume fraction of

fibres; a reduction of approximately 55% in comparison to the plain reference specimens exposed to the same

stress level. Similarly, in a related study on the effect of low volume fraction of cellulose fibres on chloride

diffusion and reinforcement corrosion in concrete, Figure 9 extracted from Sappakittipakorn and Banthia [90]

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indicates that while the total chloride content of specimens increased as fibre content of mixtures became

higher, reverse trend was observed for free chloride content. The reduction of free chlorides in the fibre

reinforced specimens and the delayed corrosion initiation time shown in Figure 9 suggest the existence of a

chloride binding mechanism. These aforementioned studies highlight the potentials of cellulose fibres as a key

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raw material for the enhancement of the long-term performance of cement composites.

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7.4 Cellulose nano-reinforcement

Nano-manufacturing of a vast range of high performance materials and composites is presently generating

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enormous interest across many industries. Cellulose nanofibres (CNFs) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are

high strength and high surface area particles which can be isolated from cellulose fibres by mechanical

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fibrillation and acid hydrolyses, respectively. Although both CNFs and CNCs are nano-sized, their chemical
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composition and dimensions are different. While amorphous cellulose containing CNFs form interlinked

network of fibres, with each fibre measuring between 2 – 5 micrometers in length, the more crystalline and
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shorter CNCs typically measures a few hundred nanometers in length. Many studies have investigated the

possibility of extracting CNF and CNC from various wood and plant sources [91-99]. These studies have
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shown that nanofibres and nanocrystals could be extracted successfully from wood, rice straw, wheat straw,
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bagasse, banana, pineapple leaf, cotton and etc. Although research studies on the use of cellulose nanofibres

as reinforcements in cement composites are limited, the few available studies suggest potential, if nanofibres

could be dispersed homogenously in cement matrices. Claramunt et al. [100] observed that mortar mixtures
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containing nanofibrillated fibre recorded higher flexural strength, higher flexural modulus and reduced

fracture energy compared to mixtures reinforced with conventional sisal fibre. In comparison to sisal
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microfibre reinforced mortar, Ardanuy et al. [101] reported 36% and 71% increase in flexural strength and
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flexural modulus, respectively in mortar mixtures reinforced with sisal nanofibres. They also observed that

the nanofibre composites were brittle, with fracture energy decreasing by about 53%. The higher strength of

the nanocomposites was as a result of increased fibre-matrix bond engendered by the high specific surface

area of the nanofibres. Conversely, the reduced fracture energy of the nanocomposites was ascribed to

ineffective crack abridgement by the nanofibres; and this could be remedied by micro and nanofibre

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hybridization in composites [100-101]. Despite the delayed hydration of mixtures, Onuaguluchi et al. [102]

reported increased cumulative heat of hydration and 106% improvement in flexural strength relative to the

unreinforced reference mixture for cement paste containing 0.1% volume fraction of cellulose nanofibre. Thus

far, research study on CNC reinforced cement composites could not be found in the literature. Future studies

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should investigate the effects of CNF and CNC on cement hydration, pore solution viscosity, mechanical and

durability properties. Moreover, comparative studies on CNF and CNC reinforced composites would help

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ensure that appropriate nanocellulose material is selected for cement-based materials.

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8.0 Applications for plant-based fibre reinforced cement composites

Conventional cement composites aside, there are other potential uses for plant-based natural fibre reinforced

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materials in the construction industry. Soil and embankment stabilization using synthetic fibre geotextiles is
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widespread, and has been reported to be very effective Bergado et al. [103]. However, for situations whereby

the need for ground improvement is short-term and sustainability in construction is a consideration,
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biodegradable fibres and fabrics could be used. For long-term soil stabilization, a combination of chemically

pre-treated plant-based natural fibres and cementation may also be ideal. Sarsby [104] was of the opinion that
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for transient separation of sub-soil and sub-base in road construction, erosion control and embankment
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support, well designed plant-based natural fibres such as coir, sisal and flax may record performance superior

to those of synthetic geotextiles. In a related study, substantial improvement in the ductility of flax fibre

reinforced soil-cement composite was reported by [105]. They further suggested that spray-on pre-coating of
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these fibres may enhance the observed mechanical properties.

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Presently, affordable housing and energy conservation are among the topical issues in building construction.
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Some studies have shown that the incorporation of plant-based natural fibres in building construction

materials is not only feasible, they can also reduce material handling costs and heat transfer in buildings.

According to Aggarwal [106], the mechanical and durability performance of cement bonded bagasse

composites met the requirements of ISO: 8335-1987 and BS: 5669: Part 4: 1989 standards. Hence, they could

be used as internal and external components in building construction. A study by Binici et al. [107] revealed

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that while fibre reinforced mud bricks were lighter than the conventional mud brick, the compressive strength

of these fibre reinforced bricks were higher. In a further study, Binici et al. [108] reported that straw fibre

increase the thermal insulation capacity of mud bricks thereby conserving energy in buildings. Research

findings by Khedari et al. [109] showed that compared to unreinforced samples; coir fibre reinforced soil-

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cement blocks were lighter in weight, with reduced thermal conductivity. Similarly, Goodhew and Griffiths

[110] reported that the thermal conductivities of un-fired clay bricks reinforced with paper, straw or wool

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were below the United Kingdom Building Regulations limit. New applications such as thin cement bonded

cellulose macro fibre and fabric boards could be used as sound and thermal insulation materials in buildings.

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Increased energy efficiency of buildings will reduce energy demands, heating costs and the environmental

impacts associated with energy production.

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In addition to being utilized as internal curing agent and durability enhancer in cement composites, saturated

cellulose pulp fibres could also be used in surface curing of concrete infrastructures. These studies [111-112]
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have shown that lane closures associated with traditional methods of curing shotcrete repairs on bridge soffits

could be avoided through the use of wet-sprayed cellulose pulp fibres. Furthermore, reduced water vapor
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permeability and oxygen diffusion in nano-biocomposites reinforced with well dispersed CNC has been
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reported [113]. Thus, viscous and crystalline CNC could also be utilized in the manufacture of high

performance cement nano-composites with increased tortuosity and significantly reduced permeability to

water and deleterious ions.

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9.0 Concluding remarks

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Research on plant-based natural fibre reinforced cement composites has continued to evolve as a result of the
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increasing demand for sustainability in raw materials usage, as well as the low cost, low density, strength and

local availability of these fibres. However, as highlighted in this review article, in the past moisture absorption

capacity of plant-based fibres which influence the mechanical and durability properties of reinforced cement

composites negatively has remained a factor mitigating their use. There are however scenarios such as hot-

weather concreting where water absorption capacity of plant-based fibers can be seen as a bonus. Inability of

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some of these fibers to resist a high pH cementitious environment also remains a concern and has discouraged

their use.

Further studies are required in order to evaluate the effects of fibre pre-treatment methods and alternative

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curing methods on the long-term performance of composites. Detailed research studies on the effect of plant-

based fibres on crack abridgement, cement matrix pore structure, water and chloride permeability are also

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required. A new approach of utilizing the water retention capacity of plant-based fibres to produce high

performance cement composites through the internal curing technology should also be explored.

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Table captions

Table 1: Chemical composition of plant-based fibres

Table 2: Mechanical properties of fibres [15]

Table 3: 28d mechanical strength of cement composites reinforced with different vegetable fibres

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Table 4: The effect of 48 h water saturation on mechanical strength

Table 5: The effect of fibre pre-treatment on the flexural strength of cement composites

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Table 1. Chemical composition of vegetable fibres

Grouping Fibre Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Extractives Ash Reference
Bast Jute 33.4 22.7 28.0 - - [11]
Hibiscus 28.0 25.0 22.7 - - [11]
Banana 31.48 14.98 15.07 4.46 8.65 [12]
trunk
Banana 60-65 6-8 5-10 - 4.7 [13]

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Stalk Sorghum 27.0 25.0 11.0 - - [13]
Bagasse 32-48 19-24 23-32 1.5-5 [13]
Bagasse 41.7 28 21.8 4 3.5 [12]
Straw Wheat 33-38 26-32 17-19 - 6.8 [13]

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Rice 28-36 23-28 12-14 - 14-20 [13]
Barley 31-45 27-38 14-19 - 2-7 [13]
Leaf Sisal 38.2 26.0 26 - - [11]
Sisal 73.11 13.33 11.0 1.33 0.33 [12]

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Banana 25.65 17.04 24.84 9.84 7.02 [12]
Pineapple 70-82 18.0 5-12 - 0.7- [13]
0.9
Corn stover 38-40 28.0 7-21 - 3.6-7 [13]

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Seed Coir 36-43 0.15-0.25 41-45 - 2.7- [13]
10.2
Coir 33.2 31.1 20.5 - - [11]
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Coir 21.46 12.36 46.48 8.77 1.05 [12]
Coconut 31.05 19.22 29.7 1.74 8.39 [12]
tissue
Wood Eucalyptus 41.57 32.56 25.4 8.2 0.22 [12]
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Table 2. Mechanical properties of selected fibres [15]

Grouping Fibre source Tensile Young Elongation at Density
strength Modulus (GPa) break (%) (g/cm3)
(MPa)
Bast Abaca 400 12 3-10 1.5
Flax 345-1035 27.6 2.7-3.2 1.5
Jute 393-773 26.5 1.5-1.8 1.3
Hemp 690 70 1.6 1.48

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Kenaf 930 53 1.6 -
Ramie 560 24.5 2.5 1.5
Bamboo 140-230 11-17 - 0.6-1.1

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Leaf Sisal 511-635 9.4-22 2-2.5 1.5
Curaua 500-1150 11.8 3.7-4.3 1.4
Pineapple 400-627 1.44 14.5 0.8-1.6

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Seed/fruit Coir 175 4-6 30 1.2
Oil palm 248 3.2 25 0.7-1.55

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Table 3. 28d mechanical strength of cement composites reinforced with different vegetable fibres
Cement Fibre type Fibre Fibre Flexural Flexural Reference
matrix volume aspect strength toughness
ratio
Paste - 0 - 11.8 ± 3.7 0.04 ± 0.01 [32]
Refined 4 53 19.2 ± 1.9 0.64 ± 0.09
softwood kraft 8 23.5 ± 0.8 1.32 ± 0.11
pulp 12 25.0 ± 2.1 1.93 ± 0.42

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Unrefined 4 122 16.5 ± 0.6 0.39 ± 0.06
waste sisal 8 21.5 ± 1.6 0.92 ± 0.13
kraft pulp 12 20.3 ± 1.4 1.41 ± 0.20
Unrefined 4 127 15.5 ± 1.3 0.21 ± 0.03

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Banana kraft 8 19.5 ± 1.4 0.53 ± 0.08
pulp 12 20.1 ± 2.5 1.01 ± 0.15
Unrefined 4 61 15.6 ± 0.8 0.29 ± 0.04

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Eucalyptus 8 21.4 ± 0.9 0.82 ± 0.11
kraft pulp 12 22.2 ± 1.3 1.50 ± 0.18

Sisal strand 4 89 14.4 ± 1.0 0.58 ± 0.17 [33]

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Refined 2 - 10.9 ± 1.5 0.07 ± 0.01 [34]
bamboo kraft 4 12.1 ± 1.3 0.15 ± 0.02
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pulp 6 16.2 ± 1.0 0.23 ± 0.02
8 17.4 ± 0.9 0.32 ± 0.03
10 18.6 ± 1.2 0.45 ± 0.07
12 19.2 ± 1.5 0.54 ± 0.05
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14 21.8 ± 1.7 0.70 ± 0.06

Refined abaca 2 400 17.5 ± 2.0 0.47 ± 0.10 [35]

kraft pulp 4 21.8 ± 2.1 0.93 ± 0.24
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6 26.3 ± 1.6 1.76 ± 0.48

8 27.3 ± 3.2 2.08 ± 0.33
10 24.7 ± 3.9 2.19 ± 0.78
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Mortar Unrefined Sisal 0.5 9.2 ± 0.7 0.25 ± 0.02 [36]

kraft pulp 1 9.9 ± 0.8 0.45 ± 0.03
1.5 11.3 ± 0.8 0.62 ± 0.07
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2 12.7 ± 1.2 0.84 ± 0.08

4 15.9 ± 1.2 1.64 ± 0.17
6 16.7 ± 1.0 2.05 ± 0.29
8 18.3 ± 1.3 2.49 ± 0.47
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10 15.0 ± 1.7 2.47 ± 0.46

12 10.3 ± 1.6 3.07 ± 0.58
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Table 4 The effect of 48 h water saturation on mechanical strength

Cement Fibre type Fibre Flexural Flexural Reference
matrix volume strength toughness
Paste Refined abaca 2 -32.6 +100.0 [35]
4 -29.4 +223.7
6 -40.7 +156.8
8 -45.8 +130.3

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10 -51.0 +87.7

Mortar Flax – 510 CSF 2 -26.4 +26.3 [38]

4 -17.6 +108.8

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6 -22.4 +95.8
8 -22.4 +107.1
10 -26.1 +80.7

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Flax – 555 CSF 2 -22.4 +30
4 -27.7 +62.2
6 -27.6 +101.2
8 -25.2 +84.8
12 -35.1 +44.4

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Flax – 555 CSF 2 -23.5 +11.1
4 -31.0 +5.7
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6 -23.4 +87.3
8 -31.7 +81.3
10 -38.7 +70.3
12 -44.7 +68.3
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Table 5. The effect of fibre pre-treatment on the flexural strength of cement composites
Composite w/c Fibre Fibre Length (mm) Flexural Reference
ratio treatment content strength
(%) (%)
Hemp/cement paste 0.5 None 16 vol. 1-10 +39.0 [21]

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NaOH - - +94.0
AlCl3 - - +49.0

Hemp/lime paste 0.62 None 10 vol. 1-10 +250.0 [61]

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NaOH - - +500.0

Bagasse /cement paste 0.42 None 2 wt 10 +100.0 [60]

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H2SO4 - - -3.2
Ca(OH)2 - - +112.9
Pyrolysis 1-5 wt - +138.7

Banana trunk /cement 0.42 None

U2 wt 10 +3.2 [60]
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H2SO4 - - -25.8
Ca(OH)2 - - -25.8
Pyrolysis 1-5 wt - +22.6
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Figure captions

Figure 1: SEM images of selected non-woody fibre bundles [8]

Figure 2: Maximum crack width of plastic shrinkage specimens [27]

Figure 3: Total crack area of plastic shrinkage specimens [27]

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Figure 4: Impact energy absorbed by mortar slab specimens [30]

Figure 5a: Flexural strength loss of 0.65 w/c ratio agave lecheguilla reinforced mortar exposed to accelerated aging
[62]

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Figure 5b: Flexural strength loss of 0.35 w/c ratio agave lecheguilla reinforced mortar exposed to accelerated aging
[62]
Figure 6: Flexural strength of eucalyptus fibre reinforced cement paste composite exposed to aging conditions [67]

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Figure 7: Pore size distribution in plain and cellulose fibre reinforced cement paste [88]

Figure 8: Relative water permeability of stressed plain and specialty cellulose fibre reinforced concrete [89]

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Figure 9: Apparent and effective chloride diffusion coefficients of plain and specialty cellulose fibre reinforced

concrete [90]
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Figure 10: Corrosion initiation time of plain and specialty cellulose fibre reinforced concrete [90]
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1: SEM images of selected non-woody fibre bundles [8]

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Figure 1a: Longitudinal and cross-sections of coir fibre

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Figure 1b: Longitudinal and cross-sections of sisal fibre

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Figure 1c: Longitudinal and cross-sections of abaca fibre

Figure 2: Maximum crack width of plastic shrinkage specimens [27]

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Figure 2: Maximum crack width of plastic shrinkage specimens [27]

Maximum crack width (mm) 2.5

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1.5

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10 mm 19 mm 38 mm

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Flax fibre length and volume
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Figure 3: Total crack area of plastic shrinkage specimens [27]

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Total crack area (mm2)

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10 mm 19 mm 38 mm
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Figure 4: Impact energy absorbed by mortar slab specimens [30]

Ref Sisal Coir Jute Hibiscus cannabinus

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Final impact energy (Joules)

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100

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20 mm 30 mm 40 mm

Fibre length and content by weight of cement in mixtures

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Figure 5a. Flexural strength loss of 0.65 w/c ratio agave lecheguilla reinforced mortar exposed to accelerated aging
[62]

Untreated Paraffin treated Paraffin treated+FA

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Loss of strength (%)

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Figure 5b. Flexural strength loss of 0.35 w/c ratio agave lecheguilla reinforced mortar exposed to accelerated aging
[62]
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Figure 6. Flexural strength of eucalyptus fibre reinforced cement paste composite exposed to aging conditions [67]

Non-carbonated curing Accelerated carbonated curing

25

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Flexural strength (MPa)

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Figure 7. Pore size distribution in plain and cellulose fibre reinforced cement paste [88]

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Figure 8: Relative water permeability of stressed plain and specialty cellulose fibre reinforced concrete [89]

0% Fibre 0.1% Fibre 0.3% Fibre 0.5% Fibre

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The effect of stress on water permeability

1.4

1.2

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Figure 9: Apparent and effective chloride diffusion coefficients of plain and specialty cellulose fibre reinforced
concrete [90]

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D apparent D effective
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Chloride diffusion coefficient (10-7 cm2 /s)

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1.6

1.4

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Figure 10: Corrosion initiation time of plain and specialty cellulose fibre reinforced concrete [90]

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Time to corrosion onset (weeks)

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