Cells – A 2.

2 SL Cell structure
Guiding Questions

“What are the features common to all cells and the features that differ? ”

“How is microscopy used to investigate cell structure?”

Syllabus Objectives

Students should be aware that deductive reason can be used to generate predictions from theories. Based on
Cells as the basic structural
A2.2.1 cell theory, a newly discovered organism can be predicted to consist of one or more cells.
unit of all living organisms

Students should have experience of making temporary mounts of cells and tissues, staining, measuring sizes
Microscopy skills & using an eyepiece graticule, focusing with coarse & fine adjustments, calculating actual size & magnification,
A2.2.2
calculating magnification producing a scale bar & taking photographs.
Developments in Include the advantages of electron microscopy, freeze fracture, cryogenic electron microscopy, and the use of
A2.2.3
microscopy fluorescent stains & immunofluorescence in light microscopy.

Structures common to cells Typical cells have DNA as genetic material and a cytoplasm composed mainly of water, which is enclosed by a
A2.2.4 plasma membrane composed of lipids. Students should understand the reasons for these structures.
in all living organisms
Include these cell components: cell wall, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, naked DNA in a loop and 70S
ribosomes. The type of prokaryotic cell structure required is that of Gram-positive eubacteria such as Bacillus
A2.2.5 Prokaryote cell structures and Staphylococcus. Students should appreciate that prokaryote cell structure varies. However, students are not
required to know details of the variations such as the lack of cell walls in phytoplasmas and mycoplasmas.
Students should be familiar with features common to eukaryote cells: a plasma membrane enclosing a
compartmentalized cytoplasm with 80S ribosomes; a nucleus with chromosomes made of DNA bound to
A2.2.6 Eukaryote cell structures histones, contained in a double membrane with pores; membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles including
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and a variety of vesicles or vacuoles including lysosomes;
and a cytoskeleton of microtubules and microfilaments.

Processes of life in Include these functions: homeostasis, metabolism, nutrition, movement, excretion, growth, response to stimuli
A2.2.7 and reproduction.
unicellular organisms
Differences in eukaryotic Include presence and composition of cell walls, differences in size & function of vacuoles, presence of
A2.2.8 cell structure between chloroplasts and other plastids, and presence of centrioles, cilia and flagella.
animals, fungi and plants
Atypical cell structure in Use numbers of nuclei to illustrate one type of atypical cell structure in aseptate fungal hyphae, skeletal muscle,
A2.2.9
eukaryotes red blood cells and phloem sieve tube elements
Students should be able to identify cells in light or electron micrographs as prokaryote, plant or animal. In
Cell types and cell
electron micrographs, students should be able to identify these structures: nucleoid region, prokaryotic cell wall,
A2.2.10 structures viewed in light nucleus, mitochondrion, chloroplast, sap vacuole, Golgi apparatus, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
and electron micrographs
chromosomes, ribosomes, cell wall, plasma membrane and microvilli.
Students should be able to draw and annotate diagrams of organelles (nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, sap
Drawing and annotation
vacuole, Golgi apparatus, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum and chromosomes) as well as other cell
A2.2.11 based on electron
structures (cell wall, plasma membrane, secretory vesicles and microvilli) shown in electron micrographs.
micrographs
Students are required to include the functions in their annotations.

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Cells as the basic structural unit of all living organisms

What do all these images have in common? they're cells!

Are they all biological cells? Discuss with a partner: nope, even if one of them does contain a living organism

In biological sciences a cell is the basic structural unit of all

living organisms. The first definition of a cell was developed
when Robert Hooke and other biologists from the 17th century
used microscopes to look at structures of living organisms. They
concluded that all organism are made of cells.

Cell theory:
Scientists have agreed on some key principles for cells to be biologically defined as cells. These principles can be
summarized as the cell theory and are based on 3 main pillars. Can you elaborate on each of them?

1. All living things are made of cells:

organisms made of many many cells are referred as

multicellular

organisms made of one cell -> unicellular (single celled)

cells are the smallest units of life -> organelles carry out

various metbzbolic functions in the cell components cannot

survive alone

2. Cells are the smallest units of life:

smallest thing capable to do all MRS GREN.

3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells:

cells rise from other cells that divide by different processes. - all cells descended from simpler common ancestors

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 water containing all those enzymes
Structures common to cells in all living organisms: etc...

-------- DNA
In addition to these basic principles of life, there are some
structures which are common to cells in all living
organisms. They all have a cell membrane, genetic
material and cytoplasm.
ribosomes
(needed to produce proteins)

Can you explain what their significance is?

Cell (Plasma) membrane Significance and function

it controls what will go in and out

the phosopholypid bilayer thingy thingy contains lipids and is
hence hyrdophobic

Genetic material Significance and function

cells will divide, genetic material will give info to all metaboli=
=sm and to cell division.

genetic material will control everything.

Cytoplasm Significance and function

(an aqueous solution where chem and bio reactions to take

place)

water is dipolar -> medium of life.

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Microscopy skills & calculating magnification

In order to visualize cells it is best to use a microscope with a decent enough magnification. In schools, typically
a light microscope is good enough to view plant and animal cells accurately enough.
arm (to carry it)
Label the parts of the microscope:

ocular lesnses

revolver

objective lenses stage clip

(big black part clips)

stage (big black part)

coarse focus knob

fine F.K
light source

stage manip.

the base
light switch
Magnification:

When using microscopes to measure cells sizes, there are two different magnifications to consider.

1. Magnification of the
microscope, which is the
magnification of the image
when viewed down a
microscope.

2. Magnification of drawing/image, which is the one deduced

from directly measuring a specimen using an eyepiece
graticule.

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 1. Determining the size of a cell using an eyepiece graticule:

Cells and organelles can be measured with a microscope by means of an

eyepiece graticule. This is a transparent scale. It usually has 100 divisions.
The eyepiece graticule is placed in the microscope eyepiece
so that it can be seen at the same time as the object to be measured

Eyepiece graticule scale in Eyepiece graticule scale over a human We will not know the actual size of the
birds eye perspective when cheek epithelial cell. The cell lies between eyepiece units until the eyepiece graticule scale
looking through the 40 and 60 on the scale. We therefore say it is calibrated. To calibrate the eyepiece graticule
microscope. measures 20 eyepiece units in diameter scale, a miniature transparent ruler called a
(the difference between 60 and 40). stage micrometer scale is placed on the
microscope stage and is brought into focus.

Worked example:

On the image below, label the major and minor divisions

of the stage micrometer, knowing that one major division
on the stage micrometer represents 0.1mm (= 100 μm)
and one minor/small division 0.01mm (= 10 μm).
Stage micrometer with the smallest increment being 0.01mm and 0.1 mm, respectively.

This image shows

the alignment of
the eyepiece
graticule with the
stage micrometer. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 +/-69

_________
1 mm 1000microm. 32 units >>>> 1 unit = 31.25nanom.
> aka 26 micrometers for S. V. A. magnification x4 (x40) range: 3125microm.
> aka 32 micrometers for G. R.
1000microm. 26 units >>>> 1unit = 38.46microm.
magnification x4 (x40) range: 3848microm.
In 1mm we have 1000micrometers
a. What is the total scale length of the eyepiece graticule shown above_________
690 μm

b. What is the length of one minor/small division of the eyepiece graticule therefore: _______
6.9 μm

Make sure to convert

your measurements into
appropriate units!

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Activity:
1. Collect a microscope and place the stage micrometer on the stage of your microscope.
2. Start with the lowest power of magnification (4x objective lens) and search for the stage micrometer
ruler with a scale of 1DIV = 0.01mm.
3. Once you have both little rulers in focus, change the power of magnification first to 10x, then to 40x.
Each time, make sure you can focus in on both rulers.
4. Calibrate the eyepiece graticule by following these steps:
a. Align the stage micrometer with the eyepiece graticule.
b. Measure the total length of the eyepiece scale as in the worked example above.

What is the total scale length of the eyepiece graticule at your magnification_________ μm

What is the length of one minor division of the eyepiece graticule therefore: _______ μm

5. Remove the stage micrometer you used in the previous exercise from the stage of the microscope.
6. Peel a single layer of onion cells from the of an onion, mount it on a glass slide, add a drop of water and
cover it with a cover slip. Dab off any excess water with a tissue.
7. Place the microscope slide on the stage of your microscope and start focusing in using the smallest
power of magnification (4x). Increase the power of magnification to 40x and focus on a few cells.
8. Accurately draw one onion cell on a piece of paper (or in the space provided on the next page). Write
down the cell size of your onion cell you measure using the eyepiece graticule. Repeat the same
procedure with a plant cell (or another suitable sample).

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 2. Calculating magnification of a cell drawing:
Combining our knowledge of how to deduce the actual size of a specimen we viewed under the microscope
with our drawing skills of a biological sample, we can now work out at which magnification we have actually
drawn the image:

1. Using the image, you have just produced, draw a straight line below the cell to measure the total length
in cm or mm, just like shown in the example below.

2. Convert your measurement into µm (1mm = 1000µm).

3. Use the formula below and the actual (real) size of your specimen from previous measurement with the
eyepiece graticule and calculate the magnification of the drawing. Image size = size of the
bar as measured by a ruler
!"#$% '()% ("%#'+,%-)
Magnification = Actual size = actual size of
/01+#2 '()% the specimen

4. Write down the magnification of your image.

Practice examples :

1. If a red blood cell has a diameter of 8 µm and a student shows it with a diameter of 40 mm in a drawing,
what is the magnification of the drawing?

A. × 0.0002
B. × 0.2
C. ×5
D. × 5000 (Total 1 mark)

2. A student observes and draws an Amoeba, using the high power lens of a microscope. The diameter of the
drawing is 100 mm. The actual diameter of the Amoeba is 100 µm. What is the magnification of the drawing?

A. 0.001
B. 100
C. 400
D. 1000 (Total 1 mark)

3. A sperm cell has a tail 50µm long. A student draws it 75mm long. What is the magnification?

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 3. Calculating magnification using scale bars

View the image on the right. Think about how we can

tell the actual size of the organism (the weevil). How
can we work out the magnification of the image?

In biological images it is common to use a scale bar. A

scale bar is like a little ruler that provides a visual
indication of the specimen size. It can be used to
calculate magnification of an image or the actual size of
a structure.

Calculate the magnification of the image and explain how you went on about to do this: :

Practice examples:

How can these scale bars be used to calculate the magnification of the images?

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 4. Calculating the actual size of a specimen using the scale bar:

Scale bars can not only be used to calculate the magnification of the image, but also the actual size of the
organism seen in the image. What is the actual size of the weevil?

Calculate the actual size of the cell if you know the magnification of the image:
1. Measure the length of the specimen
2. Re-arrange the formula:

3. Divide the measured length (in the most appropriate units) by the magnification.

Worked example:
1. Measure the length of the weevil in the picture.
2. Write down the magnification of the image you have calculated before: ___________________
2. Re-arrange the equation from above or use the triangle to work out the actual size of the weevil:

You could also calculate the actual size by factoring the scale bar length against the length of the weevil. Can
you show how to do that?

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Practice examples:

1. A student views an image of a cell magnified 350 times. The image is 250mm long. What is the actual
length of the sample in the image?

2. The image below shows a student’s drawing of a plant cell. Based on their measurements with the
eyepiece graticule the student calculated the magnification of the drawing. Unfortunately they lost the
calclulations showing measured and actual sizes. Work out the real size of the plant cell.

1. Calculate the actual sizes of a) one mitochondrion and b) the biggest skin cell using the scale bars:

2. Calculate the sizes of the two diatoms:

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Development in microscopy:

Many of the most interesting biological events and structures are smaller than the unaided human eye can see.
In fact, human eyes have a resolution of about 100 µm. On the chart below, notice that of all the structures
listed, only the plant cell is within our resolution--just barely.

Light microscopes only magnify images up to ca. 1000 times. This is due to the wavelengths of light which
only allow to distinguish between two points to a certain limit. Why are electron microscopes better used to
view very small specimen or samples?
because they can magnify up to a million times thanks to the beams of electrons with shorter wavelengths, instead

of light

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Resolution:
10 micrometers = 10000 nm

light microscopes
only work in
the visible light
spectrum.

Resolution is the ability to distinguish between two objects very

close together. The higher the resolution of an image, the
greater the detail that can be seen.

What limits the resolution? it is limited by thee wavelength of

the radiation (the type of light or energy source) used to view the

sample.

Objects much smaller than the wavelength of the radiation being used do not interrupt the waves, and so are
not detected. A microscope with a more powerful magnification will not increase the resolution any further. It
will increase the size of the image, but objects closer than about 200nm will still only be seen as one point.

Read through the information on the different types of microscopes below and complete the table:

Electron microscopes
Light (optical microscopes)
Transmission (TEM) Scanning (SEM)
it's more accessibile -> cheaper magnifies up to 1 million times
Advantages

easy for manipulation / use 3D

we can observe living organisms (we do not need high resolution

to kill them)

magnification will go roughly up to 5000 times cost -> less accessibility

Disadvantages

low resolution manipulation safety

dead tissue

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1. The light microscope
The light microscope doesn’t have
a very high resolution and only
allows cells or bigger structures to
be visualized. This limit is due to
the wavelength of light (400-
700nm). In other words, optical
microscopes cannot resolve 2
points closer together than the
wavelength of light used, so cells
which are smaller than. Cells
observed under a light microscope
can be alive and show their natural
composition, colors, movement,
and appearance. Magnification is
ca. 1000 – 5000x.

2. Electron microscope: The transmission electron microscope (TEM)

The Transmission Electron
Microscope (TEM) has a much
higher resolution, which allows
higher magnification than using
light microscopes to visualize tiny
structures (up to 2nm). However,
images produced would only be
black or white, therefore sample
material is usually stained using
heavy metal ions. This, together
with the vacuum inside the
microscope and the electron
beams usually kills the specimen.
In TEM electrons are scattered as
they pass through a thin section of
the specimen, and then detected
and projected onto an image on a
fluorescent screen. The TEM
magnifies objects up to 1 000 000x.

3. Electron microscope: The scanning electron microscope

Like the TEM, the Scanning
Electron Microscope (SEM) has a
limit of resolution of about 2nm,
which allows very small structures
to be visualized. With this
technique, electrons are reflected
off the surface of the specimen.
The objects also must be stained
and fixed using harsh chemicals, as
otherwise the images produced are
only black and white. Sample
material is therefore dead or cells
get killed in the process. In contrast
to the TEM, it produces images
with a 3-dimensional appearance,
which often are processed in
imaging software. The SEM
magnifies objects up to 1 000 000x.

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Development in microscopy – Staining of samples:

Even though electron microscopy allows for a high resolution, detail, and higher magnifications, it comes with
the disadvantage of only producing black and white images. Techniques in staining and improved visualization
technology have helped to produce even more advanced images.

The table below gives you an overview over different staining procedures:
Staining with methylenblue
Molecules in cells are colorless when
fewed under the electon microscope, so
stains such as methylene blue to bind
DNA or RNA can be used to visualize the
nucleus ot cytoplasm.

Fluorescent staining
Fluorescent microscopy uses a much
higher intensity light to illuminate the
sample, which then excites flourescently
stained specimen. This emits light at a
longer wavelength.

Immunofluorescent staining
Immunofluorescence uses cells of the
immune system (antibodies) which are
equipped with a flourescent marker.
Upon binding to a target a fluorescent
image can be produced.

Cryogenic microscopy
This preparation technique in
microscopy is used for researching the
structure of proteins. The frozen protein
solution of interest is placed in an
electron microscope and patterns of
many differently orientated proteins are
produced. Using computer algorithms, a
3D image can be created.

Cryo-EM analyses proteins at the instant

moment in time when they freeze. This
allows scientists to research the change
from one form to another as they carry
out their function.

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 Freeze-fracture of cells
Freeze-fracture electron microscopy is
used to produce images of surfaces
within cells. Rapid freezing of cells in
liquified propane (-190°C) and
subsequent fracturing allows the cell to
be broken along lines of weakness,
including the centre of membranes. Any
structures which appeared globular are
transmembrane proteins.

The cell fractures at the weakest point of

the cell membrane (the hydrophobic
interior of the phospholipid bilayer)
splitting it in two layers. Proteins
embedded with the membrane remain
with one of the two layers. This
procedure helps to visualize cell
structures three-dimensionally and to
give insight into the surface of cells..

Which cell structures are stained when using a dye such as methylenblue?
stains such as methylene blue to bind DNA or RNA can be used to visualize the nucleus ot cytoplasm.

Why does fluorescent staining allow for better visualization?

because molecules viewed under the electron microscope are colorless, so thanks to the blue color die we can

visualize them.

Cryogenic microscopy is a new technique which has given insight into the way structures are visualized. Can
you describe how cryogenic microscopy is different from common staining techniques, and what the
advantages of this method are?
cryogenics microscopy freezes a proteins and utilizes advanced comuter algorithms to artificially form a 3D structure

of the protein, at the moment where it is frozen. this allows a scientist to cliearly see the changefrom one form of to

another as they carry out their function, since they are practically frozen in time

Freeze-fracture of cells and subsequent viewing under the microscope has provided information about the
surfaces and plasma membranes of cells – which was important for the understanding of transport
mechanisms in and out of the cell.

Explain how and why cell membranes can easily split apart:
we are using an instant freezing agent, so the weak attractions are breaking down; so inside of the cell, they will

orientate themselves naturally because the hydrophobic tails will split (because the bonds are broken)

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 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells:
At one time it was common practice to try to classify all living organisms as either animals or plants. With
advances in our knowledge of living things, it has become obvious that the living world is not that simple. Fungi
and bacteria, for example, are very different from animals and plants, and from each other. Eventually it was
discovered that there are two fundamentally different types of cell.

simpler structures

electron microscope
(prokariotes are much
smaller than eukariotes)

Prokaryote cell structures

Prokaryotic organisms include a wide variety of disease causing, as well as harmless bacteria, amongst which
can find staphylococcus aureaus (causes respiratory diseases, food poisoning or skin infections), streptococcus
(strep throat. They structure is simple, and they lack compartmentalization.

Draw a diagram of the bacillus bacteria and outline cell structures such as plasma membrane, cell wall,
nucleoid, cytoplasm and 70S ribosomes.
70S are small ribosomes. (look up)

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The table below summarizes the structures and functions of a prokaryotic cell:

Structure Features Function

• Semi-rigid structure • Maintains the shape (different shapes: coccus,
• Made from peptidoglycan (repeating bacillus, spirillum) of the cell
Cell Wall
disaccharides attached by polypeptides) • Protects the cell
• Prevents the cell from bursting
• Thin, partially permeable layer of • Controls the entry and exit of substances
Cell membrane
phospholipids bilayer • Pumps substances in and out by active transport
• Fluid (largely water) filled space inside the • Carries out chemical reactions of metabolism
plasma membrane using enzymes and biochemical molecules.
Cytoplasm • Contains many enzymes and ribosomes
• Does not contain any membrane bound
organelles
• 70S (smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes) • Synthesize (make or manufacture) proteins
Ribosomes
• granular appearance in the EM electron micrograph
through transcription & translation
• Central region of the cytoplasm containing • The nucleoid is essential for controlling the
naked (not wrapped around a protein), activity of the cell and reproduction. It is where
Nucleoid single chromosomal DNA they have one transcription and replication of DNA take place
single chromosome
• DNA in prokaryotes is circular
• Not surrounded by a membrane

cell wall
Practice Question:

This image shows an electron cell membrane

nucleoid

micrograph of the gram-positive

bacterium Clostridium botulinum. This
bacterium produces a neurotoxin that
is the most poisonous protein so far cytoplasm
and
discovered. This neurotoxin is used in 70S
cosmetic treatments under the brand ribosomes

name Botox®.

1. Identify the structures I, II, III and IV

2. What causes the cytoplasm of Clostridium to appear so dark in the electron micrograph?
the presence of ribosomes

3. This image is a longitudinal section: You can see a thin slice of the bacterium going from end to end.
What shape would you see in a transverse section (going from side to side)? circular shape

4. There is a scale bar on the micrograph. Use this to calculate the magnification of the micrograph.
22mm measured

5. Use the magnification to calculate the actual length.

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Eukaryote cell structure:
Eukaryotic cells are very diverse in sizes and shapes. They are more complex and typically bigger in size (15 – 100µm). Their interior is
compartmentalized, and they have many membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, nucleus, Golgi apparatus and
Endoplasmic Reticulum. They also have larger ribosomes (80S) than prokaryotes. Eukaryotes can be grouped into 4 categories – 3 of
which we will look at in more detail: Plants, animals and fungus

Draw and label the structures of the three main types of eukaryotic cells:

Animal cell: Plant cell: Fungal cell:

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Eukaryotes: comparing animal, plant and fungal cells:

Based on the cell structures drawn

before and from the information your
teacher gave you, summarize the
differences between animal, plant, and
fungal cells:

Plant cells Animal cells Fungal cells

Plastids: A family of organelles with two
outer membranes and internal sacs such
as chloroplasts or amyloplasts.
Cell wall: A rigid layer outside the
plasma membrane to strengthen and
protect the cell
Vacuole & Vesicles: Flexible, fluid filled
compartment surrounded by a single cell
membrane
Centrioles: cylindrical organelles
composed of microtubules that organise
the cell during cell division
Attachments: Cilia and flagella used to
generate movement of a cell or
movement of fluid adjacent to cell

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Summary of all the important structures and functions of eukaryotic cells:

Match the cards your teacher gave you and describe the functions for each cell structure:
Organelle Structure Function
Nucleus & Nucleolus
• Contains a double membrane
• Pores (holes) in the membrane
• Holds the DNA which is associated
with histone proteins.
• Uncoiled chromosomes are
referred to as chromatin – they
stain dark in electron micrograph.
• Within the nucleus is the
nucleolus which consists of RNA
and proteins.

Mitochondrion
• Surrounded by double membrane
• Outer membrane is smooth, inner
membrane is folded/invaginated.
• The folds are called “cristae”
• Variable in shape and number

Ribosomes
• 80 S (larger than in prokaryotes)
• Composed of 2 subunits
• No membrane
• Free in the cytoplasm or bound to
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Composed of ribosomal RNA and
protein produced in the nucleolus
of the nucleus
• Appear as dark granules

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

• Only a single membrane
• Two types: Smooth ER & Rough ER
• Made of flattened membrane sacs
called cisternae, attached to the
outside of the cisternae are
ribosomes (rER)
• Extensive network of tubules or
channels that extends almost
every- where in the cell from the
nucleus to the plasma

Golgi apparatus
• Only a single membrane
• Consists of flattened sacs called
cisternae, which are stacked on
top of one another
• Has two sides: a cis-side (receives
products at that site), and a trans-
side (discharges products)
• Transport vesicles bud off
• In contrast to the rER it does not
have attached ribosomes, is sited
close to the plasma membrane
and the cisternae are shorter and
more curved than those of rER

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 Organelle Structure Function
Vesicles & Vacuoles
• Consist of a single membrane
with fluid inside
• Variable in size – when small:
Vesicles, when big Vacuole
• Plant cells: vacuoles are large and
permanent, often occupying more
than half of the cell.
• Animal cells: small and temporary
filled with materials or food.
Lysosomes
• Formed from Golgi vesicles which
bud off
• Spherical with single membrane
• High concentration of enzymes
(proteins) cause this organelle to
stain heavily and hence appears
dark
• Only in animal cells (plants use
vacuoles)

Cytoskeleton
• Constructed from protein fibers
like tubulin and actin, which are
used to make microtubules and
microfilaments.

Chloroplast
• Double membrane surrounding
the chloroplast
• Stacks of thylakoids inside
• Each thylakoid is a disc composed
of a flattened membrane.
• Variable shape (spherical or ovoid)

Flagellum & Cilia

• Whip-like structures projecting
from the cell surface
• Contain a ring of nine double
microtubules + 2 central ones
• Flagella are larger, and only one is
present, cilia are smaller and
many are present.

Centrioles & Microtrubules Microtubules:

• Small cylindrical fibres
• Form core inside flagella or cilia
• Composed of the polymer tubulin

Centrioles:
• Consist of two groups of nine
triple microtubules
• Only in animal cells, not present in
plants or fungi

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Compare the structural features of prokaryotes and eukaryotes:
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Complexity

Genetic material

Size
Membrane
enclosed
organelles
Uni/multicellular

Size of ribosomes
Compartment-
alization

Examples

Cell types and cell structures viewed in micrographs:

Electron microscope images give

a lot of detail due to their high
resolution and power of
magnification. You should be able
to interpret images and deduce
structures common to
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Have a look at the images on the
right and below. Are you able to
recognize some of the structures?

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Look at this image and analyse the structures shown. Highlight and label them correctly.

The functions or characteristics of life:

All living organisms carry out the functions of life, even unicellular organism. In multicellular organism some of
the functions are divided up between differently specialized cells.

Think about it - what are the essential functions of life?

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Although many living organism are
unicellular, they can carry out all
functions of life. The single-celled
organism Paramecium exemplifies this.

Read the following articles to research on the lifestyle and functions of life of Chlamydomonas:
https://www.seaweed.ie/algae/chlamydomonas.php and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydomonas_reinhardtii

Chlamydomonas

Reproduction

Response

Excretion

Nutrition

Growth

Metabolism Just like Paramecium, Chlamydomonas uses its cytoplasm for many enzyme-controlled
reactions and metabolic pathways such as cellular respiration.
Homeostasis Chlamydomonas also have a contractile vacuole which they can use to control the water
content of the cell.

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Atypical cell structure in eukaryotes:

Do you remember the principles of the cell theory? Some cells do not necessarily comply with all of the
statements, or only under an extended perspective.

Type of atypical cell Description Why is this atypical?

Striated skeletal muscle cell
Muscle cells (fibers) are larger
than most animal cells (in humans,
ca. 30mm vs other cells (0.03mm
in length). They are surrounded by
a single plasma membrane but
contain several nuclei per cell
(multinucleated) because of cells
growing together after cell
division.

Aseptate fungal hyphae

Fungal hyphae are thread-like
extensions which absorb nutrients
from the soil or substrate they
grow on. They have a cell
membrane and a cell wall made
from chitin. Each hyphae has many
nuclei and continuous cytoplasm
spread along it.

Red blood cell

In mammals, red blood cells don’t
have a nucleus. During
development in the bone marrow
the nucleus is pinched off and
digested by cells of the immune
system.

This makes the cell smaller and

more flexible, but it cannot renew
itself and has a limited life span
(ca. 120 days)
Phloem sieve cells
Plant cells move sugary sap
through cylindrical cells shaped
like tubes. To allow for little
resistance between adjacent cells
the neighboring walls are
perforated with pores.

During development of the cell the

nucleus and other cell organelles
break down. The functions of the
cell are maintained by the
neighboring companion cell.

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