BASIC ELECTIRCAL & ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING.

REGULATION R-23
 UNIT I DC & AC CIRCUITS

DC Circuits: Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C), Ohm’s Law and its limitations, KCL & KVL, series,
parallel, series-parallel circuits, Super Position theorem, Simple numerical problems.

AC Circuits: A.C. Fundamentals: Equation of AC Voltage and current, waveform, time period, frequency,
amplitude, phase, phase difference, average value, RMS value, form factor, peak factor, Voltage and current
relationship with phasor diagrams in R, L, and C circuits, Concept of Impedance, Active power, reactive
power and apparent power, Concept of power factor (Simple Numerical problems).
 Electrical Materials:

Types of Material based on electrical conductivity

1. Conductor,
2. Insulator,
3. Semi-Conductor.
Electrical Quantities:
• Electric Field,
• Electric Current,
• Electric Potential,
• Potential Difference,
• ElectroMotive Force (EMF),
• Electric Power,
• Energy
Basic Circuit Components:
• Resistance (R), units ohms
• Inductor (L), units Henry
• Capacitor (C) units Farads
 Introduction
♪ ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT:
The combination of various electric elements (Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor,
Voltage source and Current Source) connected in any manner what so ever is
called an Electrical Circuit.

♪ Circuit Analysis means to find a current through or voltage across any branch
of the circuit.
 Introduction
♪ Basic electric circuit consisting of a source of electrical energy, a switch, a load,
and inter- connecting wire is shown in figure 1.1

Fig. 1.1. A basic electric circuit.

 Electrical Charge
♪ Electrical Charge is an intrinsic property of electrons and protons that
manifests itself in the form of forces
♪ If the atom acquires additional electrons, we say that it (the atom) is negatively
charged
♪ Conversely, if it loses electrons and is left with fewer electrons than protons, we
say that it is positively charged
♪ The term “charge” in this sense denotes an imbalance between the number of
electrons and protons present in the atom
♪ Charge is denoted by the letter Q, and its unit of measurement in the SI system
is the coulomb.
 Free Electrons
♪ The amount of energy required to escape depends on the number of electrons in
the valence shell
♪ If an atom has only a few valence electrons, there will be a relatively weak
attraction between these electrons and the nucleus, and only a small amount of
additional energy is needed

♪ For example, for a metal like copper, valence

electrons can gain sufficient energy from heat
alone (thermal energy), even at room
temperature, to escape from their parent atoms
Fig. 1.2 Random motion of free
and wander from atom to atom throughout the electrons in a conductor.

material as depicted in Figure 1.2

 Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors
♪ Materials through which charges move easily are termed conductors.
♪ The most familiar examples are metals
♪ In particular, silver, copper, gold, and aluminum are excellent conductors.
♪ Materials that do not conduct (e.g., glass, porcelain, plastic, rubber, and so on)
are termed insulators.
♪ It is used to prevent the wires from touching and to protect us from electric
shock.
♪ Silicon and germanium have half-filled valence shells and are thus neither good
conductors nor good insulators. Known as semiconductors
♪ The most important is silicon. It is used to make transistors, diodes, ICs etc.
 Electric Potential
♪ The capacity of a charged body to do work is called its electric potential.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙, 𝑉 = =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄

where W is work done in joules, Q is charge in coulombs.

Therefore, the unit of electric potential will be
joules/coulomb or volt. It is named after the Italian
physicist Alessandro Volta.

♪ Hence a body is said to have an electric potential of 1 volt if 1 joule of work is

done to give it a charge of 1 coulomb.
 Electric Potential
♪ The difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is called potential
difference.

A B A B

♪ Unit: Since the unit of electric potential is volt, one can expect that unit of
potential difference will also be volt.
 Electric Current
♪ The rate of flow (or rate of movement) of charge is called current.

♪ 1 ampere is the current in a circuit when

1 coulomb of charge passes a given point
in 1 second.
♪ The symbol for current is I. Expressed
mathematically,
𝑄
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼=
𝑡
where Q is the charge (in coulombs) and t is the time (in
seconds). Therefore, the unit of electric current will be
coulombs/sec or ampere. It is named after André-Marie
Ampère (1775–1836).
 Voltage Source & Current Source
♪ A device which can produce a continuous force to move the electrons
(or, continuous voltage) through the wire connected into the two terminals of
the device is called a Voltage Source. There are two types of the Voltage Source
which are:
♪ Direct Voltage Source: A device which produces a continuous direct voltage
output is called a Direct Voltage Source.
 For example: Cells , Battery , DC Generator.

♪ A direct voltage is the kind of voltage whose

polarity remains the same. Direct Voltage
causes the current to move only in one
direction continuously.
 Voltage Source & Current Source
♪ Alternating Voltage Source: A device which produces a alternating voltage
output is called a Alternating Voltage Source.
 For example: AC Generator , DC to AC converter etc.
♪ A alternating voltage is the kind of voltage whose polarity is reversed
periodically. Alternating Voltage causes the current to move in one direction for
a period and then in another direction for another period.
 Voltage Source & Current Source
♪ Representation of voltage source in circuits is shown in figure.
 Voltage Source & Current Source
♪ Current Source: A current source is a device which provides the regular flow or
electrons or current on a circuit.
♪ A current source is a type of voltage source which have enough EMF and
surplus electrons so as to produce the flow of electrons.
♪ Direct Current Source: The current source made of a Direct Voltage Source is
called Direct Current Source.
♪ Alternating Current Source: The current source made of a Alternating Voltage
Source is called Alternating Current Source.

♪ Representation of current source in circuits

is as shown in figure.
 Resistance
♪ Resistance is the property of a material due to which it opposes the flow of
electric current through it.
♪ Unit of resistance. The practical unit of resistance is ohm and is represented by
the symbol Ω
♪ According to ohms law the resistance offered by the material is given by
 Ohm’s Law
♪ Statement: Physical conditions (Temperature, Pressure etc.) of the conductor
remaining constant, the voltage across the terminals of a conductor is
proportional to the current flowing through it.
 Inductance
♪ Inductance is the property of a material due to which it opposes any change of
magnitude or direction of electric current passing through the conductor
♪ By faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction the relationship between
inductance (L) of an electric circuit, voltage and current is given as
 Capacitance
♪ The capacitance is the capability of an element to store electrical charge with in
it.
♪ Let ‘Q’ being the electric charge that can be stored in a capacitor of capacitance
C against a potential difference of V volts, then we can write
Problems
1. 100Welectric light bulb is connected to a 250V supply. Determine (a) the
current flowing in the bulb, and (b) the resistance of the bulb.

2. A 100 V lamp has a hot resistance of 250 Ω. Find the current taken by the
lamp and its power rating in watts. Calculate also the energy it will consume in
24 hours.
Problems
3. A heating element supplies 300 kilojoules in 50 minutes. Find the p.d. across
the element when current is 2 amperes.
Problems
4. The following are the details of load on a circuit connected through a supply metre:
(i) Six lamps of 40 watts each working for 4 hours per day
(ii) Two fluorescent tubes 125 watts each working for 2 hours per day
(iii) One 1000 watt heater working for 3 hours per day
If each unit of energy costs 70 P, what will be the electricity bill for the month of May?
Problems

5. The current/voltage relationship for two resistors A and B is as shown

in Figure below. Determine the value of the resistance of each resistor.
 Series Circuits
♪ The circuit in which resistances are connected end to end so that there is only
one path for current to flow is called a series circuit.
♪ In a series circuit:
1. The current I is the same in all parts
of the circuit
2. the sum of the voltages V1, V2 and V3
is equal to the total applied voltage

♪ From Ohm’s law:

 Series Circuits
♪ If n resistors are connected in series then the equivalent resistance will be:
 Series Circuits
♪ Voltage Division Rule (VDR):
Problems
1. A 12V battery is connected in a circuit having three series-connected resistors having
resistances of 4Ω, 9Ω and 11Ω. Determine the current flowing through, and the potential
difference across the 9Ω resistor. Find also the power dissipated in the 11Ω resistor.
Problems
2. Two resistors are connected in series across a 24V supply and a current of 3A flows in
the circuit. If one of the resistors has a resistance of 2Ω determine (a) the value of the
other resistor, and (b) the p.d. across the 2Ω resistor (c) If the circuit is connected for 50
hours, how much energy is used?
Problems
3. An oven takes 15A at 240V. It is required to reduce the current to 12A. Find (a) the
resistor which must be connected in series, and (b) the voltage across the resistor.
 Parallel Circuits
♪ When one end of each resistance is joined to a common point and the other end
of each resistance is joined to another common point so that there are as many
paths for current flow as the number of resistances, it is called a parallel
circuit.
♪ In a parallel circuit:
1. the sum of the currents I1,
I2 and I3 is equal to the
total circuit current
2. The applied voltage ‘V’
across each resistor is the
same

♪ From Ohm’s law:

 Parallel Circuits
♪ If n resistors are connected in parallel then the equivalent resistance will be:

♪ Two Resistances in Parallel:

 Parallel Circuits
♪ Current Division Rule (CDR):
Problems
1. Two resistors, of resistance 3Ω and 6Ω, are connected in parallel across a battery
having a voltage of 12V. Determine (a) the total circuit resistance and (b) the current
flowing in the 3Ω resistor.
Problems
2. Two resistances connected in series have a resistance of 18 Ω and when connected in
parallel have a resistance of 4 Ω. Find the value of resistances.
Problems
3. A resistor R is connected in series with a parallel circuit comprising of two resistors
having resistance of 12 and 8 ohm, respectively. The total power dissipated in the circuit
is 96 W applied voltage is 24 V. Calculate the value of R.
Problems
4. For the circuit shown in Figure, calculate (a) the value of resistor Rx such that the total
power dissipated in the circuit is 2.5kW, and (b) the current flowing in each of the four
resistors.
Problems
5. The current in the 6Ω resistor of the network shown in figure is 2A. Determine the
current in all branches.
Problems
6. A 50Ω resistor is in parallel with 100Ω resistor. Current in 50Ω resistor is 7.2A. How
will you add a third resistor and what will be its value if the line current is to be 12.1A?
 Parallel Circuits
Advantages of Parallel Circuits:
♪ The most useful property of a parallel circuit is the fact that potential difference
has the same value between the terminals of each branch of parallel circuit.
This feature of the parallel circuit offers the following advantages :
1. The appliances rated for the same voltage but different powers can be
connected in parallel without disturbing each other’s performance.
2. If a break occurs in any one of the branch circuits, it will have no effect on
other branch circuits.
 Equivalent Resistance
♪ The equivalent resistance of a circuit or network between its any two points (or
terminals) is that single resistance which can replace the entire circuit between
these points (or terminals).
♪ Example:
Problems
1. Three equal resistors are connected as shown in Fig. Find the equivalent resistance
between points A and B.
Problems
2. Given four 1Ω resistors, state how they must be connected to give an overall resistance
1 1 1
of (a) Ω (b) 1Ω (c) 1 Ω (d) 2 Ω, all four resistors being connected in each case.
4 3 2
Problems
3. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B.
Problems
4. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B.
Problems
5. Determine the current delivered by the source.
Problems
6. Find the value of ‘R’ in the circuit
shown in Figure.
Problems
7. A battery of unknown e.m.f. is connected across
resistances as shown in Figure. The voltage drop
across the 8 Ω resistor is 20 V. What will be the
current reading in the ammeter? What is the e.m.f. of
the battery?
Problems
8. Find the voltage VAB in the circuit shown in Figure.
Problems
9. Find the current I in the 50 Ω resistor in
the circuit shown in Fig..
Problems
10. Twelve wires, each of resistance 1Ω, are connected to
form a skeleton cube. Find the equivalent resistance
between the two diagonally opposite corners of the cube.
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
♪ Gustav Kirchhoff, an eminent German physicist, proposes a set of two laws for
solving complex networks.
i. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
ii. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

♪ Before proceeding to the statements of these two laws every

one muse familiarize with the following terms used in
electrical circuits.
1. Node: A node of a network is an equipotential
surface at which two or more circuit elements
are joined
Example:
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
2. Branch: A branch is the part of a circuit which
lies between two junction points
Example:
3. Loop: A loop is any closed path of the circuit.
Example:
4. Mesh: A mesh is the most elementary form of
a loop and cannot be further divided into
other loops. All meshes are loops but all loops
are not meshes.
Example:
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
i. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):
Kirchhoff’s current law states that “The algebraic sum of currents
meeting at a junction or node in an electric circuit is zero.”

Consider five conductors, carrying currents I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5 meeting at a
point O as shown in Figure. Assuming the incoming currents to be positive
and outgoing currents negative, we have

Thus, the above law can also be stated as “the sum of currents
entering a node is equal to the sum of currents leaving the node”
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
ii. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):
Kirchhoff’s voltage law(KVL) states that “The algebraic sum of voltages
(or) voltage drops in any closed path in a circuit is zero.”
Example:
• I4 = 105 A
• I5 = 80A
• E = 9V
Problem 2: Find currents I3, I4 and I6 in Figure below
Problem 3: For the networks shown in Figure below, find the values of the
currents marked.
Problem 4 To find the voltage across AB in Figure below Since the 20V
supply is across the 5Ωand 15Ω resistors in series then, by voltage
division, the voltage drop across AC.
Problem 5 Find the current flowing in the 3 Ω resistor for the network
shown in Figure below. Find also the p.d. across the 10 Ω and 2 Ω
resistors.
Problem 6 For the network shown in Figure below find: (a) the current
in the battery, (b) the current in the 300 Ω resistor, (c) the current in
the 90 Ω resistor, and (d) the power dissipated in the 150 Ω resistor.
Problems on Superposition Theorem:
Problem: Find the potential difference across 4 ohm resistor by applying superposition theorem.
Problem: Find the current in 1 ohm resistor by applying super position theorem.
Problem: Determine the current through 8 ohm resistor by applying super position theorem.
AC Circuits
 Waveforms
♪ If values of quantities which vary with
time t are plotted to a base of time, the
resulting graph is called a waveform.
♪ Waveforms (a) and (b) are
unidirectional waveforms
♪ Waveforms (c) to (g) are called
alternating waveforms
 Waveforms
♪ A waveform of the type shown in Figure is called a sine wave.
♪ One complete series of values is called a cycle. The time taken for an
alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called the period or the periodic
time, T, of the waveform.

♪ The number of cycles completed in

one second is called the frequency, f
♪ Peak Value: It is the maximum value
of the wave during either positive or
negative half cycle. In figure, Vm is
the peak of value of sinusoidal
voltage wave.
 Waveforms
♪ Instantaneous Value: It is the value of the sine wave at any instant of the cycle.
♪ This value is different at different points along the waveform. In figure, v1 is the
instantaneous value of the wave at time t1 time and –v2 is the instantaneous
value of the wave at t2.
 Waveforms
♪ Phase: It is the angular measurement of the sine wave which specifies the
position of the sine wave.
♪ The wave “A” shown in figure being the reference wave, wave “B” is said to be
90o time delayed and is said to be lagging behind wave A.
 Waveforms
♪ Wave C is ahead of wave A by 90o and is thus said to be leading A by 90o. Lag
angle is represented by “-Ф” while lead is represented by “+Ф”.
 Waveforms
♪ Average Value: It is the average of instantaneous values in the half cycle of an
AC sinusoidal (or any other periodic) waveform.
♪ Average value represents the ratio of the area under AC wave form with respect
to time.
 Waveforms
♪ RMS Value: It is defined as “the amount of AC power that produces the same
heating effect as an equivalent DC power”,
♪ The RMS value is the square root of the mean (average) value of the squared
function of the instantaneous values.
 Waveforms
♪ Form factor: The ratio of r.m.s. value to the average value of an alternating
quantity is known as form factor i.e.

♪ For a sinusoidal voltage and current

 Waveforms
♪ Peak factor: The ratio of maximum value to the r.m.s. value of an alternating
quantity is known as peak factor i.e.

♪ For a sinusoidal voltage and current

Problems:
1. An alternating current completes 5 cycles in 8ms. What is its frequency?

2. Determine the peak and mean values for a 240V mains supply.

3. A supply voltage has a mean value of 150V. Determine its maximum value
and its r.m.s. value.
Problems:
4. An alternating current i is given by, i = 141·4 sin 314 t. Find (i) the maximum
value (ii) frequency (iii) time period and (iv) the instantaneous value when t is
3 ms.
Problems:
5. An alternating current is given by i = 14.14 sin 377 t. Find (i) rms value of the
current, (ii) frequency, (iii) instantaneous value of the current when t = 3 ms,
and (iv) time taken by the current to reach 10 A for first time after passing
through zero.
 Phasor Representation of Sinusoidal Quantities
 In the above Figure, OA represents a vector that
is free to rotate anticlockwise about ‘0’ at an
angular velocity of ω rad/s.

 A rotating vector is known as a phasor.

 After time t seconds the vector OA has turned through an angle ωt. If the line BC is constructed
perpendicular to OA as shown,

 then If all such vertical components are projected on to a graph of y against angle ωt (in radians), a
sine curve results of maximum value OA.
Given the general sinusoidal voltage, v=
Then, (i) Amplitude or maximum value=Vm (ii) Peak-to-peak value=2Vm(iii) Angular
velocity=ωrad/s (iv) Periodic time, T =2π/ω seconds (v) Frequency, f =ω/2π Hz (since ω=2π f )(vi)
φ=angle of lag or lead (compared with v= Vm sinωt )
 Single-phase series AC circuits
♪ The following combinations of single-phase series AC circuits is under study:
1. Purely resistive AC circuit
2. Purely inductive AC circuit
3. Purely capacitive AC circuit
4. R–L series AC Circuit
5. R–C series AC Circuit
6. R–L-C series AC Circuit
1. Purely resistive AC circuit
♪ Consider a circuit containing a pure resistance of ‘R’ Ω connected across an
alternating voltage source
2. Purely inductive AC circuit
♪ Consider a circuit containing a pure inductance of ‘L’ H connected across an
alternating voltage source
• In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to the flow of alternating current
is called the inductive reactance, XL

• where ‘f’ is the supply frequency, in hertz, and ‘L’ is the inductance, in
henrys.
• XL is proportional to f as shown in Figure below.
3. Purely capacitive AC circuit
♪ Consider a circuit containing a pure capacitance of ‘C’ F connected across an
alternating voltage source
• In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the flow of alternating current
is called the capacitive reactance, XC .

• where ‘C’ is the capacitance in farads.

• ‘XC’ varies with frequency ‘f’ as shown in Figure below.
Problem 1. (a) Calculate the reactance of a coil of inductance 0.32H
when it is connected to a 50Hz supply. (b) A coil has a reactance of 124 Ω
in a circuit with a supply of frequency 5kHz. Determine the inductance of
the coil.
Solution: (a) Inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(0.32)
= 100.5 Ω
(b) Since XL =2πfL, inductance
Problem 2. A coil has an inductance of 40mH and negligible resistance.
Calculate its inductive reactance and the resulting current if connected to (a) a
240V, 50Hz supply, and (b) a 100V, 1kHz supply.

Solution: (a) Inductive reactance, XL =2πfL

=2π(50)(40×10−3)
=12.57 Ω

(b) Inductive reactance, XL =2π(1000)(40×10−3)

= 251.3 Ω
Problem 3. Determine the capacitive reactance of a capacitor of 10μF when
connected to a circuit of frequency (a) 50Hz (b) 20kHz.
Solution:

• Hence as the frequency is increased from 50Hz to 20kHz, XC decreases from

318.3Ω to 0.796 Ω.
Problem 4. A capacitor has a reactance of 40 Ω when operated on a 50Hz
supply. Determine the value of its capacitance.
Solution:
 Power in A.C. circuits
♪ For a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the average power dissipated, P, is given by:

𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼2𝑅 = Watts
𝑅
 Power in A.C. circuits
♪ For a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the average
power is zero

♪ For a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the average

power is zero
 Power in A.C. circuits
♪ Current and voltage waveforms for an R–L circuit shown in below figure, where
the current lags the voltage by angle φ. The waveform for power (where p=vi) is
shown by the broken line, and its shape, and hence average power, depends on
the value of angle φ.

♪ For an R–L, R–C or R–L–C series a.c.

circuit, the average power P is given by:

P = VI cosφ watts
Problems:
1. A series circuit of resistance 60Ω and inductance 75 mH is connected to a 110 V,
60 Hz supply. Calculate the power dissipated.
Power triangle and Power factor
 Power triangle and Power factor
♪ Active Power: The power which is actually consumed or utilized in an AC
Circuit is called True power or Active power or Real power. It is measured in
kilowatt (kW) or MW.
♪ Reactive Power: The power which flows back and forth in the circuit or reacts
upon itself, is called Reactive Power. The reactive power is measured in kilo
volt-ampere reactive (kVAR) or MVAR.
♪ Apparent Power: The product of root mean square (RMS) value of voltage and
current is known as Apparent Power. This power is measured in kVA or MVA.
Power triangle and Power factor
Problems:
1. The power taken by an inductive circuit when connected to a 120 V, 50 Hz
supply is 400 W and the current is 8 A. Calculate (a) the resistance, (b) the
impedance, (c) the reactance, (d) the power factor, and (e) the phase angle between
voltage and current.
Solution:
(d) Power factor= true power / apparent
(a) Power P=I2R. Hence R= P / I 2 power
= VI cosφ / VI
= 400 / (8)2 = 400 / (120)(8)
=0.4167
=6.25Ω
(e) p.f. = cosφ = 0.4167. Hence phase angle,
(b) Impedance Z = V / I φ= cos−10.4167
=65.37◦ lagging
= 120 / 8 = 15 Ω

(c) Since Z = √ (R2 +XL2 ), then XL = √(Z2−R2) = √[(15)2−(6.25)2]

=13.64 Ω