Ch4 Slides

Chapter 4 PN and Metal-Semiconductor Junctions
4.1 Building Blocks of the PN Junction Theory

– V +
I
Donor ions
N P
N-type
P-type I
diode
symbol
V
Reverse bias Forward bias
PN junction is present in perhaps every semiconductor device.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-1
4.1.1 Energy Band Diagram of a PN Junction
N-region P-region
Ef is constant at
(a) Ef
equilibrium
Ec
Ec and Ev are known
Ec Ef
(b)
Ev
relative to Ef
Ev
Ec
Ef
Ec and Ev are smooth,
(c)
Ev the exact shape to be
determined.
Neutral Depletion Neutral

N-region layer P-region
A depletion layer
Ec
exists at the PN
(d) Ef junction where n ≈ 0
Ev and p ≈ 0.
4.1.2 Built-in Potential
(a)
N-type P-type
NNdd NNa a
Ec
φbi
q
(b)
Ef
Ev
V
φbi
(c)
xN 0 xP x
Can the built-in potential be measured with a voltmeter?

4.1.2 Built-in Potential
− q A kT kT N c
N-region n = N d = Nce ⇒ A= ln
q Nd
2
ni kT N c N a
P-region n = = Nce − q B kT
⇒B= ln 2
Na q ni
kT  Nc Na Nc 
φbi = B − A =  ln − ln 
q  ni
2
Nd 
 
kT N d N a
φbi = ln 2
q ni
4.1.3 Poisson’s Equation
Gauss’s Law:
E (x) E (x + ∆x)
εs: permittivity (~12εo for Si) ρ
ρ: charge density (C/cm3)
∆x
Poisson’s equation
4.2 Depletion-Layer Model
4.2.1 Field and Potential in the Depletion Layer
N eut ra l Re gion D eple tion La yer N e utral R egi on

On the P-side of the
N P depletion layer, ρ = –qNa
xnN 0 xpP
ρ d E = − qN a
dx εs
qNd
xpP qN a qN a
x E ( x) = − x + C1 = ( x P − x)
xnN
–qNa
εs εs
E On the N-side, ρ = qNd
qN d
E ( x) = ( x - xN )
x
εs
xnN 0 x pP
N P
–xnN 0 xpP
The electric field is continuous at x = 0.
Na |xP| = Nd|xP|
Which side of the junction is depleted more?
A one-sided junction is called a N+P junction or P+N junction
E
On the P-side,
qN a
V ( x) = ( xP − x ) 2
x
2ε s
xnN 0 x pP
φ bi V Arbitrarily choose the

voltage at x = xP as V = 0.
x
xnN xpP
On the N-side,
Ec
qN d
φbi , built-in potential V ( x) = D − ( x − xN )2
Ef 2ε s
Ev
qN d
= φbi − ( x − xN )2
2ε s
4.2.2 Depletion-Layer Width
N P
–xnN 0 xpP
V is continuous at x = 0
2ε sφbi  1 1 
xP − xN = Wdep =  + 
q  Na Nd 
If Na >> Nd , as in a P+N junction,
2ε sφbi
Wdep =
qN d
≈ xN |x P|=|xN|N d Na ≅ 0
What about a N+P junction?

1 1 1 1
Wdep = 2ε s φbi qN where = + ≈
N N d N a lighter dopant density
EXAMPLE: A P+N junction has Na=1020 cm-3 and Nd
=1017cm-3. What is a) its built in potential, b)Wdep , c)xN ,
and d) xP ?
Solution:
a) kT N d N a 10 20 ×1017 cm −6
φbi = ln 2
= 0.026V ln 20 −6
≈1V
q ni 10 cm
1/ 2
b) W ≈ 2ε sφbi =  2 ×12 × 8.85 ×10 ×1 
−14
dep  1.6 ×10 −19 ×1017  = 0.12 μm

qN d  
c) xN ≈ Wdep = 0.12 μm
d) xP = xN N d N a = 1.2 × 10−4 μm = 1.2 Å ≈ 0
4.3 Reverse-Biased PN Junction
V
+ –
N P
Ec 2ε s (φbi + | Vr |) 2ε s ⋅ potential barrier

qφbi
Wdep = =
qN qN
Ec Ef
Ef Ev
Ev
(a) V = 0 1 1 1 1
= + ≈
Ec N N d N a lighter dopant density
qφbi + qV Efp
Ev
• Does the depletion layer
qV
Ec
Efn
widen or shrink with
increasing reverse bias?
Ev
(b) reverse-biased
4.4 Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics
N Nd Na P
Conductor Insulator Conductor

Wde p
Reverse biased PN junction is εs

Cdep =A
a capacitor. Wdep
• Is Cdep a good thing?

• How to minimize junction capacitance?
4.4 Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics
1/C dep 2 Capacitance data

2
1 Wdep 2(φbi + V )
2
= 2
=
Cdep A 2ε s qNε S A2
2𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠 (𝜑𝜑𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + |𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 |)

𝑊𝑊𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 Slope = 2/qN εsA2
Vr
– φbi Increasing reverse bias
• From this C-V data can Na and Nd be determined?
EXAMPLE: If the slope of the line in the previous slide is
2x1023 F-2 V-1, the intercept is 0.84V, and A is 1 µm2, find the
lighter and heavier doping concentrations Nl and Nh .
Solution:
N l = 2 /( slope × qε s A2 )
= 2 /(2 ×10 23 ×1.6 ×10 −19 ×12 × 8.85 ×10 −14 ×10 −8 cm 2 )
= 6 ×1015 cm −3
2 qφ
0.84
kT N h N l ni kTbi 10 20 0.026
φbi = ln 2
⇒ N h = e = e = 1 . 8 × 1018
cm −3
q ni Nl 6 ×1015
• Is this an accurate way to determine Nl ? Nh ?

4.5 Junction Breakdown
I
Forward Current
V B, breakdown
voltage
V
R
Small leakage
Current
A
P N
R C
A
3.7 V
IC
Zener diode
B
D
A Zener diode is designed to operate in the breakdown mode.
4.5.1 Peak Electric Field
Neutral Region
increasing
reverse bias
N+ Na P
0 xp
1/ 2
(a)  2qN 
E Ep = E (0) =  (φbi + | Vr |) 
Ep  εs 
increasing reverse bias
ε s Ecrit 2
x VB = − φbi
xp 2qN
(b)
4.5.2 Tunneling Breakdown
Dominant if both sides of

a junction are very heavily
doped.
Filled States - Empty States
Ec
J = G e−H / εp
Ev 𝟑𝟑 𝟏𝟏
H∝ 𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈 𝟐𝟐 � 𝑴𝑴∗ 𝟐𝟐
I
V
= ≈ 6
Ep Ecrit 10 V/cm
Breakdown
4.5.3 Avalanche Breakdown
• impact ionization: an energetic
Ec electron generating electron and
original
electron hole, which can also cause
Efp impact ionization.
Ev
• Impact ionization + positive
feedbackavalanche breakdown
ε s Ecrit 2
electron-hole VB =
pair generation 2qN
Ec 1 1 1
Efn VB ∝ = +
N Na Nd
4.6 Forward Bias – Carrier Injection
VV=0
=0 Forward
Forward biased
biased
I=0 V
– +
Ec N P
qφbi
- Ec
Ef qφbi –qV
Ev
Ef n qV Efp
Ev
Drift and diffusion cancel out +
Minority carrier injection
4.6 Forward Bias –
Quasi-equilibrium Boundary Condition
− ( Ec − E fn ) / kT − ( Ec − E fp ) / kT ( E fn − E fp ) / kT
n ( xP ) = N c e = Nce e
( E fn − E fp ) / kT qV / kT
= nP 0 e = nP 0 e
EEcc
EEfnfnfn • The minority carrier

EEfpfp densities are raised
EEv v by eqV/kT
• Which side gets more
xx carrier injection?
xN0 x0 P
N P
4.6 Carrier Injection Under Forward Bias–
Quasi-equilibrium Boundary Condition
2
ni qV
n(xP ) = nP 0 e =
qV kT kT
e
Na
Quasi-equilibrium 2
boundary condition ni qV
x =
p ( P) p N 0 e
qV kT
= e
kT
Nd
n′( xP ) ≡ n( xP ) − nP 0 = nP 0 (e qV kT
− 1)
Excess minority carrier
p′( x N ) ≡ p ( x N ) − p N 0 = p N 0 (e qV kT
− 1)
EXAMPLE: Carrier Injection
A PN junction has Na=1019cm-3 and Nd=1016cm-3. The applied
voltage is 0.6 V.
Question: What are the minority carrier concentrations at the

depletion-region edges?
Solution: n ( xP ) = nP 0e qV kT = 10 × e0.6 0.026 = 1011 cm -3

p ( x N ) = p N 0 e qV kT = 10 4 × e 0.6 0.026 = 1014 cm -3
Question: What are the excess minority carrier concentrations?
Solution: n′( xP ) = n( xP ) − nP 0 = 1011 − 10 = 1011 cm -3

p′( x N ) = p ( x N ) − p N 0 = 1014 − 10 4 = 1014 cm -3
EXAMPLE: Carrier Injection
A PN junction has Na=1019cm-3 and Nd=1016cm-3. The applied
voltage is 0.6 V.
Question: What are the majority carrier densities?
Solution: 𝑛𝑛′ = 𝑝𝑝′ due to charge neutrality

On the P-side: 𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥𝑃𝑃 = Na + 𝑝𝑝′ = Na + 𝑛𝑛′ xP = 1019 + 1011 = 1019 cm−3
On the N-side: 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥𝑁𝑁 = N𝑑𝑑 + 𝑛𝑛′ = N𝑑𝑑 + 𝑝𝑝′ x𝑁𝑁 = 1016 + 1014 = 1.01 × 1019 cm−3
Question: Under the reverse bias 1.8V, what are the minority
carrier concentrations at the depletion region edges?
𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥𝑃𝑃 = 𝑛𝑛𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 10𝑒𝑒 −1.8/0.026 = 10−29 cm−3
Solution:
p 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 104 𝑒𝑒 −1.8/0.026 = 10−26 cm−3
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁0
4.7 Current Continuity Equation
J p ( x) J p ( x + ∆x) p′
A⋅ = A⋅ + A ⋅ ∆x ⋅
q q τ
a A
a re
Jp (x) Jp (x + ∆x) J p ( x + ∆x) − J p ( x) p′
− =q
p ∆x τ
dJ p p′
Volume = A·∆x − =q
dx τ
∆x
4.7 Current Continuity Equation
dJ p p′
− =q Minority drift current is negligible;
dx τ ∴ Jp= –qDpdp/dx
d2p p′
qD p 2 = q
dx τp
d p′
2
p′ p′ d 2 n′ n′
= = 2 2
= 2
dx 2
D pτ p L p dx Ln
Lp and Ln are the diffusion lengths
L p ≡ D pτ p Ln ≡ Dnτ n
4.8 Forward Biased Junction-- Excess Carriers
d 2 p′ p′
P + N 2
= 2
dx Lp
xP
-x N
For the boundary condition
0 x p′(∞) = 0
𝑝𝑝′ (𝑥𝑥𝑁𝑁 ) = 𝑝𝑝𝑁𝑁𝑁 (𝑒𝑒 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
General solution
x / Lp − x / Lp
′
p ( x) = Ae + Be
4.8 Forward Biased Junction-- Excess Carriers
The boundary condition demands A=0

𝑝𝑝′ (0) = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 0/𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 + 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 −0/𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 = 0
𝑝𝑝′ (𝑥𝑥𝑁𝑁 ) = 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥𝑁𝑁 /𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑁𝑁𝑁 (𝑒𝑒 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
𝐵𝐵 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥𝑁𝑁 /𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑁𝑁𝑁 (𝑒𝑒 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
𝑝𝑝′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥/𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝

−( x − xN )/ L p
p′( x) = p N 0 (e qV / kT
− 1)e , x > xN
4.8 Excess Carrier Distributions
1.0
P-side N-side
N a = 1017 cm -3 N d = 2×1017 cm-3
0.5
nP '∝ ex /L n pN ' ∝ e–x /L p
𝑝𝑝′ (𝑥𝑥𝑁𝑁 ) 𝑝𝑝𝑁𝑁0 5 × 102
= =
𝑛𝑛′ (𝑥𝑥𝑃𝑃 ) 𝑛𝑛𝑃𝑃𝑃 103
– 3L n –2L n –Ln 0 L p 2L p 3L p 4Lp
−( x − xN )/ L p
′
p ( x ) = p N 0 (e qV / kT
− 1)e , x > xN
n′( x) = nP 0 (e qV / kT − 1)e ( x − xP ) / Ln , x < xP
EXAMPLE: Carrier Distribution in Forward-biased PN Diode
N-type P-type
Nd = 5×10 17 cm-3 Na = 101 7 cm -3
Dp =12 cm 2/s Dn=36.4 cm2 /s
τp = 1 µs τn = 2 µs
• Sketch n'(x) on the P-side.

𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 ⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 2 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1020 0.6⁄0.026
𝑛𝑛′ (𝑥𝑥𝑃𝑃 ) = 𝑛𝑛𝑃𝑃𝑃 (𝑒𝑒 − 1) = (𝑒𝑒 − 1) = 17 𝑒𝑒 = 1013 cm−3
𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎 10
1013cm-3
N-side P-side
n’ ( = p’ )
12
p´ ( = n’ ) 2´10
x
EXAMPLE: Carrier Distribution in Forward-biased PN Diode
• How does Ln ,Lp compare with a typical device size?

On the P side 𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 = 𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛 = 36 × 2 × 10−6 = 85 μm
On the N side 𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 = 𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝜏𝜏𝑝𝑝 = 12 × 10−6 = 35 μm
Diffusion lengths are much larger than the dimensions of IC devices (<1um)
• What is 𝑝𝑝𝑃𝑃 (𝑥𝑥) on the P- side?

𝑝𝑝𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑝𝑝𝑃𝑃0 + 𝑝𝑝′ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎 + 𝑛𝑛′ 𝑥𝑥 = 1017 + 𝑛𝑛′ (𝑥𝑥𝑃𝑃 )𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥/𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝
Charge neutrality
4.9 PN Diode I-V Characteristics
Jtotal
Jtotal Jn = Jtotal – Jp
Jp = Jtotal – Jn
JnP JnP
JpN JpN
x
P-side 0 N-side P-side 0 N-side
dp′( x) Dp −( x − x N ) Lp
J pN = −qD p =q p N 0 (e qV kT
− 1)e
dx Lp
dn′( x) D
J nP = qDn = q n nP 0 (e qV kT
− 1)e ( x − xP ) Ln
dx Ln
 Dp Dn  qV

Total current = J pN ( xN ) + J nP ( xP ) = q p +q n P 0 ( e kT
− 1)
 L N0 Ln 
 p 
= J at all x
The PN Junction as a Temperature Sensor
I = I 0 (e qV kT
− 1)
 Dp D 
I 0 = Aqni  
2
+ n
L N 
 p d Ln N a 
𝐼𝐼0 Reverse saturation current
What causes the IV curves to shift to lower V at higher T ?
4.9.1 Contributions from the Depletion Region
n ≈ p ≈ ni e qV / 2 kT
Net recombination (generation) rate :
ni
(e qV / 2 kT − 1)
τ dep
qV / kT
qniWdep
I = I 0 (e − 1) + A (e qV / 2 kT − 1)
τ dep
Space-Charge Region (SCR) current

qniWdep
I leakage = I 0 + A
τ dep Under forward bias, SCR current is an extra
current with a slope 120mV/decade
4.10 Charge Storage
1013 cm -3 Q∝I
N-side P-side
n' I = Q τs
Q = Iτ s
p’
2×1012
x
What is the relationship between τs (charge-storage time)

and τ (carrier lifetime)?
4.11 Small-signal Model of the Diode
I
1 dI d qV / kT d
G≡ = = I 0 (e − 1) ≈ I 0 e qV / kT
R dV dV dV
V R C
q kT
= I 0 (e qV / kT ) = I DC /
kT q
What is G at 300K and IDC = 1 mA?
Diffusion Capacitance:
dQ dI kT
C= =τs = τ sG = τ s I DC /
dV dV q
Which is larger, diffusion or depletion capacitance?
Part II: Application to Optoelectronic Devices
4.12 Solar Cells
•Solar Cells is also known
as photovoltaic cells.
•Converts sunlight to
electricity with 10-30%
conversion efficiency.
•1 m2 solar cell generate
about 150 W peak or 25 W
continuous power.
•Low cost and high
efficiency are needed for
wide deployment.
4.12.1 Solar Cell Basics
I
Short Circuit
Dark IV
Eq.(4.9.4)
light
N P I
sc
0.7 V
- 0 V
Ec Solar Cell
IV
Eq.(4.12.1)
Ev –I
sc Maximum
+ power-output
(a)
I = I 0 (e qV kT
− 1) − I sc
Direct-Gap and Indirect-Gap Semiconductors
•Electrons have both particle and wave properties.
•An electron has energy E and wave vector k.
direct-gap semiconductor indirect-gap semiconductor
4.12.2 Light Absorption
Light intensity (x) ∝ e -αx

α(1/cm): absorption
coefficient
1/α : light penetration
depth
hc
Photon Energy (eV) =
λ
1.24
= ( µm)
λ
A thinner layer of direct-gap semiconductor can absorb most
of solar radiation than indirect-gap semiconductor. But Si…
4.12.3 Short-Circuit Current and Open-Circuit Voltage
If light shines on the N-type

A
semiconductor and generates
ea
ar holes (and electrons) at the
Jp (x) Jp (x + ∆x)
rate of G s-1cm-3 ,
p
d 2 p′ p′ G
Volume = A·∆x 2
= 2 −
dx Lp Dp
∆x
x
If the sample is uniform (no PN junction),
d2p’/dx2 = 0  p’ = GLp2/Dp= Gτp
Solar Cell Short-Circuit Current, Isc
Assume very thin P+ layer and carrier generation in N region only.
Isc G
p′(∞) = L = τ pG
2
p
Dp
P+ N
p′(0) = 0
0
x − x / Lp
p′( x) = τ p G (1 − e )
P'
dp′( x) Dp − x / Lp
τ pG J p = −qD p =q τ p Ge
dx Lp
0 Lp x I sc = AJ p (0) = AqL p G
G is really not uniform. Lp needs be larger than the light
penetration depth to collect most of the generated carriers.
Open-Circuit Voltage
•Total current is ISC plus the PV diode (dark) current:
ni2 D p qV / kT
I = Aq (e − 1) − AqL p G
N d Lp
•Solve for the open-circuit voltage (Voc) by setting I=0
(assuming e qVoc / kT >> 1)
ni D p qVoc / kT
2
0= e − LpG
N d Lp
kT 2
Voc = ln(τ p GN d / ni )
q
How to raise Voc ?

4.12.4 Output Power
A particular operating point on the
solar cell I-V curve maximizes the
output power (I ×V).
Output Power = I sc × Voc × FF
•Si solar cell with 15-20% efficiency

dominates the market now
•Theoretically, the highest efficiency (~24%) can be obtained with
1.9eV >Eg>1.2eV. Larger Eg lead to too low Isc (low light
absorption); smaller Eg leads to too low Voc.
•Tandem solar cells gets 35% efficiency using large and small Eg
materials tailored to the short and long wavelength solar light.
4.13 Light Emitting Diodes and Solid-State Lighting
Light emitting diodes (LEDs)

• LEDs are made of compound semiconductors such as InP
and GaN.
• Light is emitted when electron and hole undergo radiative
recombination.
Ec
Radiative Non-radiative
recombination recombination
through traps
Ev
Direct and Indirect Band Gap
Trap
Direct band gap Indirect band gap

Example: GaAs Example: Si
Direct recombination is efficient Direct recombination is rare as k
as k conservation is satisfied. conservation is not satisfied
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

4.13.1 LED Materials and Structure
1.24 1.24
LED wavelength ( µ m) = ≈
photon energy E g ( eV )
4.13.1 LED Materials and Structure
compound semiconductors
Lattice
E (eV )
Eg(eV) Wavelength
(μm)
Color constant
(Å)
binary semiconductors:
- Ex: GaAs, efficient emitter
InAs 0.36 3.44 6.05
InN 0.65 1.91 infrared 3.45 ternary semiconductor :

- Ex: GaAs1-xPx , tunable Eg (to
InP 1.36 0.92 5.87
vary the color)
GaAs 1.42 0.87 Red
red 5.66
Yellow
yellow
blue
Green
quaternary semiconductors:
GaP 2.26 0.55 5.46
violet
Blue - Ex: AlInGaP , tunable Eg and
AlP 3.39 0.51 5.45 lattice constant (for growing high
quality epitaxial films on
GaN 2.45 0.37 3.19 inexpensive substrates)
AlN 6.20 0.20 UV 3.11
Light-emitting diode materials
Common LEDs
Spectral Material
Substrate Example Applications
range System
Infrared InGaAsP InP Optical communication
Infrared Indicator lamps. Remote

GaAsP GaAs
-Red control
Optical communication.
Red- GaA or
AlInGaP High-brightness traffic
Yellow GaP
signal lights
High brightness signal AlInGaP

Green- GaN or
Blue
InGaN
sapphire
lights. Quantun Well
Video billboards
GaN or
Blue-UV AlInGaN
sapphire Solid-state lighting
Organic
Red-
semicon- glass Displays
Blue
ductors
4.13.2 Solid-State Lighting
luminosity (lumen, lm): a measure of visible light energy
normalized to the sensitivity of the human eye at
different wavelengths
Compact Tube Theoretical limit at

Incandescent White Theoretical limit
fluorescent fluorescent peak of eye sensitivity
lamp LED (white light)
lamp lamp ( λ=555nm)
17 60 50-100 90-? 683 ~340

Luminous efficacy of lamps in lumen/watt
Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED) :

has lower efficacy than nitride or aluminide based compound semiconductor LEDs.
Terms: luminosity measured in lumens. luminous efficacy,
4.14 Diode Lasers
4.14.1 Light Amplification
(a) Absorption (d) Net Light
Absorption
(b) Spontaneous (e) Net Light

Emission Amplification
Light amplification requires
population inversion: electron
(c) Stimulated
occupation probability is
Emission
larger for higher E states than
lower E states.
Stimulated emission: emitted photon has identical frequency and

directionality as the stimulating photon; light wave is amplified.
4.14.1 Light Amplification in PN Diode
Population inversion
is achieved when
qV = E fn − E fp > E g
Equilibrium, V=0
Population inversion, qV > Eg
4.14.2 Optical Feedback and Laser
Laser threshold is reached (light

P+ intensity grows by feedback)
light when
out
R1 × R2 × G ≥ 1
Cleaved N+
crystal
plane •R1, R2: reflectivities of the two ends
•G : light amplification factor (gain)
for a round-trip travel of the light
through the diode
Light intensity grows until R1 × R2 × G = 1 , when the light intensity

is just large enough to stimulate carrier recombinations at the same
rate the carriers are injected by the diode current.
4.14.2 Optical Feedback and Laser Diode
• Distributed Bragg
reflector (DBR) reflects
light with multi-layers of
semiconductors.
•Vertical-cavity surface-
emitting laser (VCSEL) is
shown on the left.
•Quantum-well laser has
smaller threshold current
because fewer carriers
are needed to achieve
population inversion in
the small volume of the
thin small-Eg well.
4.14.3 Laser Applications
Red diode lasers: CD, DVD reader/writer
Blue diode lasers: Blu-ray DVD (higher storage density)
1.55 µm infrared diode lasers: Fiber-optic communication
4.15 Photodiodes
Photodiodes: Reverse biased PN diode. Detects photo-
generated current (similar to Isc of solar cell) for optical
communication, DVD reader, etc.
Avalanche photodiodes: Photodiodes operating near
avalanche breakdown amplifies photocurrent by impact
ionization.
Part III: Metal-Semiconductor Junction
Two kinds of metal-semiconductor contacts:
• Rectifying Schottky diodes: metal on lightly

doped silicon
•Low-resistance ohmic contacts: metal on

heavily doped silicon
φBn Increases with Increasing Metal Work Function
Vacuum level, E0
χSi = 4.05 eV ψ M : Work Function

qψM of metal
qφBn χ Si : Electron Affinity of Si

Ec
Ef
Theoretically,
Ev φBn= ψM – χSi
Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-56

4.16 Schottky Barriers
Energy Band Diagram of Schottky Contact
Depletion
Metal layer Neutral region
qφBn
Ec
Ef
N-Si • Schottky barrier height, φB ,
Ev is a function of the metal
material.
Ec
P-Si • φB is the most important

Ef parameter. The sum of qφBn
qφBp Ev and qφBp is equal to Eg .
Schottky barrier heights for electrons and holes
Metal Mg Ti Cr W Mo Pd Au Pt
φ Bn (V) 0.4 0.5 0.61 0.67 0.68 0.77 0.8 0.9
φ Bp (V) 0.61 0.5 0.42 0.3
Work
Function 3.7 4.3 4.5 4.6 4.6 5.1 5.1 5.7
ψ m (V)
φBn + φBp ≈ Eg
φBn increases with increasing metal work function
Fermi Level Pinning
Vacuum level, E0 • A high density of

energy states in the
χSi = 4.05 eV
bandgap at the metal-
qψM
semiconductor interface
pins Ef to a narrow
qφBn Ec range and φBn is
+ −
Ef typically 0.4 to 0.9 V
• Question: What is the
Ev typical range of φBp?
Schottky Contacts of Metal Silicide on Si
Silicide: A silicon and metal compound. It is conductive

similar to a metal.
Silicide-Si interfaces are more stable than metal-silicon

interfaces. After metal is deposited on Si, an annealing step is
applied to form a silicide-Si contact. The term metal-silicon
contact includes and almost always means silicide-Si contacts.
Silicide ErSi1.7 HfSi MoSi2 ZrSi2 TiSi2 CoSi2 WSi2 NiSi2 Pd2Si PtSi
φφBn (V) 0.28 0.45 0.55 0.55 0.61 0.65 0.67 0.67 0.75 0.87
Bn
φφBp (V) 0.55 0.49 0.45 0.45 0.43 0.43 0.35 0.23
Bp
Using C-V Data to Determine φB
qφBn qφbi qφbi = qφ Bn − ( Ec − E f )

Ec
Nc
Ef = qφ Bn − kT ln
Nd
Ev 2ε s (φbi + V )
Wdep =
qN d
qφBn q(φbi + V) εs
C= A
qV Wdep
Ec
Ef
Question:
How should we plot the CV
Ev data to extract φbi?
Using CV Data to Determine φB
1/C2
1 2(φbi + V )
=
C 2
qN d ε s A2
qφBn qφbi
V Ec
−φbi Ef
Once φbi is known, φΒ can

E
be determined using
v
Nc
qφbi = qφBn − ( Ec − E f ) = qφBn − kT ln
Nd
4.17 Thermionic Emission Theory
vthx
-
q(φ B − V) Ec
qφB
N-type Efm qV Efn
V Metal Silicon
Ev
x
3/ 2
 2πmn kT 
n = N c e − q (φ B −V ) / kT = 2  2  e − q (φ B −V ) / kT
 h 
vth = 3kT / mn vthx = − 2kT / πmn
1 4πqmn k 2 2 − qφ B / kT qV / kT
J S →M = − qnvthx = 3
T e e
2 h
= J 0 e qV / kT , where J o ≈ 100e − qφ B / kT A/cm 2
4.18 Schottky Diodes
Forward
biased
V=0
V
Reverse bias Forward bias
Reverse
biased
4.18 Schottky Diodes
I 0 = AKT 2 e − qφ B / kT
4πqmn k 2 2 2
K= 3
≈ 100 A/(cm ⋅ K )
h
I = I S → M + I M → S = I 0 e qV / kT − I 0 = I 0 (e qV / kT − 1)
4.19 Applications of Schottly Diodes
I I Schottky diode I = I 0 (e qV / kT − 1)
I 0 = AKT 2 e − qφ B / kT
φφBB PN junction
PN junction
diode
V
V
• I0 of a Schottky diode is 103 to 108 times larger than a PN

junction diode, depending on φB . A larger I0 means a smaller
forward drop V.
• A Schottky diode is the preferred rectifier in low voltage,
high current applications.
Switching Power Supply
PN Junction Schottky
rectifier Transformer rectifier
100kHz
110V/220V Hi-voltage Hi-voltage Lo-voltage 50A
DC MOSFET AC AC 1V DC
AC inverter
utility
power
feedback to modulate the pulse width to keep Vout = 1V
4.19 Applications of Schottky diodes
Question: What sets the lower limit in a Schottky diode’s

forward drop?
• Synchronous Rectifier: For an even lower forward drop,

replace the diode with a wide-W MOSFET which is not
bound by the tradeoff between diode V and leakage current.
• There is no minority carrier injection at the Schottky

junction. Therefore, Schottky diodes can operate at higher
frequencies than PN junction diodes.
4.20 Quantum Mechanical Tunneling
Tunneling probability:
8π 2 m
P ≈ exp( −2T 2
(VH − E ) )
h
4.21 Ohmic Contacts
4.21 Ohmic Contacts
Silicide N+ Si
2ε sφ Bn
Wdep = φBn
φBn – V
qN d - -
- - Ec , Ef Efm V
Ec , Ef
Tunneling
probability: Ev
− Hφ Bn Nd Ev
P≈e x x
T ≈ Wdep / 2 = ε sφBn / 2 qN d
4π
H = ε s mn / q
h
1 − H ( φBn −V ) /
kT / 2πmn e
Nd
J S →M ≈ qN d vthx P = qN d
2
4.21 Ohmic Contacts
−1 Hφ Bn / N d
 dJ S → M  2e Hφ Bn / Nd
Rc ≡   = ∝e Ω ⋅ cm 2
 dV  qvthx H N d
4.22 Chapter Summary
Part I: PN Junction
kT N d N a The potential barrier

φbi = ln 2 increases by 1 V if a 1 V
q ni
reverse bias is applied
2ε s ⋅ potential barrier
depletion width Wdep =
qN
junction capacitance εs
Cdep = A
Wdep
• Under forward bias, minority carriers are injected

across the jucntion.
• The quasi-equilibrium boundary condition of

minority carrier densities is:
n( x p ) = nP 0 e qV kT
p ( x N ) = p N 0 e qV kT
• Most of the minority carriers are injected into the

more lightly doped side.
• Steady-state • Minority carriers

continuity equation: diffuse outward ∝ e–|x|/Lp
and e–|x|/Ln
d 2 p′
=
p′ p′
= 2
• Lp and Ln are the
dx 2
D pτ p L p diffusion lengths
I = I 0 (e qV kT
− 1)
L p ≡ D pτ p
 Dp Dn 
I 0 = Aqni  2
+
L N 
 p d Ln N a 
Charge storage: Q = Iτ s
Diffusion capacitance: C = τ sG
kT
Diode conductance: G = I DC /
q
Part II: Optoelectronic Applications
Solar cell power = I sc × Voc × FF
•~100um Si or <1um direct–gap semiconductor can absorb most of solar
photons with energy larger than Eg.
•Carriers generated within diffusion length from the junction can be

collected and contribute to the Short Circuit Current Isc.
•Theoretically, the highest efficiency (~24%) can be obtained with 1.9eV

>Eg>1.2eV. Larger Eg lead to too low Isc (low light absorption); smaller Eg
leads to too low Open Circuit VoltageVoc.
•Si cells with ~15% efficiency dominate the market. >2x cost reduction
(including package and installation) is required to achieve cost parity with
base-load non-renewable electricity.
LED and Solid-State Lighting
•Electron-hole recombination in direct-gap semiconductors such as GaAs

produce light.
•Tenary semiconductors such as GaAsP provide tunable Eg and LED color.
•Quatenary semiconductors such as AlInGaP provide tunable Eg and lattice
constants for high quality epitaxial growth on inexpensive substrates.
•Beyond displays, communication, and traffic lights, a new application is
space lighting with luminous efficacy >5x higher than incandescent lamps.
White light can be obtained with UV LED and phosphors. Cost still an issue.
•Organic semiconductor is an important low-cost LED material class.
Laser Diodes
•Light is amplified under the condition of population inversion – states at

higher E have higher probability of occupation than states at lower E.
•Population inversion occurs when diode forward bias qV > Eg.
•Optical feedback is provided with cleaved surfaces or distributed Bragg
reflectors.
•When the round-trip gain (including loss at reflector) exceeds unity, laser
threshold is reached.
•Quantum-well structures significantly reduce the threshold currents.
•Purity of laser light frequency enables long-distance fiber-optic

communication. Purity of light direction allows focusing to tiny spots and
enables DVD writer/reader and other application.
Part III: Metal-Semiconductor Junction
I 0 = AKT 2 e − qφB / kT
•Schottky diodes have large reverse saturation current, determined by the
Schottky barrier height φB, and therefore lower forward voltage at a given
current density.
•Ohmic contacts relies on tunneling. Low resistance contact requires

low φB and higher doping concentration.
4π
−( φ B ε s mn / qN d )
Rc ∝ e h
Ω ⋅ cm 2
φBn Increases with Increasing Metal Work Function
Vacuum level, E0
χSi = 4.05 eV
qψM Ideally,
φBn= ψM – χSi
q φBn Ec
Ef
Ev

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Chapter 4 PN and Metal-Semiconductor Junctions

4.1 Building Blocks of the PN Junction Theory

PN junction is present in perhaps every semiconductor device.

Neutral Depletion Neutral

Can the built-in potential be measured with a voltmeter?

N eut ra l Re gion D eple tion La yer N e utral R egi on

E On the N-side, ρ = qNd

N eut ra l Re gion D eple tion La yer N e utral R egi on

The electric field is continuous at x = 0.

Which side of the junction is depleted more?

A one-sided junction is called a N+P junction or P+N junction

φ bi V Arbitrarily choose the

What about a N+P junction?

dep  1.6 ×10 −19 ×1017  = 0.12 μm

d) xP = xN N d N a = 1.2 × 10−4 μm = 1.2 Å ≈ 0

Ec 2ε s (φbi + | Vr |) 2ε s ⋅ potential barrier

Conductor Insulator Conductor

Reverse biased PN junction is εs

• Is Cdep a good thing?

1/C dep 2 Capacitance data

2𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠 (𝜑𝜑𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + |𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 |)

• From this C-V data can Na and Nd be determined?

• Is this an accurate way to determine Nl ? Nh ?

A Zener diode is designed to operate in the breakdown mode.

Dominant if both sides of

Drift and diffusion cancel out +

Minority carrier injection

EEfnfnfn • The minority carrier

Question: What are the minority carrier concentrations at the

Solution: n ( xP ) = nP 0e qV kT = 10 × e0.6 0.026 = 1011 cm -3

Question: What are the excess minority carrier concentrations?

Solution: n′( xP ) = n( xP ) − nP 0 = 1011 − 10 = 1011 cm -3

Question: What are the majority carrier densities?

Solution: 𝑛𝑛′ = 𝑝𝑝′ due to charge neutrality

Lp and Ln are the diffusion lengths

The boundary condition demands A=0

𝑝𝑝′ (𝑥𝑥𝑁𝑁 ) = 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥𝑁𝑁 /𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑁𝑁𝑁 (𝑒𝑒 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)

𝐵𝐵 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥𝑁𝑁 /𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑁𝑁𝑁 (𝑒𝑒 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)

𝑝𝑝′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥/𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝

– 3L n –2L n –Ln 0 L p 2L p 3L p 4Lp

• Sketch n'(x) on the P-side.

• How does Ln ,Lp compare with a typical device size?

On the N side 𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 = 𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝜏𝜏𝑝𝑝 = 12 × 10−6 = 35 μm

• What is 𝑝𝑝𝑃𝑃 (𝑥𝑥) on the P- side?

What causes the IV curves to shift to lower V at higher T ?

Space-Charge Region (SCR) current

What is the relationship between τs (charge-storage time)

direct-gap semiconductor indirect-gap semiconductor

Light intensity (x) ∝ e -αx

If light shines on the N-type

How to raise Voc ?

Output Power = I sc × Voc × FF

•Si solar cell with 15-20% efficiency

Light emitting diodes (LEDs)

Direct band gap Indirect band gap

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)

InN 0.65 1.91 infrared 3.45 ternary semiconductor :

Light-emitting diode materials

Infrared InGaAsP InP Optical communication

Infrared Indicator lamps. Remote