‫‪Power Electronics‬‬

‫اﻟﺪﻓﺘﺮ اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫اﻟﺪﻛﺘﻮر‬
‫ﺧﺎﻟﺪ ﻣﺴﻌﻮد‬
‫إﻋﺪاد اﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ‪ :‬أﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﻮﻣﻨﻲ‬

‫‪SOUL TEAM‬‬
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction to Power Electronics.

Introduction to Power Electronics .......................................................................................................................... 2

Electronic Switches and Applications..................................................................................................................... 3

Power Diodes and Uncontrolled Rectifiers.

Power Diodes .......................................................................................................................................................... 4

Connection of Multiple Diodes Together................................................................................................................ 6
Creating DC Component Using One Diode (Half Wave Rectifier) ......................................................................... 6
Crest Factor ............................................................................................................................................................. 8
Fullwave Rectifier with Center Tapped Transformer ............................................................................................. 9
Fullwave Diode Rectifier........................................................................................................................................ 11
Single Phase Uncontrolled Fullwave Diode Rectifier with RL load ...................................................................... 13
Single Phase Uncontrolled Fullwave Diode Rectifier with RC load ...................................................................... 13
Fourier Analysis of Repetitive Waveforms ............................................................................................................ 14

Power Transistors and DC Chopper.

Power Transistors .................................................................................................................................................. 17

Isolation of Gate and Base Drivers ........................................................................................................................ 19
DC-DC Converter (Chopper) ................................................................................................................................ 20
Step Up DC-DC Converter .................................................................................................................................... 22

Power Thyristors and Controlled Rectifiers.

SCR Thyristors ...................................................................................................................................................... 23

Thyristors Half Bridge Rectifier ........................................................................................................................... 24
Single Phase Full Bridge SCR Rectifier.................................................................................................................. 27

PWM Control and Inverters.

Pulse Width Modulation Control .......................................................................................................................... 29

DC-AC Converter (Inverter) ................................................................................................................................. 30
Single Phase Half Bridge Inverter ......................................................................................................................... 31
Single Phase Half Bridge PWM Inverter .............................................................................................................. 33
Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter ..........................................................................................................................35
AC Voltage Controllers.

AC Voltage Controller (Phase Angle Control)....................................................................................................... 36

Single Phase Full Wave (Bidirectional) AC Controller .......................................................................................... 37
Single Phase Half Wave (Unidirectional) AC Controller ...................................................................................... 39
INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONICS
The electronics revolution began in the 1950s, with the invention of semiconductors
(silicon transistors) and SCRs.
 Power electronics applications:
- Lamp control.
- Power supplies.
- Industrial drives (Motor speed control).
- Transportation.
- Energy storage.
- Electric power transmission and distribution:
 HVDC (Static var compensation).
 DC to AC conversion (Inverter).
 Dynamic filters.
 Frequency conversion.
 UPS system.
- Printers, Plotters, HDDs, Medical equipment, fax machines …etc.
- Factory Automation.
 Power Conversion:

 UPS:

Used in:
Medical equipment, ICU, Operation Theaters, Banks …etc.

2
ELECTRONIC SWITCHES AND APPLICATIONS
 Classification of power semiconductors:
1. Power Diodes:
- Low frequency, Reverse Recovery problem.
- Conducts when Anode voltage > Cathode voltage.
- Ratings: Up to 6KV.
Up to 4.5KA.
- Switch frequency: 𝑓𝑠𝑤 = 1𝐾𝐻𝑧.
- Voltage Drop: 𝑉𝐴𝐾 ≈ 0.5𝑉 𝑡𝑜 1.2𝑉.
2. Power BJTs [Bipolar Junction Transistor]:
- Low voltage, Low current.
- Ratings: Up to 1.2KV.
Up to 400A.
- Switch frequency: 𝑓𝑠𝑤 = 10𝐾𝐻𝑧.
- Voltage Drop: 𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 ≈ 0.5𝑉 𝑡𝑜 1.5𝑉.
3. Power MOSFETs [Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor]:
- Low voltage, High frequency.
- Ratings: Up to 1KV.
Up to 100A.
- Switch frequency: 𝑓𝑠𝑤 = 200𝐾𝐻𝑧.
4. Thyristors (SCRs) [Silicon Controlled Rectifiers]:
- High voltage, High current.
- Ratings: Up to 1000KV.
Up to 4.5KA.
- Switch frequency: 𝑓𝑠𝑤 = 20𝐾𝐻𝑧.
- Voltage Drop: 𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 ≈ 0.5𝑉 𝑡𝑜 2𝑉.

3
5. Power IGBTs [Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor]:
- High voltage, Medium frequency.
- Ratings: Up to 1.7KV.
Up to 2.4KA.
- Switch frequency: 𝑓𝑠𝑤 = 20𝐾𝐻𝑧.

POWER DIODES
 A semiconductor that conducts current in ONE direction ONLY.
- Forward direction: Diode conducts current from its Anode to its
Cathode (large current flow).
- Reverse direction: Diode does conduct very small current from (K) to (A) (leakage
current µAs).
 If large enough voltage is applied to the diode, it breaks
down and conducts current in the Reverse Direction.
 Switching time: The time it takes to switch from ‘ON’ state to
‘OFF’ State.
 Diode V-I characteristics ⇒
 Diode Forward Biased:
𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 𝜂𝑉
(𝑒 𝑇 − 1) ≈ 𝐼𝑠 𝜂𝑉
(𝑒 𝑇 )
𝐾𝑇
𝑉𝑇 =
𝑞
Where: 𝑉𝐷 : 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.
𝐼𝐷 : 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒.
𝐼𝑆 : 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ≈ 𝜇𝐴𝑠
𝜂: 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦) 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 1 𝑡𝑜 2.
𝑉𝑇 : 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒.
𝐾: 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 1.381 × 10−23 𝐽/𝐾
𝑇: 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 (𝑇 = 273 + °𝐶).
𝑞: 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 1.622 × 10−19 𝐶.

4
𝒆𝒙: Power diode details are as follow 𝑉𝐷 = 0.1𝑉 , 𝜂 = 1 , 𝑉𝑇 = 25.7𝑚𝑉, find the current
flow through the power diode (Anode to cathode).
0.1
(0.0257)
𝒔𝒐𝒍: 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 − 1) = 𝐼𝑆 (48.96 − 1) = 47.96𝐼𝑆 𝐴
0.1
( )
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∶ 𝐼𝐷 ≈ 𝐼𝑠 (𝑒 0.0257 ) = 48.96𝐼𝑆 𝐴

47.96 − 48.96
%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100% = 2.1%
47.96
𝒆𝒙: find the reverse saturation current, Given: 𝑉𝐷 = 1.2𝑉 𝑎𝑡 𝐼𝐷 = 300𝐴 , 𝜂 = 2 ,
𝑉𝑇 = 25.7𝑚𝑉.

𝒔𝒐𝒍:
𝐼𝐷 300
𝐼𝑆 = 𝑉𝐷 = 1.2 = 22𝑛𝐴
( )
𝜂𝑉
𝑒 𝑇 −1 𝑒 2×0.0257 −1
 Types of Power Diodes:
1. General Purpose Diode: Slow recovery time, used in low speed applications.
2. Fast Recovery Diode: Faster recovery time.
3. Schottky Diodes: Used in low ratings applications, low 𝑉𝐴𝐾 (0.3V).
 If 𝑓(𝑡) is a periodic function;
1 𝑇
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
1 𝑇 2
𝐹𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √ ∫ (𝑓(𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

5
CONNECTION OF MULTIPLE DIODES TOGETHER
 High voltage applications require high voltage ratings, which may not be met by the
use of a single diode.
- Diode Series Connection: Diode are connected in series to increase the
Reverse Blocking Capacities.
- Diode Parallel Connection: For high current applications, diodes are
connected in parallel to increase the Power (current) Capacity of the
connection to meet requirements.

CREATING DC COMPONENT USING ONE DIODE (HALF WAVE

RECTIFIER)

 𝑉𝑆 (𝑡) = (𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡) 𝑉

𝑉𝑆 (𝑡) = (220√2 sin 𝜔𝑡) 𝑉

1 𝜋
 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐷𝐶 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫0 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
2𝜋
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
= [− cos 𝜔𝑡]𝜋0 = [1 + 1] =
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶
 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶 =
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡

1 𝜋 𝑉𝑚
 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √ ∫ (𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)2 𝑑𝑡 =
2𝜋 0 2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆
 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡

 The output voltage consists of both AC value and DC value.

 𝑉𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡

2
𝑅𝑀𝑆
2
− 𝑉𝐷𝐶

6
  PIV (Peak Inverse Value)
= −220√2 𝑉

𝑃𝐴𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
 Load PF =
𝑆𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝐷𝐶
 Effiecency = 𝜂 =
𝑃𝐴𝐶
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆
 Form Factor (FF)=
𝑉𝐷𝐶
𝑉𝐴𝐶𝑅𝑀𝑆
 Ripple Factor (RF) = = √𝐹𝐹 2 − 1
𝑉𝐷𝐶
𝑃𝐴𝐶 𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑅𝑀𝑆 ×𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑅𝑀𝑆
 Input PF = =
𝑉𝐴𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑆 𝑅𝑀𝑆 ×𝐼𝑆 𝑅𝑀𝑆
 For Ideal Rectifier:
- 𝜂 = 100%
- 𝑉𝐴𝐶𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
- 𝑅𝐹 = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
- 𝑃𝐹 = 1
𝒆𝒙: For the circuit shown, find:
1- 𝑉𝑚 = 120 × √2 = 170𝑉
𝑉𝑚 170
2- 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶 = = = 54𝑉
𝜋 𝜋
54
3- 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶 = = 10.8𝐴 9- 𝑉𝐴𝐶𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √852 − 542 = 65.6𝑉
5
170 85
4- 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = = 85𝐴 10- 𝐹𝐹 = = 1.57 = 157%
2 54
85 65.6
5- 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 = = 17𝐴 11- 𝑅𝐹 = = √1.572 − 1 = 1.2 = 120%
5 54

6- 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 120𝑉 12- 𝑃𝐼𝑉 = −√2 × 120 = −170𝑉

7- 𝑃𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1
𝑃𝐷𝐶 54×10.8 5832𝑤
8- 𝜂 = = = = 0.404 = 40.4%
𝑃𝐴𝐶 85×17 1445𝑤

7
CREST FACTOR
 A guideline for Power Source Selection.
 The Crest Factor and the Peak Load Current are important in Power Source
Selection.
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐶𝐹 =
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
 For a sinusoidal waveform:
√2 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝐶𝐹 = = √2
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆
 But non-sinusoidal current waveform for loads such as Switching Power Supplies
OR Lamp Ballasts, gives waveforms of currents of short durations but high in
amplitude.
𝒆𝒙: 2 Loads, 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 120𝑉, 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 5𝐴, 𝑃 = 600𝑉𝐴
𝒔𝒐𝒍:
Load A: 𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 7.07𝐴
7.07
𝐶𝐹 = = √2
5
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 7 × 170 = 1200𝑊
Load B: 𝐼𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 21.2
21.2
𝐶𝐹 = = 4.2
5
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 21.2 × 170 = 3600𝑊

Instantaneous Power Waveform ⇒

If Power Source of 600VA is selected to supply load B, it won’t be suitable because it’s
underrated.

8
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH CENTER TAPPPED TRANSFORMER
 Input waveform at the diodes:

 Positive half cycle:

 Negative half cycle:

 PIV: Applying KVL ⇒

= 240√2 𝑉 = 340𝑉
2𝑉𝑚
 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑉𝐺 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 =
𝜋
𝑉𝑚
 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
√2
2𝑉𝑚 2𝑉𝑚 4
𝑃𝐷𝐶 𝑉𝐷𝐶 ×𝐼𝐷𝐶 ×𝜋𝑅 8
𝜋 𝜋2
 𝜂= = = 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 1 = = 0.811 = 81.1%
𝑃𝐴𝐶 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆 ×𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 × 𝜋2
√2 √2×𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 2
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆 √2 𝜋
 𝐹𝐹 = = 2𝑉𝑚 = = 1.11 = 111%
𝑉𝐷𝐶 2√2
𝜋

9
  𝑅𝐹 = √1.112 − 1 = 0.482 = 48.2%
𝑉𝑚
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
 𝐶𝐹 = 𝑉𝑚 = √2
√ 2×𝑅 𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝒆𝒙: For the circuit shown,

Find: 1- 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆
2- 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑉𝐺
3- PIV
𝒔𝒐𝒍:
Finding 𝑉𝑚′ = 210√2
1- 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝑉𝑚′ 210√2
= = = 210
√2 √2
Or using KVL: −210 + 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 0 ⇒ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 240 − (5 × 6) = 210𝑉
2- 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐴𝑉𝐺
2𝑉𝑚′ 2 × 210√2
= = = 189𝑉𝐷𝐶
𝜋 𝜋
3- 𝑃𝐼𝑉 = −√2 (480 − (5 × 6)) = −450√2 𝑉

10
FULLWAVE DIODE RECTIFIER
 Circuit:

 Positive Cycle:

 Negative Cycle:

 Input Current waveform:

11
 Output Voltage:

 PIV:

2𝑉𝑚
 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐷𝐶 =
𝜋
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2𝑉𝑚
 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶 = =
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜋×𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑚
 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
√2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑚
 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 = =
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 √2×𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑃𝐷𝐶 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶 × 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶
 𝜂= =
𝑃𝐴𝐶 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 ×𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 √2 𝜋
 𝐹𝐹 = = 2𝑉𝑚 =
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶 2√2
𝜋
 𝑅𝐹 = √𝐹𝐹 2 − 1
 𝑃𝐼𝑉 = −𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
 𝐶𝐹 = = √2
𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝑃𝐴𝐶 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 ×𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆
 𝑃𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = = =1
𝑉𝐴𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑆 𝑅𝑀𝑆 ×𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆
 Note that there might be resistors in the circuit which
will affect the voltage.

12
SINGLE PHASE UNCONTROLLED FULLWAVE RECITFIER WITH RL

 Most loads are inductive.

 𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) is identical in shape with 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡)
 KVL for a forward biased loads:
𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐿𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐿𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
 For such RL circuits, output current can be expressed as follows:
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = 𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑓 (𝑡) + 𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑛 (𝑡)
- Forced Response (𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑓 (𝑡)): Steady state current. The current remains after
natural response (transit) is decayed to zero.
√2 𝑉𝑚 𝜔𝐿
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) =
𝑓 𝑍
sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) |𝑍̂| = √𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿2 𝜃 = tan−1
𝑅

- Natural Response (𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑛 (𝑡)): Transient current. The transient when the load is
energized.
𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑛 (𝑡) −𝑅𝑡
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑛 (𝑡) = 0 ⇒ 𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑛 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
−𝑅𝑡
√2 𝑉𝑚
⇒ 𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) + 𝐴𝑒 𝐿 where A ≡ initial condition.
𝑍

SINGLE PHASE UNCONTROLLED FULLWAVE RECITFIER WITH RC

13
FOURIER ANALYSIS OF REPETITIVE WAVEFORMS
 Periodic function: 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑇) T: Periodic Time.
2𝜋
𝑓(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑓(𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜋) 𝜔: 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑇
 A non-sinusoidal waveform f(t) repeating with ω:
∞

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓𝐴𝑉𝐺 + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝜔𝑡]

𝑛=0,1,2,…
 Fourier series representation:
∞

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝐴𝑉𝐺 + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝜔𝑡]

𝑛=1,2,…
𝑇 𝜋
1 1×2 𝑉𝑚 𝜋 2𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝐴𝑉𝐺 = ∫ 𝑉𝑆 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 =
𝑇 0 2𝜋 0 𝜋 0 𝜋

2 𝑇 2×2 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑉𝑆 (𝑡) cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = ∫ 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇 0 2𝜋 0 𝑚
𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 , 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑛 = 1,3,5, …
={
? , 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑛 = 2,4,6, …

2 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … , ∞
𝜋 0

𝒆𝒙: Express the output voltage wave form of full bridge diode rectifier in Fourier series:
∞

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝐴𝑉𝐺 + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝜔𝑡]

𝑛=1,2,…

14
𝒔𝒐𝒍:
1 𝑇 1×2 𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝜋 2𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝐴𝑉𝐺 = ∫ 𝑉𝑆 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 =
𝑇 0 2𝜋 0 𝜋 0 𝜋
2𝑉𝑚 𝜋 2𝑉𝑚 1 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = ∫ [sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑛𝜔𝑡) + sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑛𝜔𝑡)] 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝜋 0 𝜋 2 0
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
= ∫ [sin(𝜔𝑡(1 + 𝑛)) + sin(𝜔𝑡(1 − 𝑛))] 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝜋 0
𝜋
𝑉𝑚 1 1
= [[− cos (𝜔𝑡(1 + 𝑛)) + − cos(𝜔𝑡(1 − 𝑛))]]
𝜋 1+n 1−n 0

𝑉𝑚 1 1
= [ (− ) [cos (𝜋(1 + 𝑛)) − cos 0] + (− ) [cos(𝜋(1 − 𝑛)) − cos 0 ]
𝜋 1+n 1−n
𝑉𝑚 1 1
𝑎1 = [ (− ) [cos (2𝜋) − 1] + (− ) [cos(0) − cos 0 ] = 𝑍𝐸𝑅𝑂
𝜋 2 0
𝑉𝑚 1 1 −4𝑉𝑚
𝑎2 = [ (− ) [cos (3𝜋) − 1] + (− ) [cos(𝜋) − cos 0 ] =
𝜋 3 1 3𝜋
∞
4𝑉𝑚 1
𝑎𝑛 = ∑
𝜋 (1 + 𝑛)(1 − 𝑛)
𝑛=2,4,…

2𝑉𝑚 𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = ∫ [cos(𝜔𝑡(1 + 𝑛)) − cos(𝜔𝑡(1 − 𝑛))] 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝜋 0 𝜋 0
𝜋
𝑉𝑚 1 1
= [[ sin (𝜔𝑡(1 − 𝑛)) − sin(𝜔𝑡(1 + 𝑛))]] = 𝑍𝐸𝑅𝑂 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛.
𝜋 1−n 1+n 0
∞
2𝑉𝑚 4𝑉𝑚 1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = + ∑ cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝜋 𝜋 (1 + 𝑛)(1 − 𝑛)
𝑛=2,4,…

15
𝒆𝒙: Express the input current waveform of a full bridge diode
rectifier in Fourier Series in the form:
∞

𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝐴𝑉𝐺 + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝜔𝑡]

𝑛=1,2,…

𝒔𝒐𝒍:
1 𝑇 1 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶
𝐼𝐴𝑉𝐺 = ∫ 𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝑑𝑡 = [∫ 𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝑑𝜔𝑡 − ∫ 𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝑑𝜔𝑡] = [𝜔𝑡]𝜋0 − 𝜔𝑡]2𝜋
𝜋 ]
𝑇 0 2𝜋 0 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶
= [𝜋 − 0 − 2𝜋 + 𝜋] = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶
𝑎𝑛 = [∫ cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 − ∫ cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡] = [sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡] 𝜋0 − sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡]2𝜋
𝜋 ]
𝜋 0 𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝐼𝐷𝐶
= [sin 𝑛𝜋 − 0 − sin 2𝑛𝜋 + sin 𝑛𝜋] = [2 sin 𝑛𝜋 − sin 2𝑛𝜋]
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶
𝑛 = 1 ⇒ 𝑎1 = [2 sin 𝜋 − sin 2𝜋] = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶
𝑛 = 2 ⇒ 𝑎2 = [2 sin 2𝜋 − sin 4𝜋] = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶
𝑏𝑛 = [∫ sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 − ∫ sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡] = [−cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡] 𝜋0 + cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡]2𝜋
𝜋 ]
𝜋 0 𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝐼𝐷𝐶
= [−cos 𝑛𝜋 + 1 + cos 2𝑛𝜋 − cos 𝑛𝜋] = [−2 cos 𝑛𝜋 + cos 2𝑛𝜋 + 1]
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝐼𝐷𝐶 4𝐼𝐷𝐶
𝑛 = 1 ⇒ 𝑏1 = [−2 cos 𝜋 + cos 2𝜋 + 1] = [2 + 1 + 1] =
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝐼𝐷𝐶
𝑛 = 2 ⇒ 𝑏2 = [−2 cos 2𝜋 + cos 4𝜋 + 1] = [−2 + 1 + 1] = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
2𝜋 𝜋
4𝐼𝐷𝐶
, 𝑛 = 1,3,5, …
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑏𝑛 = { 𝜋
0 , 𝑛 = 2,4,6, …
∞
4𝐼𝐷𝐶 1
𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) = ∑ sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝜋 𝑛
𝑛=1,3,5…
4𝐼𝐷𝐶
Fundamental component 𝑖𝑆1 (𝑡) =
𝜋
4𝐼𝐷𝐶
RMS Value 𝑖𝑆1 𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
𝜋 √2
16
POWER TRANSISTORS
 Have controlled turn-on and turn-off characteristics.
 They used as switching elements, operating in the saturation region, which results
in low on-state voltage drop.
 Assume these switches are ideal, unless stated otherwise.
 Voltage and current ratings are lower than those SCRs.
 Examples: IGBT, BJT, MOSFET, COOLMOS.
1. IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor):
 Most desirable for superior switching.
 Ratings: Up to 1.7KV and 2.4KA
 Being increasingly used in high power applications.
 Voltage controlled device.
 fsw up to 20KHz (Medium Speed).
 Applications: UPS systems, Static Converters (Rectifiers and Inverters), Power
supplies, …etc.
2. BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor):
 Current controlled device.
 fsw up to 10KHz.
 Ratings: Up to 1.2KV and 400A
3. MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor):
 Voltage controlled device.
 fsw up to 200KHz.
 Ratings: Up to 1KV and 100A

 Power transistor series and parallel connection

- Series connection of transistors increase voltage ratings. Matching devices
should be used; Gain, Transconductance, VT, On-State Voltage, Turn-On and
Turn-Off time.
- Parallel connection to increase load current. Matching devices should be used;
Gain, Transconductance, On-State Voltage, Saturation Voltage.

17
  Current sharing by 2 IGBTs, Reasonable current sharing 45% to 55%.
𝒆𝒙: For the circuit shown, both IGBT1 & IGBT2
carry current of 20A. Find ICE1 & ICE2.
𝒔𝒐𝒍:
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶1 + 𝐼𝐶2 ⇒ 𝐼𝐶2 = 𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶1
𝑉𝐶𝐸1 + 𝐼𝐶1 𝑅𝐸1 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸2 + 𝐼𝐶2 𝑅𝐸2
⇒ 𝑉𝐶𝐸1 + 𝐼𝐶1 𝑅𝐸1 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸2 + (𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶1 )𝑅𝐸2
⇒ 2.5 + 0.3𝐼𝐶1 = 3 + 0.2(20 − 𝐼𝐶1 )
⇒ 0.5𝐼𝐶1 = 4.5
𝐼𝐶1 = 9𝐴 𝐼𝐶2 = 11𝐴
9
IGBT1 current sharing = × 100% = 45%
20
11
IGBT2 current sharing = × 100% = 55%
20

18
ISOLATION OF GATE AND BASE DRIVES
 There is a need for interfacing circuit between the logic circuit and power transistor.

 The low level gate circuit must be isolated from high power circuit.
(1) The logic circuit generates 4 pulses.
(2) All 4 logic pulses have a common terminal.
(3) There is a need for isolation and interfacing circuit between the logic generator
and power transistors.

 Basically, isolating the gate (control) with respect to the ground is done by:
1. Pulse Transformer:
This one has disadvantages.

2. Opto-Couplers:
Opto-couplers combine Infrared LED (ILED) and a
silicon photo transistor.

19
DC-DC CONVERTOR (CHOPPER)
 DC voltage.
 Can be step up or step down.
 Applications:
Electrical cars, trolley cars, marine hoist, fork lift trucks …etc.
 Advantages:
Smooth acceleration control, high efficiency, and fast dynamic response.
𝑃𝐷𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶 × 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐴𝐶 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 × 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝑡𝑂𝑁 𝑡𝑂𝑁
𝐾(𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒) = =
𝑡𝑂𝑁 + 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑠𝑤

 When SW (switch/chopper) is closed for t1

 Input VS appears across the load.
 If this SW remains off for t2
 Voltage across the load = Zero.
 finite voltage drop across SW: 0.5V to 2.0V

20
  Calculations:
1 𝑇 1 𝑡1 𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑆 𝐾𝑇
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶 = ∫ 𝑉𝑆 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑉𝑆 𝑑𝑡 = [𝑡1 ] = = 𝐾𝑉𝑆
𝑇 0 𝑇 0 𝑇 𝑇
1 𝑇 2 1 𝐾𝑇 2 𝑉𝑆2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑆 𝑑𝑡 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑆 𝑑𝑡 = √ 𝐾𝑇 = √𝐾 𝑉𝑆
𝑇 0 𝑇 0 𝑇
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 √𝐾 𝑉𝑆
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 = =
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
 Assuming η = 1 , Pin = Pout
1 𝐾𝑇 1 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
2
1 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑆2 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑆2 𝐾𝑉𝑆2
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = ∫ 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [𝑡] = 𝐾𝑇 =
𝑇 0 𝑇 0 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇 0 𝑇𝑅 0 𝑇𝑅 𝑅
 Effective input resistance seen by the source:
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑆 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = = =
𝐼𝑆 𝐾𝑉𝑠 /𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐾
 This means that DC-DC converter makes the input resistance Rin as a variable
𝑅
resistance 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐾
 Constant Switching (Frequency) Operation:
1
- ⇒ 𝑇 is kept constant; t1 varies.
𝑓𝑠𝑤
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation).
 Variable Switching (Frequency) Operation:
1
- ⇒ 𝑇 is varied; either ON-Time (t1) or OFF-Time (t2) is kept constant.
𝑓𝑠𝑤
Frequency Modulation.

𝒆𝒙: For the circuit shown given K = 0.5, fsw=1 KHz, Vsw= 2V.
Calculate:

1-𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶 = 𝐾𝑉𝑆 = 0.5 × (220 − 2) = 0.5 × 218 = 109𝑉

2- 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √𝐾 𝑉𝑆 = √0.5 (218) = 154.15𝑉

154.15
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 ×𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 154.15× 10 154.152 2376.2
3- 𝜂 = = = 109 = = = 0.9909 = 99.09%
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝐷𝐶 ×𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶 220× 10 220×109 2398

𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑆 220 220
4- 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = = = = = 20.18Ω
𝐼𝑆 𝐾 𝑉𝑠 /𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 109/10 10.9

21
STEP UP DC-DC CONVERTER

 SW closed for t1:

𝑖1 rises and energy is stored in L
𝑑𝑖 𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿 ⇒ 𝑡 = Δ𝐼 ⋯ (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 1

 SW opened for t2:

Average output current
Δ𝐼
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐴𝑉𝐺 − 𝑉𝑆 − 𝐿 = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑡2
Δ𝐼
⇒ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐴𝑉𝐺 = 𝑉𝑆 + 𝐿 ⋯ (2)
𝑡2

 Substitute (1) in (2):

𝑉𝐿 𝑡1 𝐾𝑇 𝐾 1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐴𝑉𝐺 = 𝑉𝑆 + 𝐿 = 𝑉𝑆 + 𝑉𝑆 [ ] = 𝑉𝑆 [1 + ] = 𝑉𝑆 [ ]
𝐿 𝑡2 (1 − 𝐾)𝑇 1−𝐾 1−𝐾
 This means that the voltage across the load can be stepped up by varying the duty
cycle (K). 0 < 𝐾 < 1
1
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐾 = 0.5 ⇒ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐴𝑉𝐺 = 𝑉𝑆 [ ] = 2𝑉𝑆
0.5
𝒆𝒙: Given VS = 12 V calculate the output DC voltage when:
a) Duty cycle = 10%
1 1 12
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶 = 𝑉𝑆 [ ] = 12 × = = 13.3𝑉
1−𝐾 1 − 0.1 0.9
b) Duty cycle = 90%
1 1 12
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶 = 𝑉𝑆 [ ] = 12 × = = 120𝑉
1−𝐾 1 − 0.9 0.1

22
SCR THYRISTORS
 SCR is a:
- Four layer device.
- 3 Terminals device.
- Latching device; gate signal should be removed.
- Current Controlled Device.
- High rated voltage and current.
- Up to 1MV and 4.5KA
- fsw = 10KHz to 20KHz.
- Vdrop = 1.0V
- SCR can recover from conducting state to non-
conducting state when It=Zero.
- SCR cannot be turned off by gate.

 Once SCR conducts, it behaves as a conducting

device, and there is no control over it.

α: Firing angle.
23
CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS; THYRISTOR HALF BRIDGE RECTIFIER
1. Sketch the output voltage
waveform and input current
waveform at a firing angle of
30° for the case of infinity
output inductor.
2. What current would flow in
20Ω with 240V supply?
3. what is the drop in DC voltage
due to the firing angle?

ANS:
1.

2.
1 𝑇 2 𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑉𝐺 = ∫ 𝑉𝑠 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = [− cos 𝜔𝑡]𝜋𝛼 = [− cos 𝜋 + cos 𝛼]
𝑇 0 2𝜋 𝛼 𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝑚
= [1 + cos 𝛼] = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑉𝐺
𝜋
240√2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐴𝑉𝐺 = [1 + cos 30°] = 201.6𝑉
𝜋
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶 201.6
𝐼20Ω = = = 10.1𝐴
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 20
3.
240√2 240√2
Δ𝑉𝛼 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 |𝛼=0 − 𝑉𝐷𝐶 |𝛼=30° = [1 + cos 0°] − [1 + cos 30°] = 216.1 − 201.6
𝜋 𝜋
= 14.48𝑉

24
 𝜋
𝒆𝒙: For a thyristor half bridge rectifier with 𝛼 = 2 :
1- Input Voltage Waveform

2- Output Voltage Waveform

3- Input Current Waveform

4- Output Current Waveform

5- What is the Voltage drop due to the firing angle?

240√2 240√2
Δ𝑉𝛼 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 |𝛼=0 − 𝑉𝐷𝐶 |𝛼=90° = [1 + cos 0°] − [1 + cos 90°] = 216 − 108
𝜋 𝜋
= 108𝑉
25
6- By varying α from zero to π, output DC voltage varies from 2Vm/π V to Zero V.
7- What firing angle (α) is required on a half bridge controlled thyristor rectifier from a
240V, 50Hz supply to provide DC side average voltage of 110V?
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑉𝐺 = [1 + cos 𝛼]
𝜋
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐴𝑉𝐺 𝜋 110𝜋
cos 𝛼 = −1= − 1 = 0.0182
𝑉𝑚 240√2
⇒ 𝛼 = 89°
8- Express the input current waveform on Fourier series in
the form:
∞

𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝐴𝑉𝐺 + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡]

𝑛=1,2,…

Given:sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵

sin(𝜋 + 𝛼) = sin 𝜋 cos 𝛼 + cos 𝜋 sin 𝛼 = sin(𝜋 + 𝛼) = − sin 𝛼
1 𝑇 1 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶
𝐼𝐴𝑉𝐺 = ∫ 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = [∫ 𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝑑𝜔𝑡 − ∫ 𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝑑𝜔𝑡] = [𝜔𝑡|𝜋𝛼 − 𝜔𝑡|2𝜋
𝜋+𝛼 ]
𝑇 0 2𝜋 𝛼 𝜋+𝛼 2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶
= [𝜋 − 𝛼 − 2𝜋 + 𝜋 + 𝛼] = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶
𝑎𝑛 = [∫ cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 − ∫ cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡] = [sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 |𝜋𝛼 − sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 |2𝜋
𝜋+𝛼 ]
𝜋 𝛼 𝜋+𝛼 𝑛𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶
= [sin 𝑛𝜋 − sin 𝑛𝛼 − sin 2𝑛𝜋 + sin 𝑛(𝜋 + 𝛼)]
𝑛𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 2𝐼𝐷𝐶
𝑛 = 1 ⇒ 𝑎1 = [sin 𝜋 − sin 𝛼 − sin 2𝜋 − sin 𝛼] = − sin 𝛼
𝜋 𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶
𝑛 = 2 ⇒ 𝑎2 = [sin 2𝜋 − sin 2𝛼 − sin 4𝜋 + sin 2𝛼] = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶
𝑏𝑛 = [∫ sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 − ∫ sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡] = [−cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 | 𝜋𝛼 + cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 | 2𝜋
𝜋+𝛼 ]
𝜋 𝛼 𝜋+𝛼 𝑛𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶
= [−cos 𝑛𝜋 + cos 𝑛𝛼 + cos 2𝑛𝜋 − cos 𝑛(𝜋 + 𝛼)]
𝑛𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝐼𝐷𝐶 2𝐼𝐷𝐶
𝑛 = 1 ⇒ 𝑏1 = [−cos 𝜋 + cos 𝛼 + cos 2𝜋 + cos 𝛼] = [2 + 2 cos 𝛼] = [1 + cos 𝛼]
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
26
𝑛 = 2 ⇒ 𝑏2 = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
2𝐼𝐷𝐶 2𝐼𝐷𝐶
− sin 𝛼 , 𝑛 = 1,3,5, … [1 + cos 𝛼], 𝑛 = 1,3,5, …
𝑎𝑛 = { 𝜋 𝑏𝑛 = { 𝜋
0 , 𝑛 = 2,4,6, … 0 , 𝑛 = 2,4,6, …
∞
2𝐼𝐷𝐶 1
𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) = ∑ [−sin 𝛼 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 + (1 + cos 𝛼) sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡]
𝜋 𝑛
𝑛=1,3,5…

SINGLE PHASE FULL BRIDGE SCR RECTIFIER

 Similar to diode rectifiers, input
supply voltage is a sinusoidal, for
example, 240V, 50Hz.
 The DC output voltage contains
ripples at different harmonic
frequencies.
 However, load inductance can be
assumed sufficiently large, so that
load current is continuous and
negligible ripple.
 During positive half cycle of Vs(t):
- T1 & T2 are forward biased [ON].
- T1 & T2 are turned ON simultaneously.
- Due to the inductive load, T1 & T2
continue to conduct beyond π even input
voltage is increasingly negative.
 During positive half cycle of Vs(t):
- T3 & T4 are forward biased [ON].
- T1 & T2 are turned OFF.
- Load current transfers to T3 & T4.

27
𝒆𝒙: For the previous full bridge SCR rectifier sketch the output voltage wave form at firing
angle of 30° then calculate I20Ω.

𝒔𝒐𝒍:
1 𝑇 1 𝜋+𝛼 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐷𝐶 = ∫ 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = ∫ 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = [− cos 𝜔𝑡]𝜋+𝛼
𝛼 = [cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛼]
𝑇 0 𝑇 𝛼 𝜋
2𝑉𝑚
= [cos 𝛼]
𝜋
2 × 240√2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐷𝐶 = cos 30° = 187𝑉
𝜋
187
𝐼𝐷𝐶 20Ω = = 9.3𝐴
20

 If α varies from 0° degree to π, VoutDC varies from 2Vm/π to -2Vm/π.

 Review:
- Once SCR is ON and IT > IH it continues to conduct even if G signal is removed.
- SCR is a latching device:
 Gate signal should be removed.
 Gate signal should not be applied during SCR reverse bias.
- SCR Turn-off, by reducing IT (forward current) to a level below the holding current
(IT < IH) for a long time.

28
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION CONTROL

 Q1 and Q2 are ON simultaneously, while Q3 and Q4 are

OFF.
 Similarly, Q3 and Q4 are ON simultaneously, while Q1
and Q2 are OFF.
 In PWM the converter switches turned ON and OFF
several times during a half cycle, and output voltage is
controlled by varying the width of pulses.
 Gating signals Vg3 & Vg4 are logic inverse of Vg1 & Vg2.

29
DC-AC CONVERTOR (INVERTER)
 Input: DC Voltage.
 Output: Symmetric AC output voltage of
desired magnitude and frequency accomplished by PMW.
 Output voltage waveform:
- Sinusoidal waveform.
- Quasi Square waveform.
- Square waveform.

 Application of inverters:
- Industrial; variable speed AC motor drivers.
- Renewable energy.
- Transportation.
- Industrial heating.
- Standby power supplies.
- UPS.
 Inverter Inputs (DC source):
- Battery.
- Fuel cell.
- Solar cell.
- Other Dc sources.
 Typical Output:
- Low power 1 phase: 120V, 60Hz; 230V, 50Hz.
- High power 3 phase: 208/120V, 60Hz; 400/230V, 50Hz.
 Electrical Switch:
- MOSFET
- IGBT
- BJT
- SCR

30
SINGLE PHASE HALF BRIDGE INVERTER
 Principle of Operation:
- Q1 is ON for T/2 ⇒ Q2 is OFF
𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐷𝐶 Instantaneous voltage across the load.
2
- Q2 is ON for To/2 ⇒ Q1 is OFF
𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − 𝐷𝐶 appears across the load.
2
 Logic circuit:
Q1 & Q2 should NEVER turn on the same time.
1 𝑇 𝑉𝐷𝐶
 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √ ∫0 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
2
𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇 2

 Fourier Series representation of the output Voltage:

∞
2𝑉𝐷𝐶
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = ∑ sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑛𝜋
𝑛=1,3,5,…

𝒆𝒙: Calculate:
1- Output fundamental RMS voltage.
2- Output Power.
3- Peak current; Average current of each transistor.
4- Input current (Avg).
5- VBR at transistor.
Given K=0.5

31
𝒔𝒐𝒍:
2𝑉𝐷𝐶
1- 𝑛 = 1 ⇒ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋

2𝑉𝐷𝐶 2 × 48
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = = = 21.6𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝜋√2 𝜋√2
2
𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑉𝐷𝐶 48 48 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
2- 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 = × = × = 240𝑊 = 𝑅𝑀𝑆
2 2 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 2 2×2.4 𝑅𝑂𝑈𝑇

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝐷𝐶 /2 24
3- 𝐼𝑃 = = = = 10𝐴
𝑅 𝑅 2.4
10
𝐼𝑄 = = 5𝐴 (each transistor conducts for 50% of time)
2
𝑃 240
4- 𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑉𝐺 = = = 5𝐴
𝑉𝐷𝐶 48

5- 𝑉𝐵𝑅 = 2 × 24 = 48𝑉 for each

transistor.

 Plot the PMW inverter output voltage of 120V, 50Hz, fsw

=1KHz
1/2 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 10 𝑚𝑠
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑠 = = = 10 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑇𝑠𝑤 1 𝑚𝑠

32
SINGLE PHASE HALF BRIDGE PWM INVERTER

𝑇𝑂
1 𝑇𝑜 𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑉𝐷𝐶 2
𝑇𝑂
𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑇2𝑂 𝑇𝑂
𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑜
𝑉𝐴𝑉𝐺 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = [∫ 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ 𝑑𝑡] = [𝑡|0 − 𝑡| 𝑇2𝑂 ] = [ − 𝑇𝑜 + ] = 0
𝑇𝑜 0 2 2𝑇𝑂 0 𝑇𝑂 2𝑇𝑂 2𝑇𝑂 2 2
2

𝑇𝑜
2 𝑇𝑜 𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑉𝐷𝐶 2 𝑇𝑜
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = ∫ cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 − ∫ cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇𝑜 0 2 𝑇𝑜 0 𝑇𝑜
2
𝑇𝑜
𝑉𝐷𝐶 1 1 𝑇 𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑛𝑇𝑜 𝑛𝑇𝑜
= [ sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 |02 − sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 |𝑇𝑜𝑜 ] = [sin − sin 0 − sin 𝑛𝑇𝑜 + sin ]
𝑇𝑜 𝑛 𝑛 2 𝑛𝑇𝑜 2 2
𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑛𝑇𝑜 𝑉𝐷𝐶
= [2 sin − sin 𝑛𝑇𝑜 ] = [2 sin 𝑛𝜋 − sin 2𝑛𝜋]
𝑛𝑇𝑜 2 2𝑛𝜋
𝑉𝐷𝐶
𝑎1 = [2 sin 𝜋 − sin 2𝜋] = 𝑍𝐸𝑅𝑂
2𝜋
𝑉𝐷𝐶
𝑎2 = [2 sin 2𝜋 − sin 4𝜋] = 𝑍𝐸𝑅𝑂
4𝜋
𝑇𝑜
2 𝑇𝑜 𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑉𝐷𝐶 2 𝑇𝑜
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = ∫ sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 − ∫ sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇𝑜 0 2 𝑇𝑜 0 𝑇𝑜
2
𝑇𝑜
𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑇 𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑛𝑇𝑜 𝑛𝑇𝑜
= [− cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 |02 + cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 |𝑇𝑜𝑜 ] = [−cos + cos 0 + cos 𝑛𝑇𝑜 − cos ]
𝑛𝑇𝑜 2 𝑛𝑇𝑜 2 2

33
 𝑉𝐷𝐶
= [−2 cos 𝑛𝜋 + 1 + cos 2𝑛𝜋 ]
2𝑛𝜋
𝑉𝐷𝐶 4𝑉𝐷𝐶 2𝑉𝐷𝐶
𝑏1 = [−2 cos 𝜋 + 1 + cos 2𝜋] = =
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝐷𝐶
𝑏2 = [−2 cos 2𝜋 + 1 + cos 4𝜋] = 𝑍𝐸𝑅𝑂
4𝜋
∞
2𝑉𝐷𝐶
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = ∑ sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑛𝜋
𝑛=1,3,…

2𝑉𝐷𝐶
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡1 (𝑡) = sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑉𝐷𝐶 = 48 ⇒ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡1 (𝑡) = 30.57 sin 𝜔𝑡
30.57
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡1𝑅𝑀𝑆 (𝑡) = = 21.6
√2
Number of Pulses:
1 1
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 × 20 𝑚𝑠
2 = 2 =1
𝑇𝑠𝑤 10 𝑚𝑠
 For the voltage function:
4 𝛼
𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 sin (90 − ) by varying 𝛼 from zero to π.
𝜋 2
4
- The peak voltage varies from 𝑉𝐷𝐶 V to zero.
𝜋
4
- The RMS voltage varies from 𝑉 V to zero.
𝜋√2 𝐷𝐶
4 4
𝛼 = 0 ⇒ 𝑉𝐷𝐶 sin(90 − 0) = 𝑉𝐷𝐶
𝜋 𝜋
4 𝜋
𝛼 = 𝜋 ⇒ 𝑉𝐷𝐶 sin (90 − ) = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝜋 2

34
SINGLE PHASE FULL BRIDGE INVERTER

∞
4𝑉𝐷𝐶
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = ∑ sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑛𝜋
𝑛=1,3,…

4𝑉𝐷𝐶 4 × 48
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡1 (𝑡) = sin 𝜔𝑡 = = 61 𝑉
𝜋 𝜋
61
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡1 = 𝑉 = 43 𝑉
𝑅𝑀𝑆
√2
Q1 & Q2 ON: VDC across the load.
Q3 & Q4 ON: - VDC across the load.
𝑇𝑜
2 2 2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑜 0
4 × 𝑉𝐷𝐶
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆1 = = 0.9 𝑉𝐷𝐶
𝜋√2
2 2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝑉𝐷𝐶 482
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = = = = 960 𝑤
𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 2.4
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 48
𝐼𝑝 = = = 20𝐴 peak current of each transistor each conduct 50% of time.
𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 2.4
20
𝐼𝑄 = = 10𝐴 average current of each transistor.
2

𝑉𝐵𝑅 = −48𝑉 peak reverse blocking voltage of each transistor.

35
 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 960
𝐼𝑤 = = = 20𝐴 average supply input current.
𝑉𝐷𝐶 48

2 2
√𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆
− 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆1
2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2
− 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 482 − 432
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑅𝑀𝑆1
𝑇𝐻𝐷 = =√ 2 = √ = 0.483 = 48.3%
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 48 2
1 𝑅𝑀𝑆1

AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS (PHASE ANGLE CONTROLL)

 AC voltage controllers convert fixed AC input RMS voltage into variable output AC
RMS voltage.
 Control the power transfer between the AC supply and load; and is done by varying
the RMS voltage of the load.
 Phase angle control: connect load to AC source for portion of each input voltage
cycle.
 ON-OFF control: connect the load for few cycles of supply voltage only.
 Applications:
- Industrial heating.
- Speed control of bipolar induction motor.
- ON load transformer tap changing.
- Reactive power control.
- Light Control.
 The Control is either:
1. Full Wave (Bidirectional) Controller

2. Half Wave (Unidirectional) Controller

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  Positive Half Cycle: Power is controlled by varying 𝛼1 of 𝑇1 .
𝑇1 : 𝛼1 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 180°
𝑇2 : 𝛼2 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 180° 𝑡𝑜 360°
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 ≠ 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑅𝑀𝑆

 Negative Half Cycle: Power is controlled by varying

𝛼2 of 𝑇2 .
To switch off thyristor: 𝐼𝑇 < 𝐼𝐿 .

FULL WAVE AC CONTROLLER

1 𝑇 2 1×2 𝜋 2 2 2 2𝑉𝑠2 𝜋 1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑆 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = √ ∫ √2 𝑉𝑆 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = √ ∫ (1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇 0 2𝜋 𝛼 𝜋 𝛼 2

2 𝜋 2 𝜋 2
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑆 1 𝑉𝑆 1 1
= √ ∫ (1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = √ [𝜔𝑡 − sin 2𝜔𝑡] = √ (𝜋 − sin 2𝜋 − 𝛼 + sin 2𝛼)
𝜋 𝛼 𝜋 2 𝛼
𝜋 2 2

𝜋 0 𝛼 1 𝛼 1
= √𝑉𝑆2 ( − − + sin 2𝛼) = 𝑉𝑠 √1 − + sin 2𝛼
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
𝜋
1 𝑇 1×2 𝜋 √2𝑉𝑆
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐴𝑉𝐺 = ∫ 𝑉𝑆 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ √2 𝑉𝑆 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = [ cos 𝜔𝑡 ]
𝑇 0 2𝜋 𝛼 𝜋 𝛼
√2𝑉𝑆
= (1 + cos 𝛼)
𝜋

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 2 2
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆
/𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆
/𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝑃𝐹 = = = =
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑅𝑀𝑆 × 𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑀𝑆 ×
𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝜋
1 2 𝑉𝑠 𝛼 1
𝐼𝑆𝐶𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑆 =√ 2 ∫ √2 𝑉𝑆2 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = √1 − + sin 2𝛼
2𝜋𝑅𝐿 𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝛼 √2𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝜋 2𝜋

𝜋
1 √2𝑉𝑆
𝐼𝑆𝐶𝑅𝐴𝑉𝐺 = ∫ √2 𝑉𝑆 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = (1 + cos 𝛼)
2𝜋𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝛼 2𝜋𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
 By varying firing angle from 0 to π, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 varies from VS V to Zero V.
2√2𝑉𝑠
 By varying firing angle from 0 to π, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐴𝑉𝐺 varies from V to Zero V.
𝜋
 If α = Zero ⇒ PF=1
 If α > Zero ⇒ PF<1
 let α = 135°

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SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE (UNIDERICTIONAL) AC CONTROLLER
1 𝑇 2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑆 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

𝜋 2𝜋
1 2 2
= √ [∫ √2 𝑉𝑆 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 + ∫ √2 𝑉𝑆2 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡]
2 2
2𝜋 𝛼 𝜋

2𝑉2𝑠 𝜋 1 2𝜋 1
=√ [∫ (1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝜔𝑡 + ∫ (1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝜔𝑡]
2𝜋 𝛼 2 𝜋 2

𝜋 2𝜋
𝑉𝑆2 1 1
= √ [𝜔𝑡 − sin 2𝜔𝑡] + [𝜔𝑡 − sin 2𝜔𝑡]
2𝜋 2 𝛼 2 𝜋

𝑉𝑆2 1 1 1 1
= √ (𝜋 − sin 2𝜋 − 𝛼 + sin 2𝛼 + 2𝜋 − sin 4𝜋 − 𝜋 + sin 2𝜋)
2𝜋 2 2 2 2

𝛼 1
= 𝑉𝑠 √1 − + sin 2𝛼
2𝜋 4𝜋

1 𝑇 1 𝜋 2𝜋
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐴𝑉𝐺 = ∫ 𝑉𝑆 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = [∫ √2 𝑉𝑆 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 + ∫ √2 𝑉𝑆 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡]
𝑇 0 2𝜋 𝛼 𝜋
𝜋 2𝜋
√2𝑉𝑆
= [[ cos 𝜔𝑡 ] + [ cos 𝜔𝑡 ] ]
2𝜋 𝛼 𝜋

√2𝑉𝑆 √2𝑉𝑆
= [− cos 𝜋 + cos 𝛼 − cos 2𝜋 + cos 𝜋] = (−1 + cos 𝛼)
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑉𝑠
 By varying firing angle from 0 to π, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 varies from VS V to V.
√2
−√2𝑉𝑠
 By varying firing angle from 0 to π, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐴𝑉𝐺 varies from Zero V to V.
2𝜋

𝒆𝒙: 𝛼 = 135° 𝑉𝑠 = 230𝑉

3
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 230√1 − + 0.08 = 169.8𝑉
4×2

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