PHYSICS E-NOTES

SECOND TERM YEAR 12

TOPICS

 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
 SIMPLE A.C CIRCUIT
 MODELS OF THE ATOM
 RADIOACTIVITY
 ENERGY QUANTIZATION AND DUALITY OF MATTER
 MAINTENANCE OF MACHINES
 SEMI-CONDUCTORS
 OPTICAL FIBRE, LASER
Topic: Electromagnetic Field

Electromagnetic field is a field representing the joint interaction of electric and

magnetic forces.

The electric field component is produced by the voltage on a current carrying

conductor while the magnetic field is produced by the flow of electric current in
the conductor. The two fields permeate all the space around a current carrying
conductor.

When a current carrying conductor is passed in a magnetic field, the conductor will
experience a force.

To identify the directions of the force (motion), current and field, Fleming’s Left
Hand Rule is employed.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule:
It states that, ‘’If the first three fingers are mutually at right angles to each other,
with the Forefinger in the direction of the field, B and the mIddle finger in the
direction of the convectional current, I, then, the thuMb is in the direction of the
motion, M or force on the conductor’’.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule is for current-carrying conductor, used to determine the
direction of current in a conductor.

FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENT-CARRYING

CONDUCTORS
Case I: Two parallel current-carrying conductors with current in opposite
directions.

Repulsive force

Here, a repulsive force is created between the two conductors because the magnetic
field moves towards the same direction. Hence, they tend to move away from each
other.
Case II: Two parallel current-carrying conductors with current in the same
direction.

Attractive force

Here, an attractive force is created between the two conductors because the
magnetic field moves towards different directions. Hence, they tend to move
towards each other. This is why you see sticks attached to the PHCN 240V lines in
our streets, which prevent the conductors from moving towards each other.
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
1. Moving-Coil Galvanometer
Components:
i. A rectangular coil with many turns.
ii. A powerful magnetic field between the curved pole N & S, and a soft iron
cylinder.
iii. Spring to control the angle of rotation of the coil.
iv. A pointer and a linear scale.

Workability:
The coil is suspended so that it can rotate freely in the magnetic field. When a
current flows, it enters the meter from the terminal connected to the spring, goes
round the coil and returns back. As the circuit is completed, the coil then rotates
about its axis between the jeweled bearings. The rotation is due to the two
opposite forces of the current and the magnetic field. The torque experience by
the coil is given as:
 Γ =BANI … … … (ii)

Where Γ is the torque, B is the magnetic field strength, A is area of the coil, N is
the number of turns in the coil and I is the current.

This rotation is then opposed by the forces due to the springs. The pointer attains
equilibrium position when the forces causing the rotation are equal to the forces
due to the springs.
The angle of rotation is proportional to the current strength, that is, increase in
current increases the angle of rotation.
The uniform scale is calibrated in a way that equal divisions represent equal
changes in current. The value of the current can then be read on the scale.
2. The Electric Motor
This is a device which can convert electric energy into rotational mechanical
energy. It consists of coils of wire pivoted in a magnetic field. When current flows
through the coil, it experiences a torque which makes is to spin about its axis in the
magnetic field.

Components:
1. A coil of wire called the armature, which turns about a fixed axis.
2. A powerful magnetic field in which the coil turns.
3. A cummutator (split rings).

Workability:
When the armature is horizontal and current flows through the coil, the direction is
clockwise. This produces S-pole on top of the armature, which then is attracted to
the N-pole of the permanent magnet; likewise the N-pole of the armature at the
bottom, which also gets attracted to the S-pole of the permanent magnet. Hence,
the armature rotates through 90 ° about its axis to the vertical position.
As the armature rotates, the cummutator also rotates with it, making the split rings
to interchange contact. This therefore reverses the polarity because the battery
connection to the coil is reversed, thus, reversing the current’s direction.
This reversal in current produces N-pole in place of the S-pole. This created N-
pole will now be repelled by the N-pole of the permanent magnet, making the
armature to rotate another 90 ° about its axis to attain its horizontal position.
As the current continues to flow, the process is repeated, making the armature
(coil) to rotate continuously.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Michael Faraday discovered that electricity could be produced without any battery
by using magnetic fields.
Electromagnetic induction is defined as a process whereby an emf is produced
or induced in a conductor by the relative motion of the conductor and a
magnetic field.
Experiments show that:
a) An emf is induced in the coil whenever there is a relative motion between
the coil and the magnet.
b) The magnitude of the induced emf increases when the speed of the relative
motion between the magnet and the coil, the strength of the magnet, the
number of turns of the coil all increases.
c) The induced emf would also increase if there is soft iron core inside the coil.
In the diagram below, when a magnet is plunged into the coil, the
galvanometer needle deflects showing that a current has been induced in the
coil. On withdrawing the magnet from the coil, the galvanometer gave
 another deflection in an opposite direction. This effect is called
electromagnetic induction. No current is induced if the magnet is stationary
inside on outside the coil.

Figure m:
Current can also be induced in a straight conductor when a magnetic field is
applied perpendicular to it. The direction of the current is given by FLEMING’S
RIGHT HAND RULE, which state that,
’If the first three fingers of the right hand are held at right angle to each
other, with the Forefinger in the direction of the field, and the thumb in the
direction of the motion, then the middle finger is in the direction of the
induced current’.
Note that FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE is used to determine the direction of
current in a conductor; while FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE is used to
determine the induced emf in a magnetic field.

LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1. Faraday’s Law:
- Whenever there is a change in the magnetic lines of force (magnetic flux)
linked with a circuit, an emf is induced in the circuit the strength of which is
proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux linking the circuit.
2. Lenz’s Law: It states that the induced emf flows in such a way or direction
as to oppose the motion producing it.
Lenz’s law is an application of the law of conservation of energy.

EDDY CURRENTS
When a metallic sheet such as an aluminum sheet swings in a magnetic field, it
cuts through the magnetic lines of force. Hence, the sheet quickly comes to rest
and such motion is said to be damped. This is in line with Lenz’s law because the
induced emf in the sheet opposed the sheet’s motion, making it to come to rest.
This induced emf also produces induced current, known as Eddy Current, because
it flows in circular paths or closed loops within the conducting material like the
eddy current in water.
Advantages of eddy currents are:
- They are desirable in moving coil instruments because of the resulting
damping known as electromagnetic damping
Disadvantages are:
- They generate heat in materials;
- The heat generated leads to wastage of energy in electrical devices.

A.C Generator
There are two types of generators; a. c and d. c generators
The a. c generator has the following features;
1. An armature- a regular coil (a rotor)
2. A magnetic field
3. Two copper slip rings which rotates with the armature
4. Two stationary carbon brushes made to press lightly against the
slip rings
The coil of insulated wire (the armature) turns in the magnetic field. In the process,
the coil cuts the lines of force in the magnetic field. As a result, e. m. f is induced
in the coil. The induced e. m. f is picked up from the slip rings by means of carbon
brushes.

D.C Generator
If the slip rings are replaced with a single split ring, then the generator will produce
direct current (d. c.) the output when the slip rings are replaced with a split ring is
shown below

The magnitude of induced e. m. f depends on the following;

1. The number of turns in the coil
2. Magnetic field strength
3. Speed (velocity) of the rotating coil.

Types of inductance

1. Self inductance
 This occurs when there is a change in the current flowing in a coil. This
alters the flux in the coil thereby inducing an emf in the coil. The emf
generated is given as:
δI
E=L
δt
The energy stored in the inductor is given as:

1 2
energy= L I
2
2. Mutual inductance
This is when the change in current in a coil induced emf in another coil close
by.
The induced emf is given as
δ I1
E 2= M
δt
M is the mutual inductance and it is given as:
A N 1 N2
M =μ0
I

GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. Itemise the demerits of the eddy current.
2. What is electromagnetic induction?
Assignment: Ex. 7 number 19 page 452 New School Physics

Sub-Topic: The Transformer

A transformer is an electrical device for charging the size of an a.c voltage. It acts
to increase or decrease the e. m. f of an a. c. It consists of two separate sets of coils;
the primary and the secondary coil. The primary coil is the input winding of turns
of wire and the secondary coil is the output winding. The coils are woven round a
soft-iron core. The soft-iron core serves to increase and concentrate the magnetic
flux within the core. It is also laminated to reduce loss of energy in the form of
heat due to eddy current in the core.

Working principal of the transformer

When an a. c voltage Ep is applied at the terminal of the primary coil, an
alternating magnetic flux is produced in the iron core which links/threads the
secondary coil. An alternating e. m. f, Es of the same frequency as that of Ep is
induced in the secondary coil by mutual induction
Transformer formula
 number of turns∈ primary coil voltage∈ primary coil
=
number of turns∈ secondary coil voltage∈ secondarycoil

Np Vp
=
Ns V s

also

number of turns∈ primary coil current∈secondary coil

=
number of turns∈ secondary coil current ∈ primary coil

N p Is
=
Ns Ip

N p V p Is
= ¿
Ns V s Ip

In practice, the efficiency of the transformer is never 100% because energy is

lost in the transformer due to:

1. Heating in the coil: this is as a result of the resistance in the primary and
secondary coil of the transformer. It can be reduced by thick wire or wire
with low resistance for the coils
2. Eddy current losses in the coil: eddy current are produced by the varying
flux cutting the iron core. They consume power from the primary coil. It can
be reduced by laminating the core
3. Hysteresis loss: This is wasted energy due to reversing of magnetization of
core. It can be reduced by using a special alloy in the core of the primary
coil or by using soft iron core.
4. Flux leakage: This arises because not all the lines of induction due to current
in the primary coil pass entirely through the iron core of the secondary coil.
It can be reduced by using special form of coil winding

All these tend to reduce the efficiency of the transformer.

Efficiency of a transformer.
power output
ɳ= ×100
power input
 I sV s
ɳ= ×100
I pV p

Example A

A 95% efficient transformer is used to operate a lamp rated 60W, 220V from a
4400V a. c supply. Calculate the;
a. Ratio of the number of turns in the primary coil to the number of turns
in the secondary coil of the transformer
b. Current taken from the main circuit
Solution
Ns Es
i. From Np = Ep
Ns Es 200 1
Np
= = =
Ep 4400 20
Np : Ns = 20:1
output power
ii. From ᶓ = ¿ put power x 100%
95% = 60/4400Ip x 100%
95/100 = 60/4400I x 100/100
95 x 4400Ip = 100 x 60
6000
Ip = 95 x 4400
Ip = 0.014A or 14mA

The Induction Coil

The induction coil is a device used in the car ignition system and in the operation
of X-ray tube.
The induction coil produces a high voltage by induction, using only a low voltage
battery such as 12v. In a car, it produces a spark to fire the petrol –air mixture for
the engine.
It has a primary coil of a few turns and a secondary coil of large number of turns.
When the primary circuit is made, a current flows in the primary coil. The iron
hammer is then attracted, so breaking the circuit at the contact point. This makes
the large magnetic flux in the secondary coil fall quickly. A high voltage is then
produced which causes a spark between the gap as the circuit is made and broken
repeatedly. A capacitor is connected to reduce the spark produced across the gap.

Evaluation

1. State the laws of electromagnetic induction. Explain, with the aid of

diagrams, how Lenz’s law is an application of energy conservation.
2. A galvanometer has a resistance of 5Ω. By using a shunt wire of resistance
of 0.05Ω, the galvanometer could be converted to an ammeter capable of
capable of reading 2A. What value of current flows through the
galvanometer?
3. State two reasons why power is transmitted at low current and high voltage.
4. A transformer is connected to a 220Vrms supply. The primary turn has
22,000turns and the secondary voltage is found to be 20V; calculate the
number of turns in the secondary coil
5. Explain what is meant that the efficiency of a transformer is 88%. And give
two reasons why this is so. Draw a labelled diagram of a transformer
suitable to convert 240Vac to 20Vac. Give details of the materials used in its
structure.
Topic: Simple a.c circuit

Alternating current, a.c, is a current that changes direction periodically. The current
supplied to consumers is alternating. Alternating current is used instead of direct
current (d.c) because it is easier to transform from one voltage to another.

Instrument used for measuring alternating currents

1. Moving coil ammeter

2. Hot- wire ammeter
3. Moving coil galvanometer to which rectifier is attached. The rectifier
converts the a.c to d.c

Alternating voltage V= V0 sin ωt

Alternating current I = I0sinωt

Where V0 and I0 are the amplitude or peak current and voltage

V and I = Instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current

ωt = Phase angle of current or voltage at a particular time, ω = 2∏f where f =

frequency

The peak or amplitude value: is the maximum current recorded during an a.c
cycle.

Root Mean Square (r.m.s) value: is the value of an alternating current equivalent
to a direct current value, which produces the same heating rate as the alternating
current.
I0
Irms =
√2
V0
Vrms =
√2
Example:

1. In an a.c circuit, the peak value of the p.d is 220V. what is the instantaneous
voltage when it has reached 1/6 of a cycle?
Solution

V= V0 sin ωt but ωt = 1/6 X of a cycle.

= 220sin600 = 190.5V

2. Calculate the instantaneous value of an a.c in a circuit if it has rms value of

15A and a phase angle of 300

Solution

I = I0sinωt

But I0 = Irms√ 2

= 15 √ 2=21.12

I = 21.2 sin 30 = 10.6A

Example

The voltage of the domestic electric supply is represented by the equation V = 311
sin 314.2t. Determine the frequency of the a.c supply.

Solution:

equate 2πft and 314.2t

314.2t 157.1
f = 2 πt = π

Reactance

Reactance is the opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by inductor or

capacitor or both.

Capacitive Reactance: It is the opposition offered to the flow of alternating

current by a capacitance

Capacitive reactance Xc = 1/ωC

But ω = 2 πf
 1
X c= ty
2 πfc

Inductive Reactance: it is the opposition offered to the flow of alternating current

by an inductor.

Inductive reactance = XL = ωL

XL = 2 πfL where L is inductance of inductor measured in Henry.

Example

1. In a video recorder circuit, where the frequency is 800Hz, a current of 4mA

flows through a capacitor of 1.8 μF .What is the voltage across the capacitor?.

Solution

Vc = IcXc
1 1
But Xc= 2 πfc = −6
2 π ×800 × 1.8× 10

= 110.5Ω

Ic = 4mA = 4 x 10-3= 0.004A

Vc = 0.004 x 110.5 = 0.442V

Impedance

Impedance is the joint opposition to the flow of current by a resistor, an inductor

and/or a capacitor.

Impedance of R – C Circuit
C R

Z =√ R2 + X 2c
 2
1
=√ R +(
2
)
2 πfc

Phase angle between current and voltage is given by

reactance X c
tanθ=
resistanceR

−1 Xc
θ=tan
R

Vector diagram of voltage or resistance in capacitor and resistor

VR

V = √ V 2R + V 2C
VC

R – L – Circuit

Z =√ R2 + X 2L

=√ R2 +(2 πfL)2

Phase angle between current and voltage

reactance X L
tanθ=
resistanceR

−1 XL
θ=tan
R
Vector diagram of voltage or resistance in capacitor and resistor

2 2 2
V =V L +V R 2 2
Z=X L + R
VL XL

VR R

Impedance of R – L – C – Circuit

Z=√ R 2+(X L −X C )2
2
1
Z=√ R +(2 πfL−
2
)
2 πfC

Phase angle between current and voltage

reactance X L −X c
tan= =
resistance R

−1 X L− X c
θ=tan
R

Vector diagram of R – L – C

VL X

2 2
2 2 2
V =V R +(V L −V X ) Z=R +( X ¿ ¿ L+ X C ) ¿
VR R
 VC XC

Resonance in a.c Circuit

At electrical resonance, current in the circuit is maximum and the impedance of the
circuit is equal R - the resistance of the circuit.

Z=√ R 2+(X L −X C )2

If Z = R

Then XL – Xc = 0
1
2 π f 0 L=
2 π f0C

1 1
f 0= √
2 π LC

Application of Resonance

1. It is used in electronics circuit to tune radios and TVs

Power In a.c Circuit

P = IrmsVrms
 = Irms R

= VI cos φ
reactanceR
Where φ = power factor = impedanceZ

Example 2

An inductor of 0.012H, a capacitor of 8µF and a resistor of 100Ω are all connected
in series. An a.c voltage of 5Vrms and frequency 200Hz is connected to the
arrangement calculate

i. The reactance of the capacitor and inductor

ii. Impedance of the whole circuit
iii. R.m.s current flowing

Solution
1 1
X c= = =99.5 Ω
2 πfc 2 π × 200 ×8 ×10−6

X L =2 πfl=2 π ×200 × 0.012=15.1 Ω

Z=√ R 2+(X L −X C )2

¿ √ 1002 +(15.1−99.5)2

√ 17123.36=130.86 Ω
V 5
I= = =0.038 A
Z 130.86

Evaluation

1. Define an a.c circuit

2. Draw the vector diagram for:
i. L–C
ii. R-L
iii. R – L – C in a.c series circuit
1 1
3. Shows that resonance frequency is given by f 0= 2 π √ LC
 4. In a series circuit, the inductance and capacitance are 0.5H and 20µF
respectively. Calculate the resonant frequency of the circuit?
5. What does 0.2 represents if a circuit is expressed by the equation:
Y = 0.2sin 0.4π(x – 60t).
The alternating current in a circuit is represented by the equation I =
80 sin 200πt. Where I is in amperes. What is the root-mean square
value of the current?

Topic: Models of the Atom

John Dalton considered the atom as the simplest component of matter. According
to Dalton, the atom is an indivisible tiny hard sphere.
• The discovery of radioactivity by Henry Becquerel showed that atoms are
not indivisible (or indestructible) but can disintegrate forming atoms of
different elements.
• Also the discovery cathode rays in electric discharge tube by William
Crooks showed that electrons were components of the atom
• Below are the various models of the atom:

A. Sir J.J Thomson

• Thomson proposed that an atom consist of homogenous sphere of positive
charge inside of which are embedded negatively charged electrons
 • Successes:

1. He discovered the electron and successfully explained why an atom is

electrically neutral

2. He also determine the ratio of the charge to mass, e/m and found it to be
identical for all cathode ray particles, irrespective of the gas or the electrodes used.

• Limitation/failure

1. It could not explain the alpha scattering

2. It could not explain how the positive charge holds on the electrons inside the
atom, ie it could not explain the stability of the atom

B. Lord Rutherford’s model of atoms (the planetary model)

• The result of Rutherford’s experiment shows that:

1. the mass of the atom is concentrated at the centre of the atom called nucleus

2. the nucleus is positively charged

3. electrons revolve round the nucleus of an atom

4. There is wide empty gap between the nucleus of an atom and it orbiting electron.
 • Successes:

1. Introduction of the nucleus as a positive core of an atom

2. The concept of mass of an atom concentrating at the nucleus

3. Introduction of the concept of electrons revolving the nucleus

• Limitations/failures

1. It predicts an unstable atom - that the electron will spiral and collapse in the
nucleus

2. It could not explain the existence of line spectra of atoms – it only predicts light
of continuous range of frequencies

C. Neil Bohr
He proposed a new atomic model aimed at correcting the limitations in
Rutherford’s model. Hence his model is sometimes called Bohr-Rutherford’s
model. He stated that:

1. The electron moves around the nucleus in certain specific circular orbits
(sometimes called energy levels)and that the centrifugal force due to this motion
counterbalances the electrostatic attraction btw the electron and the nucleus.

2. The energy of electron is quantized ie they can only have discrete values

Hf = Ei - Ef

Where hf = photon of energy, Ei initial energy level, Ef final energy level

3. The angular momentum values of the electron in an atom are quantized – that
they are restricted to a limited number of discrete values that are integral multiples
of a constant – the Plank’s constant h divided by 2π

mvr = nh/2π

where m mass of electron, n principal quantum no, h plank’s constant, r radius, v

speed of electron.

Successes:

1. It gives a model for why atoms emits line spectra

2. It ensures the stability of atoms by stating that the ground state is the lowest state
for an electron.
3. It accurately predicts the ionization energy of 13.6eV for hydrogen
4. It offers explanation for absorption spectra: that photons of just the right wavelength can
knock out an electron from one energy level to a higher one

Limitations

1. The model could not explain the spectra lines of complex atoms (atoms with two
or more electrons)

2. The spectral line intensity cannot be calculated from the theory.

3. The model also is a violation of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
According to Heisenberg, it is impossible for an electron to have a known radius
along with a known orbit i.e. known position and the momentum. But, Bohr’s
model states that only.
4. An electron moving in one of the Bohr’s circular orbits forms a current loop and
it should produce a magnetic moment but a hydrogen atom in a ground state has no
magnetic moment due to orbits motion.

D. The Electron Cloud Model

• The electron cloud model is a mathematical model of the atom. The electron
is treated as both a particle and a wave. The electrons don’t move in a fixed
orbit but can be located easily in a region called high density region

Structure of the Atom

 • From the various atomic models, it is generally agreed that an atom consist
of two parts: the nucleus and the electrons. The nucleus consists of two basic
particles:-

• The protons, which is positively charged

• The neutron which is neutral. The nucleus is therefore positively charged.

The mass of the atom is concentrated in at the nucleus. This is because the
proton and the neutron are massive particles compared with an electron.

• Proton (atomic) Number Z: this is the total number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom. Proton number determines the properties of the element. All
elements with same proton number have the same chemical properties.

• Nucleon (mass) Number, A: this is the total number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus of an atom. For a nuclide of mass (or nucleon) number A and
atomic (or proton)number Z, the total number of neutrons in the nucleus is
given by

N= A–Z

• The maximum number of electron in a shell or orbit is given by 2n 2 where n

is an integer. An atom is denoted by the symbol;
A
Z X

• Where A = mass number and Z = atomic number.

• Outside the nucleus is the cloud of electrons which move wave-like orbits or
shells around the massive nucleus.
• In a neutral atom, the dense positively charged nucleus is surrounded by one
electron for every proton in the nucleus.
• The proton and neutron together are called NUCLEON.
• The electronic structure of an atom responsible for the chemical properties is
determined by the charge Ze of the nucleus.

Nuclides Nucleon Proton Neutron

Number(A) Number(Z) Number(N)
 Hydrogen 11 H 1 1 0

Carbon 126C 12 6 6

Sodium 23
11 Na 23 11 12

Copper 65
29 Cu 65 29 36

Uranium 238
92 U 238 92 146

Nuclides of the same element with the same proton number(Z) but different
neutron number(A) are called ISOTOPES of that element. The chemical properties
of Isotopes are the same but they have slightly different physical properties.

Class Evaluation:

1. list the successes and limitations of Rutherford’s model of the atom

2. State two limitations of Neil Bohr’s model of the atom
3. State the difference between isotopes and isobars. Give examples
4. The nucleon numbers of proton numbers of an atom are 238 and 92
respectively. What is the number of neutrons in the atom?
5. State the number of electron, protons, neutrons, nucleon in the following:
I. H 42e 2+¿ ¿
II. 168O
III. 31 H
IV. 238 92 U

V. C 37 17 l
1−¿
¿
TOPIC: Radioactivity

Radioactivity

This is a spontaneous decay of unstable nuclei with the release of energy and
radiation such as alpha particle, Beta particle and gamma ray. Radioactivity was
discovered by Henry Becquerel and confirmed by Mary Curie

Radiations emitted during radioactivity exhibit the following properties:

i. They affect photographic plate

ii. They ionise gas
iii. They produce fluorescence

Radioactive elements

These are elements that undergo disintegration spontaneously by emitting radiation

and particles. Example include; radon, radium, uranium and polonium.

TYPES OF RADIATIONS

Through his experimental observations Lord Rutherford found that three different
types of radiations were emitted by uranium. They alpha particles(α ), Beta particles
(β )and Gamma rays (γ )

ALPHA (α ) PARTICLES
An alpha particle is a helium nucleus (42H e ¿ with two protons and two neutrons
bound together with a total spin of zero.

Rutherford and Soddy discovered two laws governing radioactive decay.

First of radioactivity

The law states that when an element disintegrate by the emission of an alpha
particle, it turns into an element of chemical properties similar to the element two
places earlier in the periodic table.

This means that when an alpha is emitted by an element, its proton number Z and
neutron number Ndecreases by two and nucleon number A decreases by four
moving it closer to a stable state.
A A −4 4
Z X → Z−2Y + 2 H e +energy
For example,
226 222 4
88 Ra → 86 Rn + 2 H e +energy

238 234 4
U→ Th+ He + Energy
92 90 2

The mass of alpha particlemα =6.65 x 10−27 kg. The energy Q produced in this decay is
Q=9.0 x 10 J . Q is called the binding energy. Alpha can travel a few centimetre in
−13

air or 10−3 cm through solid before being brought to rest by collision.

BETA(β ) PARTICLES

In beta decay the neutron number N of the element decreases by one and the proton
number Z of the element increases by one. The nucleon number A does not
change. The beta is an electron with a speed of 99.5% the speed of light
(2.99 x 10 ¿ ¿ 8 ms ) ¿ and they are emitted with continuous spectrum energy for beta
−1

emission.

Second Law of Radioactivity

The law states that when an element disintegrate by the emission of beta particle it
turns into an element with chemical properties similar to those of the elements one
place later in the periodic table.
A A 0
Z X → Z +1Y + e+Q
−1
For example,
131 131 0
I→ Xe+ e + energy
53 54 −1

11 11 0
4 Be → 5Y + e+Q
−1

GAMMA(γ ) RAYS

In gamma decay the element does not change its nucleus. It only goes from an
excited state to a lower state. Gamma( γ )mission takes place in an excited nucleus
with no change in nucleon or proton number. Therefore A and Z do not change.
Such radiation travels in a straight line and have negligible mass with little
ionization power but high penetrating power.
60 60
27 Co → 27Co +γ +Q

Radiation Alpha (α )Particle Beta¿ Particles Gamma (γ )

s Rays
Nature Helium nuclei( 42H e ) High speed electrons Electromagneti
0
( −1❑ e) c wave of a
very short
wavelength.
Velocity 1 3 – 99% of the speed Speed of light
About 20 of the −1
of light (2.99 x 10 8 ms−1) 8
(3.0 x 10 ms )
speed of light
( 0.15−0.21 ) x 108 ms−1
Charge Positively charged Negatively charged No charge
−19 −19
+2 e (3.2 x 10 C) −e (−1.6 x 10 C)
Mass Massive particle Small particle Negligible mass
6.65 x 10
−27
kg 1
( mass of proton )
1890
−31
9.11 x 10 kg
 Effect on Slight deflection Strong deflection No deflection
magnetic
field
Ionizing Heavy Ionization Medium ionization Little ionization
power
Penetratin Little penetrating Medium penetrating Heavy
g power power. It can be power in a few penetrating
stopped by paper. millimetre of power in
aluminium several
centimetre of
lead

GEIGER-MÜLLER TUBE

Hans Geiger was a student of Lord Rutherford and carried out many important
experiments in radioactivity. Working with Thomas Müller, he design a detector of
radiation which is widely used today. It is called a Geiger-Müller(G-M) tube.

The G-M tube is small closed glass tube with a thin mica end window. It may
contain a gas such as argon at very low pressure together with a small amount of
halogen gas such as bromine vapour. A central wire, A insulated from the tube is
the anode. The inside of the tube is coated with graphite and forms the cathode B.
If an ionizing particle or radiation enters the G-M tube, some argon atoms are
ionised by collision. The number of ions and electrons are increased many times by
more collision. The electrons are attracted to the wire A and the positive ions to the
tube B and so a small current is obtained for a short time. This produces a voltage
in R which is amplified and recorded on a counting unit such as scaler or rate
meter.
A form of radioactivity which occur spontaneously without doing anything to
initiate it nor can anything be done to control it is called NATURAL radioactivity.

Rn + 2 α + Energy
226 222 4
88 Ra → 86

A form of radioactivity that is induced in element that would have otherwise being
stable is called induced or ARTIFICIAL radioactivity.
14 4 17 1
7 N + 2He → 8O+ 1 H
7 1 4 4
3 Li + 1H → 2 He + 2 He

Artificial radioactivity is induced by bombarding stable nuclei with fast moving

ions such as proton or alpha particles. Artificial radioactivity is induced in device
called accelerators. Example include: cyclotron, linear accelerator, Van de Graff
accelerator.

Radioactive Series

As a radioactive material emits radiation, it changes into nucleus of other which

itself may be radioactive. The new nucleus thereafter emits radiation and change to
another nucleus. This could continue until a stable nucleus is attained. This
sequence of change is called radioactive series.

Activity
The number of disintegration per unit time is called Activity. The activity of a
radioactive sample decreases with time.

Decay law

This states that the rate of disintegration of a radioactive material is directly

proportional to the amount of the material present (remaining)
∂N
∝−N
∂t

∂N
=−λN
∂t

Where 𝜆 is constant of proportionality. 𝜆 is called the decay constant.

∂ N=− λN ∂ t

∂N
=−λ ∂ t
N

Integrating both side,

Nt t
∂N
∫ N =∫−λ ∂t
N o 0

dN
¿

ln N t −ln N o =−λt

ln
( )
Nt
No
=− λt

N t − λt
=e … . … . … .… . ( ii )
No

No is the initial number of nuclei

Nt is the remaining number of nuclei after t

𝜆 is the decay constant

t is the time.

The graph of Nt against t is shown below

Decay curve.
N
2
N
N 4
8 t
T½ 2T ½ 3T ½

T½ is called the half-life of the radioisotope. It can be defined the time taken for the
radioisotope to disintegrate to half its original amount.
N t 1
At t = T½, the ratio N = 2
o

Substituting this into;

ln
( )
Nt
No
=− λt

ln ( 12 )=−λ T 1
2

0 . 693=− λ T 1
2

0.693
T 1= … … … … ( iii )
2
λ

Binding Energy

It is expected that the mass of a nucleus should be equal to the sum of the mass of
it constituent (i.e sum of the masses of its protons and neutrons).

i.e Mass of nucleus = Zmp + (A-Z)mn

Where mp is mass of proton, mn is mass of nucleon, A is mass number, Z is atomic

number.
However, this is not so. Instead,
massofnucl e us< Z mp + ( A−Z ) mn

This difference is a measure of the binding energy of the nucleus.

According to Einstein, energy and mass are equivalent.

If Δm is the mass defect, then

2
E=∆ m c

E is the binding energy, c is the speed of light, Δm is the mass defect.

Binding energy can be defined as the energy equivalent of the difference in mass
between the mass of a nucleus and the sum of the masses of its constituent.

Nuclear reaction

There two types of nuclear reaction

1. Nuclear fission; when a fast moving neutron is used to bombard a uranium

nucleus, the nucleus split into two lighter nuclei – krypton and Barium.
Nuclear fission is the splitting of heavy nucleus into two smaller parts of
relatively equal mass plus the release of huge amount of energy.
92 U + 0n → 92 U → 57 La + 35 Ba +3 0n + ¿Q
235 1 236 148 85 1

The energy released in this reaction can be obtained from the binding
energy.

Chain Reaction
The fission of uranium produces three other neutrons. These three neutrons
can proceed to cause the fission of other three uranium nuclei and thereby
produce another nine neutrons. The nine neutrons can cause more fission
and this can continue until the reaction becomes self-sustaining. This kind of
reaction is called chain reaction
For chain reaction to set up, the amount of fissile material present must
exceed the critical mass.
 The critical mass is the minimum amount of fissile material that must be
present for chain reaction to ensure.
If a chain reaction is set up in a sample of fissile fuel that exceed the critical
mass, the reaction will continue at an increased rate as long as the material
are together until it get out of hand and an explosion will result. This is the
basis of the atomic bomb.
A control chain reaction can take place in the nuclear reactor. This can be
used to generate electricity or to produce certain useful radioisotope.
2. Nuclear Fusion; this occur when two lighter nuclei fuse together to fuse a
heavier nuclei. A decrease in mass is expected and this is what account for
the energy released during the nuclear fusion.
2 2 3 1
1 H + 1 H → 2 He + 0n + energy

Nuclear fusion occurs at higher temperature than nuclear fission because of

nuclear repulsion of the reactor must be overcome before reaction can take
place.

Application of radioactivity
 Agricultural Research
1. In agriculture, researchers use radioactive tracers to determine the suitable
amount of fertilizers required by the plants.
2. Radioactive tracers are also used to induce mutation in plants and animals to
obtain new and improved varieties and species.
3. Radiation has helped us learn more about the types of soil that different
plants need to grow.
4. Food can be irradiated in order to kill any microorganisms that are present
on itThis makes the food last longer, and reduces the risk of food-borne
infections

 Scientific Research
1. Archaeologists use radioactive substances carbon-14, called radiocarbon to
determine the ages of fossils and other objects through a process called
carbon dating.
2. Dating of uranium help geologists determine the age of rock samples which
enable them determine the possible mineral deposits.
3. Radiation has helped us know the sizes of newly discovered oil fields, and
the tracks of ocean currents.
4. Radiation is used to help remove toxic pollutants, such as exhaust gases
from coal-fired power stations and industry.
5. Electron beam radiation can remove dangerous sulphur dioxides and
nitrogen oxides from our environment.

 Industrial Research
1. Radiations from radioisotopes are used to study defects in metals and
welded joints.
2. Beta particles from radioisotope is used in thickness measurement by back
scattering.
3. Radiations are also used to study the rate of wear and tear in machine parts.
4. Radioisotopes emit beta particles which can be used to make water marks in
prints which give security features to the prints.
5. Tracer techniques are used to trace underground pipe leakages.
6. Many smoke detectors found in many homes are made of radioisotope
Arericium-241 (24193 Am ¿
7. Electricity produced by nuclear fission — splitting the atom — is one of the
greatest uses of radiation.
8. Radiations are also used to check the metal fatigue.

 Medical Research
1. Radiations from radioisotopes are used in treatment of tumour by destroying
the cancerous cells. This is called radiotherapy.
2. Doctors administer slightly radioactive substances to patients, which are
attracted to certain internal organs such as the pancreas, kidney, thyroid,
liver, or brain, to diagnose clinical conditions. This is called radio-diagnosis.
3. Radioactive tracers are used for checking blood circulation and blood
volume in the body.
4. Pacemakers are used to stimulate a regular heartbeat when the body’s natural
electrical pacing system is irregular or not transmitting properly. Over the
years, various power sources have been used for pacemakers, including a
radioactive material called plutonium-238.
5. A very high energetic gamma rays from radioisotopes are used in
sterilization of medical equipment.
 BACKGROUND RADIATIONS

Background radiation is a measure of the level of ionizing radiation present in

the environment at a particular location which is not due to deliberate introduction
of radiation sources.Natural background radiation is all around us. Background
radiation varies from place to place and over time, depending on the amount of
naturally-occurring radioactive elements in soil, water and air. Weather conditions
also affect radiation levels, as snow cover may shield these elements, and
radioactive particulates can wash out of the air during rain storms. Cosmic
radiation from the sun, our galaxy, and beyond is constantly around us and
contributes to natural background radiation. Altitude and latitude can also
influence the level of background radiation at any one site.

SOURCES OF BACKDROUND RADIATION

Radiation source Remark

mainly from radon, depends on indoor

Inhalation of air
accumulation

Ingestion of food & water (K-40, C-14, etc.)

Terrestrial radiation from ground depends on soil and building material

Cosmic radiation from space depends on altitude

World wide figure

excludes radiotherapy;
Medical
US figure is mostly CT
scans and nuclear medicine.

cigarettes, air travel, building materials,

Consumer items
etc.

Atmospheric nuclear testing peak of 0.11 mSv in 1963 and declining

since; higher near sites
 worldwide average to workers only is
0.7 mSv, mostly due to radon in mines;
[2]
Occupational exposure
US is mostly due to medical and
aviation workers.[3]

peak of 0.04 mSv in 1986 and declining

Chernobyl accident
since; higher near site

up to 0.02 mSv near sites; excludes

Nuclear fuel cycle
occupational exposure

Industrial, security, medical,

educational, and research

Nuclear reactor:

A nuclear reactor is a device used to initiate and control a self-sustained nuclear

chain reaction.

Erinco Fermi built the first nuclear reactor in 1946. The energy released in the
fission reaction of uranium fuel was used in the generation of electricity. Uranium-
235 is the only isotope of uranium used in nuclear reactor because it is the only
isotope that can sustain fission chain reaction unlike other isotopes of uranium. It is
a fissile material.

Modern nuclear reactors have the following parts:

I. Fuel rod: uranium fuel is embedded in the fuel rod which are well spaced in the
core of the reactor.

II. Moderator: they are used to slow down fast moving neutron that induce
fission. Graphite and heavy water (D2O) are used as moderators.

III. Control rods: They are used to regulate the rate of fission reaction by
absorbing neutron. If there are too many neutrons the reactions will be too fast and
get out of control and this is controlled by neutron absorbing boron coated steel rod
called control rod. To stop the fission reaction completely, they are lowered into
the core of the reactor. Boron and Cadmium rods are used as control rod.

IV. Coolant: They are fluid circulating the core of the reactor to extract heat
produced. Common examples of coolants used in nuclear reactor are molten
sodium, molten lead, sodium-potassium eutectic, lead-bismuth eutectic,
Pressurized water or carbon (IV) oxide are used as coolant etc.

EXAMPLES

1. Two radioactive material A and B have half lives of 100 and 50 years
respectively. Samples of A and B initially contains equal number of atoms.
What is the ratio of the remaining atoms of A to that of B after 200 years?
Solution
For material A:
0 -------1
100 ----1/2
200 ----1/4
 For material B:
0 ------ 1
50 ----- ½
100 --- ¼
150 ---1/8
200 ---- 1/16
A : B = ¼ : 1/16
= ¼ ÷ 1/16
= ¼ x 16/1
= 16/4
= 4/1
Therefore, A : B = 4 : 1

2. An element whose half life is 3 years has N atoms. How many atoms would
have decayed after 9years?

SOLUTION:

0 ---- N

3 ----N/2

6 ---- N/4

9 ---- N/8

N/8 will remain

N – N/8 will decay

N/1 –N/8

(8N – N)/8

7N/8

Therefore 7N/8 will decay

 3. A radioactive substance has a half life of 20 hours. What fraction of the
original radioactive nuclide will remain after 80 years?

SOLUTION:

0 ----- N

20 ---- N/2

40 ---- N/4

60 ---- N/8

80 ---- N/16 or 1/16

N/16 or 1/16 will remain

Or
t
Nt 1
[]
T1
= 2

No 2

t=80 years , T 1 =20 years

2

[] []
80 4
Nt 1 20 1 1
= = =
N0 2 2 16

1
/16 of the nuclide will remain after 80 years

Example 1
In an experiment to find the half-life of a radioactive iodine, the count-rate falls
from 200 counts per second to 25 counts per second in 75 minutes. What is the
half-life?

Example 2
In 24 days, a radioactive isotope decreased in mass from 64g to 2g. What is the
half-life of the radioactive material?

Example 3
A radioactive substance of mass 768g has a half-life of 3 years. After how many
years does this substance leave only 6g undecayed?

Example 4
A radioactive element decreased in mass from 100g to 25g in 6 days, what is the
decay constant?

Example 5
A radioactive sample has a half-life of 3 days. If the mass of 1.55g of this sample is
left after decaying for 15 days. Determine the original mass.

Example 6
A radioisotope has a half-life of 12 years. What fraction of the original sample has
decayed after 60 years?

3. A nuclide X is produced by bombarding a nitrogen nucleus with an alpha

particle with the release of heavy hydrogen nucleus as shown by the
following nuclear equation
14 p 2
α + 7 N → q X +1 D
Determine the value of p and q in the equation.
SOLUTION
To balance this type of equation, the sum of the sum of nucleons on the
right hand side must equal to the sum of the number of the nucleons on the
left hand side.
This is also true for the atomic number on both sides.
4
α = 2 He
Re-writing the equation
4 14 p 2
2He + 7 N → q X + 1 D
comparing bothsides
Number of nucleons:
4 +14= p+2
p=16
Atomic number
2+7=q+1
 q=8
P = 16 , q = 8
Take note of these when balancing nuclear reactions:

s/n Particle Symbol

4
1 Alpha particle 2He
0
2 Beta particle or −1 β
electron
1
3 Neutron 0 n
1
4 Proton 1 H
5 Gamma γ
0
6 Positron +1 p
3
7 Tritium 1 H

4. A material of mass 1.0 x 10-3 kg undergoes a fission process which reduces

its mass by 0.02 %. Calculate the amount energy released in the process.
SOLUTION:
Mass that decayed = 0.02% of 1.0 x 10-3
0 . 02 −3 −7
∆ m= × 1. 0 x 1 0 =2 ×1 0 kg
100
2
E=∆ m c
8 2
E=2× 10 × ( 3 ×1 0 )
−7

9 10
E=18× 10 J =1 . 8× 1 0 J

5. Calculate the binding energy of 59

27 Co

(atomic mass of Co = 58.9332u , mass of proton = 1.00783u , mass of

neutron =1.00867 , unified atomic mass unit u = 931MeV , 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-
19
J)
Solution
Mass of proton Mp = zmp = 27 x 1.00783 =27.21141u
Mass of neutron Mn = (A-z)mn =(59-27) 1.00867 = 32 x 1.00867
=32.27744u
Total mass of nucleons = Mp + Mn = 27.21141 +32.27744 = 59.48885u
Mass of cobalt = 58.9332u
Mass defect ∆ m=( Mp+ Mn )−M ( Co )
∆ m=59 . 48885−58 . 9332=0. 55565 u
 Converting this to electron volt
BE = (0.55565 x 931) MeV = 517.31MeV = 517.31 x 106 eV
Converting this to J
BE = 517.31 x 106x 1.6 x 10-19 = 827.7 x 10-13J
BE = 8.277 x 10-11J
( please note that the relation BE = ∆ mc 2 was not used to calculate the
binding energy. This is because, u has already being expressed in that form u
= ∆ mc 2 =931 MeV.
6. The half life of a radioactive element is 5 s. calculate the decay constant.
Solution
Recall
0. 693
T 1=
2
λ
T ½ =5 s
0 .693
λ=
T1
2
0 .693 −1
λ= =0 .1386 s
5
7. In a nuclear reaction, the mass defect is 2.0 X 10 -3kg. Calculate the energy
release, given that the velocity of light is 3X 108m/s
Solution
E = mc2
E = 2.0X 10-3 X (3X108)2 = 1.8 X 10 14J
8. In a thermonuclear reaction, the initial mass is 5.02 X 10 -27Kg and the total
final mass is 5.01X10-27Kg. The energy released in the process is?
Solution
Initial mass = 5.02 X 10-27Kg, final mass = 5.01 X -27, c= 3 X 108 m/s
Mass defect = initial mass – final mass
M= 5.02 x 10-27 – 5.01x 10-27 = 1.0x 10-29kg
E= mc2
= 1.0 x 10-29 x (3x108)2 = 9.0 x 10-13 J

Biding energy = mass difference of nucleus and nucleon

= mass of neutron (N) + mass of proton (Z) – mass of nucleus

The unit of energy in nuclear reaction can be express in atomic mass unit (u) or the
electron volt (eV) or joules J as follow

1eV= 1.6x10-19J

1MeV = 1.6 x 10-13J

1u = 931MeV = 1.490 x 10-10J

Model questions

9. Calculate the binding energy of 42He ¿ = 4.0015U and 1U = 931MeV).

Solution
Number of proton = 2
Number of neutron = 2
Total mass of proton plus neutron = 2 x 1.0073U + 2 x 1.0087U = 4.0320U
But mass of helium nucleus = 4.0015U
Binding energy = 4.032 – 4.0015 = 0.0305U
But 1U = 931 MeV
Binding energy = 0.0305 X 931 = 28.4Mev

Nigeria nuclear energy programme.

Global need of nuclear power had become so imperative for the following reason:

- Increase in demand for energy

- Need to discontinue the use of fossil fuel as source of energy because of
their negative impact on the environment
- Nuclear energy is a clean source of energy
- Nuclear energy is environmentally friendly and relatively cheap to maintain.

Nonetheless, the use of this energy source demands technical expertise as well as
caution. Safety cannot be overemphasized. The government had put in place
statuary regulatory bodies to monitor the use of nuclear energy in the Nigeria. The
body charge with this responsibility in Nigeria is the Nigeria nuclear energy
commission established in1976 and the Nigeria Nuclear Regulatory Authority
established in 2001. They register, license and inspect infrastructure for safety in
radiotherapy, uranium mining and milling, research reactors and radioactive waste
management.
For capacity building and training of man-power on nuclear energy, the country
had established the Centre for Energy Research and Development (CERD),
Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU) Ile-Ife and the Centre for Energy Research
and Training (CERT) Ahmadu Bello University Zaria.

There are indications that Russia has been contracted to construct Nigeria’s first
Nuclear Power Plant that is expected to boost the power generation in the country.
The plant is expected to generate up to 1.2 thousand megawatts. This is in line
which the projection of the government that nuclear technology should contribute
at least 4,000MW to the total National Grid by 2030.

Evaluation

1. Differentiate between natural and artificial radioactivity

2. State two
(a) (i) differences between nuclear fission and nuclear fussion
(ii) peaceful use of atomic energy
(b) (i) explain chain reaction
(ii) state (1) one conditions necessary for chain reaction to occur
(ii) two components in the nuclear reactor used to control cahin
reaction
(c) (i) A nuclear reaction is given by: 21 H + 11 H → 42He+ 10n +energy what types
of nuclear reaction is it
(ii) the isotopes of a nuclide has a half life of 5.4 x103 s. calculate its
decay constant.
I. State the decay law
II. Define activity.
3. Sketch the decay curve
4. Calculate the binding energy of 12652Te (mass of proton = 1.0073U, mass of
neutron = 1.0084U and mass of tellurium nucleus = 125.903322U).
5. State the hazards of radioactivity and how the hazards can be minimized.

TOPIC: ENERGY QUANTIZATION AND DUALITY OF MATTER

ENERGY LEVEL IN ATOM

 Electrons in atoms exist in certain energy levels. They can jump from one
energy level to another by gaining or losing energy but they are not allowed any
energy that lies in between two energy levels. The electrons can only accept or
lose certain definite amount of energy. Energy is quantised.

−E0
the energy for the nth energy level is givenas E n= 2
n

It is customary for electrons to occupy the lowest energy level before filling the
higher energy levels. When every electron in an atom is in the lowest energy state
available in an atom, the atom is said to be in its GROUND STATE. However,
when any of the electrons in the atom is in any of the energy level higher than the
occupied energy level, the atom is said to be in the EXCITED STATE.

N.B an atom is said to be in the excited state if any of it electron is in a higher

energy level where there is a possibility of the electron returning to it normal
energy state. The atom becomes ionized if the electron is so far away that it can no
longer experience the attraction of it nucleus. The minimum energy required to
move an electron to a point where it no longer experience the attraction of the
nucleus is called Ionization energy.
The discontinuous jump of electron from one energy level to another involves the
absorption or emission of energy. These energies are better studied and measured
when recorded on the spectrograph (i.e a spectrum for virtual observation)

N.B spectrum simply means an array of entity in order of increasing or decreasing

magnitude.

These spectra of light can be grouped into two

1. Emission spectra: these are obtained when light from a luminous source are
dispersed. There are three types of emission spectra
(i) Line spectra: it consists of distinct and separate bright lines of definite
wavelength. They are produced by gas or vapour at low pressure.
(ii) Band spectra: it consists of many distinct groups or bands of lines
which are very close together and at one side of the band. They are
obtained from molecules of glowing gases or vapour and by discharge
tubes
(iii) Continuous spectra: these are produced by solid and liquids or by
gases at high pressure. It can be produce by the filament of electric
lamp, sun, hot glowing metal.
2. Absorption spectra: these are produced when part of the radiation emitted by
a source is absorbed by a material which is placed between the source of
radiation and the observer. When light from a source having a continuous
spectra is passed through a gas(e.g sodium vapour or sodium flame) and the
spectrum is observed, it is found to have dark lines in the position
corresponding to bright line in the emission spectra.
Kirchhoff explain this phenomenon by stating this law
A substance which emits light of a certain wavelength at a given temperature
will absorb light of the same wavelength at that temperature.

Evidence for the existence of energy level in atom.

1. Frank-Hertz experiment
2. Line spectra of the hydrogen gas
3. Emission and absorption spectra
4. Characteristic radiation of energy quanta emitted by hot bodies
5. Photoelectric emission
 Photo-electric emission

This is when electromagnetic radiation of suitable frequency falls on a metal

surface and electrons are emitted. According to Einstein:

- electromagnetic radiation consists of discrete packet of energy called photon

- each photon has energy- E = hf
- when a photon interacts with a photoelectric plate, it relinquishes all it
energy to a single electron. If the energy of the photon is greater than the
binding energy of the electron, the electron is emitted with a kinetic energy
equals to the energy of the photon minus the binding energy or work
function of the plate.
KE=hf −h f o

Photoelectric effect can be easily demonstrated using this arrangement with the
plate in vacuum. If electrons are emitted from the cathode and they make it to the
anode, this will be indicated on the galvanometer. They following observation
were also made;

i. Photoelectric effect is only observed if the surface is clean and pure

ii. Photoelectric effect is not observed if the frequency of the
electromagnetic wave is below a certain critical value. This critical
frequency is called the threshold frequency. The value of the threshold
frequency depends on the type of material used as photoelectric plate
 Threshold frequency for a material is the minimum frequency that a
radiation must possess for it to cause photoelectric emission when it is
incident on the material.
iii. Photoelectric effect is more marked for certain metals than for others.
Elements in group I and II show photoelectric effect more readily than
other metals
iv. The intensity of the EM wave does not affect the kinetic energy of the
electrons emitted. Energy distribution of the photoelectron is independent
of the intensity of the light used. However strong intensity light yields
more electrons than weak intensity light.
v. There is no detectable time lag between the incidence of radiation and the
emission of electron.
vi. The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electron is directly
proportional to the frequency of the incident radiation.
For photoelectric emission to occur, the frequency of the incidence
radiation must exceed the threshold value. The excess energy appear as
the kinetic energy of the photoelectron
Em =hf −h f 0
1 2
m v =hf −h f 0
2
The expression h f 0represents the work function∅ , the minimum energy
that the radiation must possess for photoelectric emission to occur.

∅ =h f 0 isthe work function of the material

hf is the energy of the incident photon .

If a graph of the maximum energy Em of the electrons is plotted against frequency

of the radiation, the graph below is obtained.

Em

Slope = Planck’s constant h

f0 f

∅
If the line is extended backward to give an intercept on the vertical axis, the
intercept corresponds to the work function to the material. The intercept on the
horizontal axis is the threshold frequency. The slope of the graph is the Planck’s
constant.

Solved problems

1. Light of wavelength 5.00 x 10-7m is incident on a material of work function

1.90eV. calculate the
i. Photon energy
ii. Kinetic energy of the most energetic photo electrons
iii. Stopping potential

(h= 6.6 x 10 -34 Js c = 3.0 x 10 8 ms-1, 1 eV = 1.6 x 10 -19J, e = 1.6 X 10-19)

Solution

i. Using E = hf
c
h= 6.6 x 10 -34 Js, frequencyf = λ
𝜆=5.0 x 10 -7m , c = 3 x 10 8 ms-1
8
c 3 ×10 15
f= = =0 . 6 ×10 Hz
λ 5 .0 × 10−7

∴ energyofphotonE=hf
−34 15
E=6 . 6 ×10 ×0 . 6 ×10
−19
E=3 . 96× 1 0 J

Using Ek = hf – W

W = 1.9eV = 1.9 x (1.6 x 10 -19)J=3.04 x 10-19

Ek =3.96 x 10-19 – 3.04 x 10-19

Ek = 9.2 x 10 -20J

NB: stopping potential; this can be defined as the potential between the anode and
the cathode for which no photo electron from the cathode reaches the anode.
Using eVs = K.Emax

Vs = K.Emax / e

Vs = 9.2 x 10 -20)/1.6 X 10-19

Vs = 0.575v

2. An atom radiates 1.5 x 10-19J of energy when an electron jumps from one
energy level to another. What is the wavelength of the emitted radiation? (h = 6.6 x
10-34, 3 x 108 ms-1)

Solution
c
Photon emitted = hf = h λ
−34 8
−19 6.6 × 10 × 3.0 ×1 0
1.5 ×10 =
λ
−26
19.8× 10 −6
λ= −19
=1.32× 10 m
1.5× 1 0

3. A metal has a work function of 4.375 eV. Calculate its threshold frequency.

Solution
Recall Ø=h f 0
−19 −19
Ø 4 .375 × 1. 6 ×10 7 ×1 0
f 0= = −34
= −34
h 6 . 6 ×10 6 . 6 ×1 0
15
f 0=1 . 06 ×10 Hz

4. An electron is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 70 KV in a

vacuum. Calculate the maximum speed acquired by the electron. ( e = 1.6 x 10 -19 C,
mass of electron = 9.1 x 10-31 kg)

Solution
Kinetic energy of electron = accelerating potentials difference
1 2
m v =eV
2
1 −31 2 −19 3
×9 . 1 ×1 0 × v =1 . 6 ×1 0 ×70 ×10
2
 −16
2 112 ×10 15
v= −31
=24 . 62× 10
4 . 55× 1 0
v=√ 2. 462×1 016 =1. 57 ×1 08 m s−1

X-RAY

These are electromagnetic radiation of high frequency. It was discovered the

German physicist W. Roentgen in the year 1895. X.ray is produced when fast
moving electrons are stopped abruptly by a target. Here, some of the kinetic energy
of the electron is converted to X-ray and the remaining to heat energy. About 1%
of the energy of the electron is what is converted to x-ray. The remaining 99% is
converted to heat energy in the anode.( x-ray production is a reverse of the
photoelectric effect)

X-ray is produced in the Coolidge tube.

The cathode is heated to emit electrons by thermionic emission. The electrons are
then accelerated by a high potential difference set up between the anode and the
cathode. These accelerating electrons are then stopped abruptly by the target to
produce x-ray.

The energy of the accelerating electrons is

Energyofelectron=eV

The maximum energy of the x-ray produced equal the energy of the electron
h f max=eV

V is the accelerating potential of the tube

E is the electronic charge

h is the Planck’s constant

fmax is the maximum frequency of the emitted x-ray.

The Coolidge tube consist of the following::

i. thermionic cathode; from which electrons are emitted

ii. Anode: a block of copper with a target on it which help to stop the
accelerating electrons whereby producing x-ray.
iii. Potential difference source; this set up a large potential difference (50
000V) between the anode and the cathode to accelerate the emitted
electrons toward the anode.
iv. Cooling fins. This help to remove the heat from the anode thereby
cooling the tube.

The x-ray produced depends on the type of material used as target and the potential
difference between the anode and the cathode of the tube.

Properties of x-ray.

- They have very short wavelength (10-11 to 10-8 m)

- They travel in straight line
- They undergo reflection, refraction, diffraction… like every other wave
- They can affect photographic plate
- They can penetrate most materials
- They travel at the same speed as the speed of light ( 3 . 0× 108 m s−1 ¿
 - It can be stopped by a lead

Types of X-ray

1. Hard X-ray:
- they have higher frequency
- Short wavelength
- high penetrating than the soft X-ray.
- Produced by high tube voltage
2. Soft X-ray:
- they have lesser frequency
- longer wavelength than hard x-ray
- they are not as penetrating as the hard x-ray.
- Produced by lower tube voltage than that required for hard x-ray

Uses of X-ray

1. For diagnostic purpose in medicine

2. For destroying cancerous cell
3. Used as analytics tool in industry
4. Scanning luggage in airport
5. Used for pest and disease control in Agriculture
6. Used in checking the authenticity of art works

Solved problems

1. An x-ray tube operates at a potential of 2500V. If the power of the tube is

750W. Calculate the speed of the electron striking the target. ( e = 1.6 x 10 -19,
mass of electron = 9.1 x 10 -31 kg)
Solution
Maximum kinetic energy of electron = eV
1 2 −19
m v =1 . 6× 10 ×2500
2
1 −31 2 −19
×9 . 1 ×1 0 × v =4000 ×1 0
2
−16
2 4 ×1 0 15
v= −31
=0 .88 × 10
4 . 55× 1 0
v=√ 8 . 8× 10 14=2 . 97 ×1 07 m s−1
Wave-Particle Paradox.

Light is a form of electromagnetic wave. It exhibits all the properties of wave such
as reflection refraction, interference. However, the phenomenon of photoelectric
emission, Compton effect,… cannot be explained from this perspective. Einstein in
order to explain the photoelectric effect assumed that light travel through space as
a concentrated bundle or packet of energy called photon and it is the bundle that
interacts with electron to cause emission.

Light is taken as a wave to explain its interference and diffraction but as a photon
(bundle of energy) to explain it photoelectric effect and Compton effects. Thus
light has a wave-particle duality. Other electromagnetic radiations have similar
behavior.

Victor De Broglie proposed the wave-particle duality theory which state that the
wavelength of the wave associated with a moving particle equal to the ratio of the
Planck’s constant and the momentum of the particle.
h
λ=
p

P is the momentum of the particle. h is the momentum of the particle and 𝜆 is the
wavelength of the wave.

Example of phenomena in which wave exhibit particle like behaviour

1. Photoelectric effect
2. Compton effect
3. Black body radiation

Phenomena of particles behaving as wave

1. Electron diffraction (which is applied in electron microscope)

2. Neutron diffraction

Heisenberg uncertainty Principle.

This principle states that it is not possible to measure two canonical events
simultaneously to a high degree of accuracy.
Example of canonical event

1. Momentum and position

2. Energy and time
∆ x . ∆ p≥ h
∆ E . ∆ t ≥h
But p = mV
h
∆ x .∆V ≥
m
where ∆ x isthe uncertainty ∈the measurement of position
∆ p is theuncertainty ∈the measurement of momentum
∆ t isthe uncertainty∈the measurement of time
∆ v is the uncertainty∈the measurement of velocity

Example

1. An electron moves with a speed of 2.0 x 106 m/s in a straight line. Calculate
the wavelength of the electron.
Solution
Speed off electron v = 2.0 x 106 m/s
Momentum of electron p = mv = 9.1 x 10-31 x 2.0 x 106 = 18.2 x 10-25
Recall the De Broglie’ equation
−34
h 6.6 ×10 −9
λ= = −25
=0.36 × 10
p 18.2 ×10
−10
wavelengthofelectronλ=3.6 × 10 m

EVALUATION

1. What is the wavelength of an electron which has been accelerated through a p.d
of 100V (assume e =1.6 x 10-19C mass of electron =9.1 x 10-31kg and h = 6.6 x 10 -
34
Js)

2. Describe the production of x-ray.

3. What are the types of x-ray.

4. calculate the frequency of the photon whose energy is required to liberate

surface electron with kinetic energy of 1.97 x 1016eV if the work function of the
metal is 1.3 x 10-16eV (h= 6.6 x 10-34Js, 1eV = 1.6 x 10-16J)
5. describe the energy conversion that occurs in the X-ray tube

Topic: ELECTRONICS
SEMICONDUCTOR
A Semiconductor is a material which has an electric conductivity intermediate in
value between that of a a good conductor and that of a good insulator.

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR

1. Intrinsic semiconductor
2. Extrinsic semiconductor

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR OR PURE SEMICONDUCTOR

TYPES
germanium and silicon
STRUCTURE
They posses a crystalline structure i.e the atoms are arranged in orderly manner
and they have four valence electrons. They are in group IV of the periodic table.
CONDUCTIVITY
Below room temperature pure germanium is a poor electrical conductor.
At room temperature, thermal energy of the valency electron may become greater
than the energy binding it to its nucleus; such an electron becomes liberated from
the bonds and becomes free electron by moving out of its position in the atom.
This leaves a vacancy at the electron’s former position. This vacant space is called
hole. An electron from a neighboring atom can move into the vacancy.
The conductivity of a semiconductor increases when its temperature is increased or
is irradiated with electromagnetic waves of a certain maximum wavelength.

CARRIERS OF ELECTRICITY
a. free electrons which have negative charges
b. Holes which have positive charges.
APPLICATION OF ELECTRIC FIELD

When an electric field is applied the charge carriers move in opposite directions.
Holes behave like positively charged particles.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR OR IMPURE SEMICONDUCTOR

Addition of impurity to the pure semiconductor is called doping. This is done to
increase its conductivity.

TYPES
a. n-type
b. p-type
a. n-type
This is done by doping into germanium with small amount of arsenic (donor).
Arsenic is in group 5, it has five valency electrons. Germanium has four valency
electrons so, four of the valency electron of Arsenic forms a covalent bond with
germanium. The fifth valency electron is very loosely bound, it does not participate
in covalent bond. Conductivity is due to the movement of electron. The majority
carrier of current are negative electrons while the minority carrier are holes.

b. p-type
Adding atoms of an element in Group 3 e.g Boron or indium to germanium
produces a p-type. Boron has three valency electrons, to form covalent bond with
germanium, it can take electron from germanium, leaving a hole in germanium.
This hole acts as a positive charge that can move through the crystal. The boron is
called the acceptor. Conduction is due to movement of holes. The majority carrier
of current are holes.

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
1. Rectifier ( p-n Junction diode)

2. photocell

3. light emitting diode (LED)

Rectifier ( p-n Junction diode)

To fabricate a p-n junction is to deposit some n-type material on the very clean
surface of p-type material. It acts as current rectifier i.e allows current to flow only
in one direction (forward bias) and little or nothing in the reverse bias. It can
change alternating current to direct current.
FORWARD BIAS

p-n junction diode

If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p- region and the negative
terminal to the n-region, the positive terminal repels the numerous holes across the
junction and the negative terminal repels the electrons across the junction, thus
holes plentiful in the p-region flow easily across the junction into the n-region.
Free electrons, plentiful in the n-region easily into p-region, this movement of
charge constitute a forward current. The p-n junction diode in this arrangement has
a fairly low resistance and conducts well.

REVERSE BIAS
p-n junction diode

Connecting the negative terminal of the battery to the p-region and positive
terminal to the n-region gives a reverse bias. The negative terminal repels electrons
from p-region to n-region and positive terminal repels holes from n-region to p-
region, but there are few free electrons in the p-region and very few holes in the n-
region. As a result the current in the reverse direction is much smaller than that
with the same potential difference in the forward direction.

I-V CHARACTERISTICS FOR P-N JUNCTION DIODE

p-n junction diode has a low resistance in one direction (forward bias) and a high
resistance in the reverse bias. Thus it can be used as a current rectifier to change
a.c to d.c.

The graph does not obey ohm’s law.

ADVANTAGES OF p-n JUNCTION OVER THERMIONIC DIODE

I. It is much smaller

2. it needs a small p.d to operate in a radio receiver

3. it requires no time to warm up to produce current carriers.

4. it is cheaper to manufacture in large quantities and less liable to break.

HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

In half wave rectifier, if a.c supply is applied at input, positive half cycle appear
across output and negative half cycle suppressed. Only one crystal diode is used.

WAVE FORMS
Applications of Half Wave Rectifier
Half wave rectifiers are not as commonly used as full-wave rectifiers. Despite this,
they still have some uses:
 For rectification applications
 For signal demodulation applications
 For signal peak applications
 Simple (lower number of components)
 Cheaper (as their is less equipment. Although there is a higher cost over time
due to increased power losses)
Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier
 They only allow a half-cycle through per sine wave, and the other half-cycle
is wasted. This leads to power loss.
 They produce a low output voltage.
 The output current we obtain is not purely DC, and it still contains a lot of
ripple (i.e. it has a high ripple factor)

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

It has two diodes, D1 produces one half of the cycle, D2 produces another one half
of the circuit. The output is equivalent to a steady voltage together with varying
voltages. To filter of the fluctuations, a filter circuit is used which consists of a
high inductance in series with a large capacitance, since inductance and
capacitance are in series with voltage, very little of the varying voltage appears.

D1

D2
WAVEFORM

Evaluation

1. what is doping?
2. Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
3. Explain the p-n junction diode
4. State four advantages of the p-n junction over the diode valve
5. State three disadvantages of the p-n junction diode

TOPIC: USES AND MAINTENANCE OF MACHINES

USERS OF MACHINE
 The world in which we live is a technological one. Many of the things that were
done manually before are carried out with machines. Machines could be found
in homes offices, school, and playground. We all use machines and to survive
in this present generation requires some amount of technical education.

Need for use of machine in doing work

The advent of machine has made our work;

- Easier
- Neater
- More convenient
- More efficient
- Faster
- More productive.

Machines are used at home, offices, industries, agriculture, and transportation

Examples of machine;

- Home: radio, television, electric pressing iron, refrigerator, electric fan,

cooker
- Office: computer, photocopier, air conditioner, laptop
- Industries: lift, conveyor, pump, lathe machine, forklift
- Agriculture: sprayer, garden sprinkler, wheel barrow
- Transportation: bicycle, motorcycle, tricycle, motor car, boat

NEED FOR MAINTENANCE

Machines wear out. They need maintenance, repair and eventual replacement.
Failure to use and maintain machines properly increases risk to people, reduces
efficiency and increases costs. The need for maintenance includes:

1. To prevent break down

2. A machine that is not properly maintained becomes dangerous especially
electrical machines since they can cause lethal shocks and start fires.
 3. To reduce the rate at which faulty machines are abandon
4. For economical reason. Most times, it cost less to repair a machine than to
go for a new one.
5. To make machine last longer and function properly.
6. Reduce the frequency of disappointment of the machine.

Types of Maintenance

The type of machine and the amount of its usage will determine the maintenance
schedule for the machine. Sometimes, some machines come with specification on
how maintenance is to be carried out.

Types of maintenance include: Predictive maintenance, Preventive

maintenance, Corrective maintenance

1. Predictive maintenance: this is the maintenance by which modern devices are

used to foresee any breakdown of equipment eg the use of analyzer to check
engines

2. Preventive (regular) maintenance: this type of maintenance is carried out even

before the need arises. Eg routine checking, adjustment, cleaning, inspection, and
lubrication

3. Corrective maintenance: this type of maintenance is carried out on equipment

when the equipment has broken down. Eg repairs and replacement of parts.

Evaluation

1. What are machines?

2. Explain planned obsolescence
3. Describe how you would maintain the following household devices
(i) Radio
(ii) Satellite receiver
(iii) Electric pressing iron
(iv) Microwave oven
4. Explain why we need machines to do work
5. What do you understand by efficiency of a machine?
OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE AS A WAVE GUIDE

The optical fibre cables are used as wave guides for transmitting electromagnetic
waves at optical frequencies. These frequencies are higher than that of radio wave
frequency. The number of information transmitted is directly proportional to the
frequency of the transmitted signals. Hence 15,000 and more simultaneous
telephone conversations are possible to transmit along a single optical fibre cable.
But in a single pair of metallic cable, only 48 simultaneous telephone
conversations can be transmitted in the form of electric current.

An optical fibre cable is a cylindrical core made of silica glass of radius 0.0002 cm
to 0.001 cm. Around this core, cladding is formed by the addition of small
amount of boron, germanium or phosphorus to form the rarer (less dense)
medium. The cladding is necessary to retain the light waves within the core and
also to provide mechanical strength. Further the cladding is coated with buffer
jacket made of plastic to protect the fibre from moisture and scratches. The buffer
jacket is also surrounded by a thick tougher like Kevlar that provides toughness
and tensile strength to the fibre. Finally the cableis covered by black
polyurethane outer jacket that provides flexibility to the fibre.
MODE OF OPERATION

Optical fibre works on the principle of total internal reflection. When the optical
signal enters at one end of the fibre, it is incident on the layer separating the core
and cladding. The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle. Since the
core is a denser medium and the cladding is a rarer medium, total internal
reflections take place continuously throughout the core region as shown in the
figure. Finally it comes out from the other end of the fibre. Hence the optical fibre
functions as a wave guide.

ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBRE CABLES

1. The fibre material is made of silica glass which is available in surplus in the
world compared to copper Bo or aluminium.
2. Silica is very much cheaper than copper.
3. There is no electrical danger, since no electric current flows through the
fibre. It carries only optical signal.
4. Optical fibre can be handled more easily because of their light
weight,smaller in size and flexibility.
5. The optical signal transmitted through the fibre cannot be disturbed by the
radio frequency interference.
6. Tapping (overhear secrets) of information is impossible in fibre optic
systems.
7. A large number of signals can be simultaneously transmitted along the
optical fibre cables compared to the metallic cables.
8. The loss of intensity of energy is less in optical fibre cables compared to the
metallic cables. In the optical fibre cables the loss is 12.5 dB per km

LASER
The term LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. The LASER is a device which amplifies light waves similar to the
transistor which amplifies electric current. The laser is a powerful source of light.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER
Laser radiation is different from normal light radiation. The characteristics of laser
are given below:
1. Laser radiation is monochromatic. It contains only one particular
Wavelength (colour) of light. The wavelength is determined by the amount
of energy released.
2. Laser radiation is coherent. In emitted radiation, all the photons are having
the same phase and amplitude.
3. Laser radiation is highly directional. Laser beam of light can travel very long
distance, without much divergence.
4. Laser radiation is very intense. The intensity and hence the brightness of the
laser radiation is high.
5. The radiation having single wavelength, same amplitude and same
phase is called ‘coherent radiation’.

PRINCIPLE OF LASER
Laser works on the principle of quantum theory of radiation. When an atom in the
lower energy E1 absorbs the photon energy of incident radiation, it is excited to the
higher energy level E2. This process is called absorption. The number of absorption
transition taking place per unit time per unit volume is directly proportional to the
number of atoms in the lower energy level and the number of photons in the
incident radiation. The energy difference E2 –E1 is called excitation energy and it is
equal to the energy of the photon absorbed by the atom. In higher energy level (E2),
the atom cannot remain for a long time, since it has a tendency to drop energy. So
the atom jumps to the lower energy level (E1). At that time, the energy difference E
-E is emitted in the form of radiation as photon. The energy of the photon released,
E2 –E1 =hf, where f is the frequency of the radiation and h, the Planck's constant.

STIMULATED EMISSION
Einstein found a new process called stimulated emission to increase the number of
transition of atoms from higher energy levels to lower energy levels. Stimulated
emission is the process in which photon emissions take place by an inducement
given by another photon incident on the the atoms in higher energy levels. The
energy of the photon emitted is equal to the energy of the photon incident.
Consider an atom in the higher energy level (E2). When an external radiation of
photon energy E2 –E1 is incident on the excited atom, photon stimulates the atom to
make transition from higher to lower energy level. As a result the same photon
energy E2 –E1 is emitted in the form of radiation. During this process, the
stimulating photon and the photon emitted by the excited atom are emitted
simultaneously in the same direction. Hence they are identical in phase, direction
and frequency and are coherent. This process of stimulated emission is used to
produce laser beam.
The stimulated emission can be multiplied through a chain reaction. When a single
photon hits an atom in the higher energy level, two photons are emitted by
stimulated emission. Then these two photons hit on two atoms of higher level, four
photons are emitted. This process is continued as a chain reaction and the photons
are getting multiplied. Finally it leads to the emission of the powerful, coherent,
monochromatic and highly directional beam of laser light. This is called Light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

USES OF LASER:
1. Laser is used to find the long distances by direct pulse reflection
method. Using this method, the distance between the moon and earth was
measured accurately.
2. It is used to produce high temperature to melt and vaporize metals in a very
short period.
3. It is used to bore holes in hard substances like tungsten and diamond.
4. It can be modulated to transmit hundred messages at a time on radio,
television and telephone.
5. The big size objects like aero planes, missiles etc can be destroyed in a few
seconds by passing a powerful laser beam on to them. For this reason, laser
is called a “Death ray” instrument.
6. In surgery, a laser beam is used in spot-welding of a detached retina in the
eye ball. It is also used for painless drilling and welding the surface of a
tooth to prevent its decay.
7. The laser beam is not easily absorbed by water. So it can be used in under-
water communication between submarines.

Evaluation
1. Describe the working principle of optical fibre
2. State five advantages of using the optical fibre
3. What is attenuation?
4. State five characteristics of the optical fibre
5. Explain the principle of the optical fibre