An electro-mechanical energy conversion device (or electrical machine) that converts mechanical

energy or power ( ωT) into DC electrical energy or power (EI) is called DC generator.

Fig.2 .1 Block diagram of electro-magnetic energy conversion (Generator action)

Working Principle
The basic principle of a DC generator is electro-magnetic induction i.e.,
“ When a conductor cuts across the magnetic field, an emf is induced in it.”

(a) Linear motion of conductor in a uniform magnetic field (b) Coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field
Fig. 2.2 Generation of emf

Consider Fig. 2.2(a), here, when a conductor is moved vertically upward or downward, the deflection
in the galvanometer clearly shows that an emf is induced in the conductor since flux is cut by the
conductor. But, when it is moved horizontally (left or right),
there is no deflection in the galvanometer which shows that
no emf is induced in the conductor since flux cut is zero and
conductor moves just parallel to the magnetic lines of force.
In fact, in a generator, a coil is rotated at a constant speed
of ω radians per second in a strong magnetic field of constant
magnitude as shown in Fig. 2.2(b). An emf is induced in the
coil by the phenomenon of dynamically induced emf (e = Fig. 2.2(c) Wave shape of induced emf
 DC Generator

Blv sinθ e α sinθ). The magnitude and direction of induced emf changes periodically depending upon
sine of angle . The wave shape of the induced emf is shown in Fig. 2.2(c), which is AC for internal
as well as external load.
This AC is converted into DC with the help of commutator, as explained in the Articles to follow.
Thus, the working principle of a DC generator is electro-magnetic induction.

The complete assembly of various parts in a scattered form of a DC machine is shown in Fig. 2.3.
The essential parts of a DC machine are described below:

Fig. 2.3 Disassembled parts of a DC machine

1. Magnetic Frame or Yoke

The outer cylindrical frame to which main poles and inter poles are fixed is called yoke. It also helps
to fix the machine on the foundation. It serves two purposes:
 (i) It provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the machine.
(ii) It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.

The yoke is made of cast iron for smaller machines and for larger machines, it is made of cast steel
or fabricated rolled steel since these materials have better magnetic properties as compared to cast iron.

2. Pole Core and Pole Shoes

The pole core and pole shoes are fixed to the magnetic frame or yoke by bolts. They serve the
following purposes:

(i) They support the field or exciting coils.

(ii) They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature periphery more uniformly.
(iii) Since pole shoes have larger X-section, the reluctance of magnetic path is reduced.

(a) Field winding placed around pole core (b) Field winding
Fig. 2.4 Pole core, pole shoe and field winding

Usually, the pole core and pole shoes are made of thin cast steel or wrought iron laminations
which are riveted together under hydraulic pressure as shown in Fig. 2.4(a).

3. Field or Exciting Coils

Enamelled copper wire is used for the construction of field or exciting coils. The coils are wound on
the former [see Fig.2.4(b)] and then placed around the pole core as shown in Fig.2.4(a ). When direct
current is passed through the field winding, it magnetises the poles which produce the required flux.
The field coils of all the poles are connected in series in such a way that when current flows through
them, the adjacent poles attain opposite polarity as shown in Fig. 2.5.

4. Armature Core
It is cylindrical is shape and keyed to the rotating shaft. At the outer periphery slots are cut, as shown
in Fig. 2.6, which accommodate the armature winding. The armature core shown in Fig. 2.6, serves
the following purposes:
 DC Generator

(i) It houses the conductors in the slots.

(ii) It provides an easy path for magnetic flux.

Since armature is a rotating part of the machine, reversal of flux takes place in the core,
hence hysteresis losses are produced. To minimise these losses silicon steel material is used for
its construction. When it rotates, it cuts the magnetic field and an emf is induced in it. This emf
circulates eddy currents which results in eddy current loss in it. To reduce these losses, armature
core is laminated, in other words we can say that about 0.3 to 0.5 mm thick stampings are used for its
construction. Each lamination or stamping is insulated from the other by varnish layer (see Fig. 2.6).

Fig. 2.5 Magnetic circuit of DC machine Fig. 2.6 Armature core

5. Armature Winding
The insulated conductors housed in the armature slots are suitably connected. This is known as
armature winding. The armature winding acts as the heart of a DC machine. It is a place where one
form of power is converted to the other form i.e., in case of generator, mechanical power is converted
into electrical power and in case of motor, electrical power is converted into mechanical power. On
the basis of connections, there are two types of armature windings named ( i) Lap winding and ( ii)
Wave winding (detailed discussions in the coming articles).

(i) Lap winding: In this winding, the connections are such that the number of parallel paths is
equal to number of poles. Thus, if machine has P poles and Z armature conductors, then there will
be P parallel, paths, each path will have Z/P conductors in series. In this case, the number of
brushes is equal to the number parallel paths. Out of which half the brushes are positive andthe
remaining (half) are negative.
(ii) Wave winding : In this winding, the connections are such that the numbers of parallel paths are
only two irrespective of the number of poles. Thus, if machine has Z armature conductors, there
will be only two parallel paths each having Z/2 conductors in series. In this case, the number
of brushes is equal to two i.e., number of parallel paths.
6. Commutator
It is an important part of a DC machine and serves the following purposes:
(i) It connects the rotating armature conductors to the stationary external circuit through brushes.
(ii) It converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors into unidirectional current
in the external load circuit in generator action, whereas, it converts the alternating torque into
unidirectional (continuous) torque produced in the armature in motor action.
The commutator is of cylindrical shape and is made up of wedge-shaped hard drawn copper
segments. The segments are insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica. The segments are
held together by means of two V-shaped rings that fit into the V-grooves cut into the segments. Each
armature coil is connected to the commutator segment through riser. The sectional view of the
commutator assembly is shown in Fig. 2.7.

Fig. 2.7 Commutator

7. Brushes
The brushes are pressed upon the commutator and form the connecting link between the armature
winding and the external circuit. They are usually made of high grade carbon because carbon is
conducting material and at the same time in powdered form provides lubricating effect on the
commutator surface. The brushes are held in particular position around the commutator by brush
holders and rocker.

8. Brush Rocker
It holds the spindles of the brush holders. It is fitted on to the stationary frame of the machine with nut
and bolts. By adjusting its position, the position of the brushes over the commutator can be adjusted
to minimise the sparking at the brushes.

9. End Housings
End housings are attached to the ends of the main frame and support bearings. The front housing
supports the bearing and the brush assemblies whereas the rear housing usually supports the bearing
only.
 DC Generator

10. Bearings
The bearings may be ball or roller bearings these are fitted in the end housings. Their function is to
reduce friction between the rotating and stationary parts of the machine. Mostly high carbon steel
is used for the construction of bearings as it is very hard material.

11. Shaft
The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking strength. The shaft is used to transfer
mechanical power from or to the machine. The rotating parts like armature core, commutator, cooling
fan etc. are keyed to the shaft.

For simplicity, consider only one coil AB placed in the strong magnetic field. The two ends of the coil
are joined to slip rings A` and B` respectively. Two brushes rest on these slip rings as shown in Fig. 2.8.

Fig. 2.8 Generated emf for external circuit connected through slip rings

When this coil is rotated in counter clockwise direction at an angular velocity of radius per
second, the magnetic flux is cut by the coil and an emf is induced in it. The position of the coil
at various instants is shown in Fig. 2.8(a ) and the corresponding value of the induced emf and its
direction is shown in Fig. 2.8(b). The induced emf is alternating and the current flowing through the
external resistance is also alternating i.e., at second instant current flows in external resistance from
M to L, whereas, at fourth instant it flows from L to M as shown in Fig. 2.8(b).

Commutator Action
Now, consider that the two ends of the coil are connected to only one slip ring split into two parts
(segment) i.e., A` and B `. Each part is insulated from the other by a mica layer. Two brushes rest on
these parts of the ring as shown in Fig. 2.9(a).
In this case when the coil is rotated is counter clockwise direction at an angular velocity of ω
radians per second, the magnetic flux is cut by the coil and an emf is induced in it. The magnitude
of emf induced in the coil at various instants will remain the same as shown in Fig.2.8(b).
However, the flow of current in the external resistor or circuit will become unidirectional i.e., at
second instant the flow of current in the external resistor is from M to L as well as the flow of current
in the external resistor is from M to L in the fourth instant, as shown in Fig. 4.9( a). Its wave shape is
shown in Fig. 2.9(b).

Fig. 2.9 Generated emf for external circuit connected through split ring

Hence, an alternating current is converted into unidirectional current in the external circuit with
the help of a split ring (i.e., commutator).
In an actual machine, there are number of coils connected to the number of segments of the ring
called commutator. The emf or current delivered by these coils to the external load is shown in Fig.
2.10(a). The actual flow of current flowing in the external load is shown by the firm line which
fluctuates slightly. The number of coils placed on the armature is even much more than this and a
pure direct current is obtained at the output as shown in Fig. 2.10(b).
 DC Generator

Thus, in actual machine working as a generator, the function of commutator is to convert the
alternating current produced in the armature into direct current in the external circuit.

Fig. 2.10 Wave shape of output delivered by a DC generator

and Location of Brushes

Consider an armature which has four coils 1, 2, 3 and 4 equally spaced in the armature slots as shown
in Fig. 2.11. The number of commutator segments is equal to number of coils. When the armature
is rotated clockwise, the direction of induced emf and hence the current in coil sides 3, 1, 4, 2 is
downward and in coil sides 1, 3, 2, 4 is upward. The coils should be connected in such a way that
the emf induced in the two sides of the same coil be added up as shown in Fig. 2.12, The coil sides 1–
4, 1–2, 2–3 and 3 –4 are connected to the commutator segments namely 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in
Fig. 2.13.

Fig. 2.11 Coils and commutator segments Fig. 2.12 Electrical connections
 Fig. 2.13 Developed windings diagram for 2-pole, 4-coil, 4-segment DC machine.

The next point of discussion is to determine how many brush sets are required and where these are
to be placed with respect to the poles. The brushes are to collect or deliver the current and arc placed
at such a position that sparking is minimum at the brushes. The rules to be followed for determining the
position of brushes are given below:

(i) Place the brush at each meeting point or each separating point of two emf’s. The brushes at the
meeting point are of positive polarity and those at the separating point are of negative polarity.
At segment 1, current is separated towards conductor 1 and 4, hence it is a separating point.
Whereas, current is coming towards segment 3 from conductor 2 and 3, hence it is a meeting
point. So, the commutator segment 1 is the position of negative brush and commutator segment
3 of the positive brush.
(ii) Brushes are generally equally spaced and placed directly opposite to the pole centres. This brings
out a very important point, namely, that in certain positions of the commutator the brushes will
be actually short circuiting the coils connected to the segments with which they are in contact
(Fig. 2.14). In this case only two coils are short circuited, which is taking place continuously
and as such the width of brushes must be greater than the thickness of the mica insulation
between segments. However, for representation, the general convention is to place the brushes
at geometrical neutral plane (G.N.P.). All conductors above the brush axis carry current in one
direction and all conductors below the brush axis carry current in the opposite direction. This
convention represents that the brushes are placed at the coil or coils in which the voltage
induced is zero.
The actual position of the brushes is shown in Figs. 2.14, 2.15 and 2.16. These figures also show the
position of coil sides and the direction of currents after the coils 2 and 4 undergo commutation. The
negative brush short circuits the segments 1 and 4 whereas positive brush short circuit the segments
2 and 3. The coils 4 and 2 are short circuited by the brushes and hence no emf should induce in these
coils. The armature winding forms a closed circuit and consists of two parallel paths. When a coil
 DC Generator

under goes commutation no emf is induced in it since it passes through magnetic neutral axis (MNA),
and the coil is short-circuited by the brushes, hence no sparking will take place.

Fig. 2.14 Brush position Fig. 2.15 Brush position and electrical connections

Fig. 2.16 Brush position at an instant

At the outer periphery of an armature core, slots are cut. In these slots number of conductors are
placed which are connected with each other in proper arrangement forming series –parallel paths
depending upon the requirement. This arrangement of connections is known as armature winding. To
understand the armature winding schemes, it is desirable to have an idea about the following terms.

1. Conductor: The length of wire embedded in armature core and lying within the magnetic field
is called the conductor (see Fig. 2.17(a), where AB is a conductor). It may be having one or more
parallel strands. Total number of conductors in the armature winding are represented by the
symbol Z.
 2. Turn: Two conductors lying in a magnetic field connected in series at the back, as shown in
Fig.2.17(a ), so that emf induced in them is additive is known as a turn.

Fig. 2.17 Representation of a coil.

3. Coil. A coil may be a single turn coil having only two conductors, as shown in Fig. 2.17(a), or
it may be a multi-turn coil having more than two conductors as shown in Fig. 2.17(b ). In Fig.
2.17(b), a three-turn coil is shown. The bunch of three conductors may be wrapped by the cotton
tape, as shown in Fig. 2.17(c), before placing in the slot of armature. A multi-turn coil can be
represented by single line diagram as shown in Fig. 2.17(d). Multi-turn coils are used to develop
higher voltages. When the armature conductors are more, it is not feasible to use single turn
coils because it will require large number of commutator segments and if used it will not give
spark-less commutation. Moreover, it will not be economical due to use of more copper in the
end connections. The total number of coils in the armature winding are represented by symbol ‘C’.
4. Coil side. Each coil (single turn or multi-turn) has two sides called coil sides. Both the coil
sides are embedded in two different slots as per the winding design (nearly a pole pitch apart).
5. Coil group. A group of coils may have one or more coils.
6. Winding. When number of coil groups are arranged on the armature in a particular fashion as
per the design, it is called an armature winding.
7. Inductance effect. All the coils have some inductance effect as current is changing in them.
Due to inductance effect the flow of current is opposed causing reduction in resultant output
voltage. Over-hanging end connections have some adverse effect due to inductance.

Terms Related to Winding Design

8. Front-end and Back-end connectors. A wire that is used to connect end of a coil at the front
to the commutator segment is called a front-end connector.
Whereas, a wire that is used to connect one coil side to the other coil side at the back is called
back-end connector.
 DC Generator

9. Pole pitch. In general, it is defined as number of armature slots per pole. It may also be defined as
the number of armature conductors per pole. If there are 36 conductors for 4 poles then pole
pitch will be equal to 36/4 i.e., 9 conductors per pole.
10. Back pitch. The distance in terms of number of armature conductors between first and last
conductor of the same coil i.e., the distance between two coil sides of the same coil is called
back pitch. It is also called the coil span or coil spread and is denoted by Y , as shown in Figs.
b
2.18(a), (b) and (c)

Fig. 2.18 Terms used in coils

11. Front pitch. The distance in terms of number of armature conductors or number of slots between
second conductor of one coil and the first conductor of the next coil which are connected to the
same commutator segment on the front is called front pitch. It is denoted by YF, as shown in
Figs. 2.18 (a), (b) and (c).
12. Resultant pitch. The distance in terms of number of armature conductors or number of slots
between the start of one coil and the start of the next coil to which it is connected is called
resultant pitch. It is denoted by YR as shown in Figs. 4.18(a), (b) and (c).
13. Commutator pitch. The distance measured in terms of commutator segments between the
segments to which the two ends of a coil are connected is called commutator pitch . It is denoted
by YC as shown in Figs. 2.18(a), (b) and (c).
14. Coil span or coil pitch. The distance in terms of number of armature conductors or number
of slots between two sides of the same coil is called coil span or coil pitch.
The coil span may be equal to, less than or more than pole pitch. Accordingly, the coils are
knows as full pitched, short pitched or over pitched coils respectively.
For instance, consider Fig. 2.19. where pole pitch is say 4. One side of coil-A is placed is slot
No. 1 and the other side is placed in slot No. 5, then the coil span is 5-1 = 4 which is equal to
pole pitch hence coil-A is called a full-pitched coil. Whereas, in case of coil-B, the coil span is
6–3 = 3 which is less than pole pitch, this coil is called a short pitched coil.
 Electrical Machines

Let, P = Number of poles of the machine.

Φ= Flux per pole in Wb
Z = Total number of armature conductors.
N = Speed of armature in rpm

Fig. 2.42 A portion of a DC

machine
 DC Generator

A = Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.

In one revolution of the armature; Flux cut by one conductor
= pΦ Wb
Time taken to complete one revolution, t = 60/N second
 Average induced emf in one conductor,

The number of conductors connected in series in each

parallel path = Z/A.
 Average induced emf across each parallel path or across
the armature terminals,

For a given machine, the number of poles and number of conductors per parallel path ( Z/A) are
constant.

RPS=
60 *
RPM

Thus, we conclude that the induced emf is directly proportional to flux per pole and speed.
Moreover, the polarity of the induced emf depends upon the direction of magnetic field and the
direction of rotation. If either of the two is reversed, the polarity of induced emf i.e., brushes is
reversed, but when both are reversed the polarity does not change.
This induced emf is fundamental phenomenon to all DC machines whether they are working as
generator or motor. However, when the machine is working as a generator, this induced emf is called
PZf N
generated emf and is represented as E , i.e., E = volt.
g g 60 A
 Electrical Machines

Whereas, in case the machine is working as a motor, this induced emf is called back emf as it
PZfN
acts opposite to the supply voltage V. Then Eb = volt.
60A

e know that when a current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field a force is exerted on
it which exerts turning moment or torque (F × r) (see Fig. 2.43). This torque is produced due to

Let P = No. of poles.

Φ = Flux per pole in Wb.
r = Average radius of armature in metre.
l = Effective length of each conductor in metre. Z = Total armature conductors.
I = Total armature current.
a
A = No. of parallel paths.
Average force on each conductor, F = Bil newton Torque due to one conductor = F × r newton

metre Total torque developed in the armature,

T = ZFr newton metre

Fig. 2.43 Conductor placedon armature of radius ’r’

 DC Generator

or T = ZB i l r

Now, current in each conductor, i = Ia / A

*
Average flux density, B =Φ /a

where ‘a ’ is the X- sectional area of flux path at radius r.

Substituting these values in equation (i), we get

Alternately; The power developed in the armature is given as

For a particular machine, the number of poles (P), number of conductors per parallel path (Z/A)
are constant.

The constant K for a given machine is the same for the emf equation as well as the torque equation.

Thus, we conclude that torque produced in the armature is directly proportional to

flux per pole and armature current. Moreover, the direction of electromagnetic torque
developed in the armature depends upon the direction of flux or magnetic field and the
direction of flow of current in armature conductors. The direction of torque produced and
hence the direction of rotation is reversed if either of the two is reversed. But when both
are reversed the direction of torque does not change.
Electrical Machines
 .

D.C. generators are generally classified according to the methods of their field excitation.
On the basis of this criteria, they can be classified as:

1. Separately excited DC generators

2. Self excited DC generators – these are further classified as:
(i) Shunt wound DC generators
(ii) Series wound DC generators
(iii) Compound wound DC generators.
(a) Long shunt compound wound generators
(b) Short shunt compound wound generators.

Except the above, there are also permanent magnet type DC generators. In these generators, no
field winding is placed around the poles. These machines have fairly constant magnetic field.
Although these machines are very compact but are used only in small sizes like dynamos in
automobiles etc. The main disadvantages of these machine is that the flux produced by the magnets
deteriorates with the passage of time which changes the characteristics of the machine.

A DC generator in which current is supplied to the field winding from

an external DC source is called a separately excited DC generator.
The flux produced by the poles depends upon the field current with
in the unsaturated region of magnetic material of the poles (i.e.,
 If ), but in the saturated region, the flux remains constant. Its
conventional diagram is shown in Fig. 2.55.

Important relations: Here, Ia = IL…(2.4) Fig. 2.55 Circuit diagram for

where Ia is armature current and IL is the line current. separately excited DC generator

Terminal voltage, V = Eg – Ia Ra

If contact brush drop per brush ( vb) is known,

V = Eg – Ia R a – 2v b.
Power developed =EgIa ( 2.5)
Power output =V.IL=VIa
 DC Generator

A DC generator whose field winding is excited by the current supplied by the generator itself is
called a self-excited DC generator.
In a self-excited DC generator, the field coils may be connected in parallel with the armature,
in series with the armature or partly in series and partly in parallel with the armature winding.
Accordingly, the self-excited generators may be classified as
(i) Shunt wound generators
(ii) Series wound generators
(iii) Compound wound generators.

(i) Shunt Wound Generators

In a shunt wound generator, the field winding is connected across the
armature winding forming a parallel or shunt circuit. Therefore, full
terminal voltage is applied across the field winding. A very small current
Ish flows through it because this winding has many turns of fine wire
having very high resistance R sh (of the order of 100 ohm). Its conventional
Fig. 2.56 Circuit diagram
diagram is shown in Fig. 2.56.
for DC shunt generator
Important relations:

Shunt field current, Ish = V/ Rsh …(2.5)

Where Rsh is the shunt field winding resistance. The field current Ish is practically constant at all
loads, therefore, the DC shunt machine is considered to be constant flux machine.
Armature current, Ia = IL + Ish …(2.6)

Terminal voltage, V = E g – Ia Ra

Including brush contact drop, V = Eg – Ia R a – 2vb …(2.7)

Power developed = E g Ia; Power output = VIL

(ii) Series Wound Generators
In a series wound generator, the field winding is connected in series
with the armature winding forming a series circuit. Therefore, full line
current IL or armature current Ia flows through it. Since the series field
winding carries full load current, it has a few turns of thick wire having
low resistance (usually of the order of less than one ohm). Its conventional
diagram is shown in Fig. 2.57. Fig.2.57 Circuit diagramfor
Important relations: DC series generator

Series field current, Ise = IL = Ia…(2.8)

Series field winding resistance = Rse

Terminal voltage, V = Eg – Ia Ra – Ise Rse = Eg – Ia (Ra + Rse)

Including brush contact drop, V =Eg – Ia (Ra + Rs e ) – 2vb …(2.9)

Power developed = E gIa; Power output = VIL = VIa

(iii) Compound Wound Generators

In a compound wound generator, there are two sets of field
windings on each pole. One of them is connected in series
(having few turns of thick wire) and the other is connected
in parallel (having many turns of fine wire) with armature. A
compound wound generator may be;

(a) Long shunt in which the shunt field winding is connected in

parallel with the combination of both armature and series
Fig. 2.58 Circuit diagram for long
field winding. The conventional diagram of lone shunt
shunt DC compound generator
compound generator is shown in Fig.2.58.
Important relations

V
Shunt field current, Ish =
Rsh

Series field current, Ise = Ia = IL + Ish …(2.9)

Terminal voltage, V = Eg – Ia Ra – Ise Rse

= Eg – Ia (Ra + Rse)
Including brush contact drop, V = Eg – I (R + R ) – 2 v …(2.10)
a a se b

Power developed = E I ; Power output = VI

gg a L
 DC Generator

(b) Short shunt in which the shunt field winding is connected

in parallel with only armature winding. The conventional
diagram of short shunt compound generator is shown in
Fig. 2.59.
Important relations

Series field current, Ise = IL

V + I L R se Fig. 2.59 Circuit diagram for short

Shunt field current, Ish = shunt DC compound generator
Rsh

Eg- I a R a
= …(2.25)
Rsh

Ia = IL + Ish

Terminal voltage, V = E g – IaRa – IL Rse

Including brush contact drop, V = E g – Ia Ra – IL Rse – 2vb …(2.26)

Power developed = E g Ia; Power output = VIL

Cumulatively and Differentially Compound-wound Generators

In compound wound DC generators, the field is produced by the shunt as well as series winding.
Generally the shunt field is stronger than the series field. When the series field assist the shunt field,
the generator is called as cumulatively compound wound generator [see Fig. 2.60(a)]. However,
when the series field opposes the shunt field, the generator is known as differentially compound
wound generator [see Fig. 2.60(b)].

(a) Cumulative (b) Differential

Fig. 2.60 Winding position and direction of flow of current in shunt and series winding

At no-load, the voltage at the terminals of a shunt generator is maximum and is called no-load
generated emf When load is applied on the generator, the terminal voltage decreases due to drop in
the armature circuit.
To determine the relation between different quantities of a DC generator, the following are the
important characteristics of DC generators:

1. No-load characteristics. It is also known as magnetic characteristics or open-circuit

characteristics (O.C.C.). It shows the relation between the no-load generated emf in the armature
(E ) and the field current (i.e., exciting current) I , at a specified speed.
0 f
2. External characteristics. It is also called the performance characteristics. It shows the relation
between the terminal voltage (V) and the load current IL.
3. Internal Characteristics. It is also known as total characteristics. It gives the relation between
the emf actually induced in the armature (Eg) and the armature current Ia.

of DC Generator
It shows the relation between the no-load generated emf in the armature (E0) and the field current
If, at a specified speed. To obtain this characteristics, proceed as follows:
 DC Generator

Open the field winding of the generator and connect it to a separate DC source through a rheostat
as shown in Fig. 2.67. Connect an ammeter in the field circuit and a voltmeter across the armature.
Reduce the field current to zero and run the armature at a specified speed. Get the reading of
voltmeter and mark the point ‘a’ on the graph. To plot the characteristics take field current If along
X-axis and no-load generated emf (E0) along Y-axis. Increase the field current in steps and get the
corresponding voltmeter readings. Plot these values on the graph. The curve thus obtained (shown in
Fig. 2.68) shows the no-load characteristics or open circuit characteristics (O.C.C.) of the generator.

Fig. 2.67 Circuit diagram Fig. 2.68 No-load characteristics

Analysis of the curve

While analysing the curve, the following points are worth noting:

1. The curve starts from point ‘a’ instead of ‘O ’ when the field current is zero. It is because of the
residual magnetism of the poles.
2. The initial part of the curve (ab ) is almost a straight line because at this stage the magnetic
material is unsaturated and it has high permeability.
3. After point ‘b’ the curve bends and the generated emf (E0 ) becomes almost constant. It is because
after point ‘b ’, the poles (magnetic material) starts getting saturated.

The shunt generator is a self-excited DC generator whose field winding is supplied current from
the output of the generator itself. But question arises how it can supply current to the field winding
before the voltage being generated? And if the field current is not supplied, how can the voltage be
generated? Let us find out its answer from the following explanation.
The open circuit characteristics of a DC shunt generator is shown in Fig. 2.69(b ). The shunt field
resistance is represented by a straight line OX. When armature is rotated at a constant speed of ω
rad/sec, the small residual flux of the poles is cut by the armature conductors, and very small emf
(oa) is induced in the armature. If now key ( K) connected in the shunt field winding, as shown in Fig.
2.69(a), is closed, current ob flows in the field winding. This current increases the flux produced by the
poles and voltage generated in the armature is increased to oc which further increases the field
current to od which further builds up the voltage. This building up action comes to an end at point f
where the o.c.c. intersects the shunt field resistance line OX. It is, because beyond this point, the
 induced voltage is less than that required to maintain the corresponding field current. Thus, the final
current in the field winding is ef and the final voltage build up by the generator for a given O.C.C.
is oe as shown in Fig. 2.69(b).

(a) Circuit diagram (b) Curve between Eg and If

Fig. 2.69 Open circuit voltage built-up

The open circuit characteristic of a DC shunt generator are shown

in Fig. 2.70. The line OX is drawn in such a way that its slope gives
the field winding resistance, i.e.,
OB (in volt )
Rsh =
OC (in ampere)

In this case, the generator can build up a maximum voltage OB

with a shunt field resistance Rsh. A line OY represents a smaller
resistance. With this resistance, the generator can build up a
maximum voltage OF which is slightly more than OB. If the field
resistance is increased, the slope of the resistance line increases.
Fig. 2.70 Critical resistance
Consequently, the maximum voltage which the generator can build
up, at a specified speed, decreases. If the value of Rsh is increased

to such an extent that the resistance line does not cut the no-load characteristics at all (OZ ), then it
is apparent that the voltage will not be built-up (i.e., the generator fails to excite).
If the resistance line ( OP) just coincide with the slope of the curve, at this value of field resistance,
the generator will just excite. This resistance, given by the tangent to the O.C.C. is called the critical
resistance at a specified speed.
Thus, the slope of the tangent drawn on the O.C.C. is called critical resistance.

Critical resistance of a field winding. It is that maximum value resistance of a field winding which
is required to build-up voltage in a generator. If the value of field resistance is more than this value,
the generator would not build-up the voltage.

Critical load resistance. The minimum value of load resistance on a DC shunt generator with which
it can be in position to build-up is called its critical load resistance.
 DC Generator

Critical speed of a DC shunt generator. It is the speed of a DC shunt generator at which shunt field
resistance will represent the critical field resistance.

It is also called external or performance characteristics of shunt

generator. It shows relation between the terminal voltage V on load and
the load current IL. To obtain this characteristics, proceed as follows:
Connect an ammeter A1 and rheostat in the field circuit and an
ammeter A2 and voltmeter V on the load side as shown in Fig.2.71.
Apply a variable load across the terminals. At start switch off the load
and run the generator at rated speed. No-load emf (generated voltage
Eg) will appear across the voltmeter. Then switch on the load through
switch S and increase the load gradually keeping field current (ammeter
reading A1 ) constant with the help of rheostat Rh. Take the readings Fig. 2.71 Circuit diagram
of voltmeter V and ammeter A2 at various instants and plot the curve.
The curve so obtained is shown in Fig. 2.71.

Analysis of the Curve

While analysis the curve, the following points are highlighted:

1. At no-load, the voltage across the terminals is maximum and is considered to be equal to
generated emf Eg.
2. As the load is increased gradually, the load current IL increases but the terminal voltage decreases.
The decrease in voltage is because of the following reasons:
(i) Due to increase in voltage drop in the armature resistance (IaRa)
(ii) Due to armature reaction, when load current or armature current Ia increases, the
demagnetising effect of the armature field increases on the main field which reduced the
induced emf Consequently the terminal voltage decreases.
(iii) The drop in terminal voltage further causes decreases in field current. This will, in turn,
causes the decrease in induced emf which reflects the drop in terminal voltage. However, the
field current can be kept constant by adjusting the
rheostat connected in the field circuit.
3. During initial portion of the curve AB, the tendency of the
voltage drop due to armature resistance is more than
armature reaction.
4. At point B these two effects neutralise each other.
5. After point B, armature reaction dominates and the curve
turns back (BC portion of the curve), as shown in Fig. 2.72.
6. The point C at which the external characteristic cuts the
current axis corresponds to a gradual short circuit. Fig. 2.72 Curve between V and IL
In this generator, the field winding is connected in series with the armature and load (see Fig. 2.73).
Therefore, full armature current Ia flows through it. When load increases, Ia increases which increases
flux and consequently generated emf is also increased. This, correspondingly increases the terminal
voltage V. Thus, a series generator has a rising characteristic (curve OA ) as shown in Fig. 2.73.

Fig. 2.73 Circuit diagram Fig. 2.74 Curve between V and IL

However, at higher loads, the terminal voltage begins to reduce because of the excessive
demagnetizing effects of armature reaction. Ultimately, the terminal voltage reduces to zero at load
current OB as shown in Fig. 2.74.

There are some applications where constant terminal voltage is essential. At such places, shunt
generator is not suitable, because its terminal voltage decreases with the increase in load on it.
However it can be made suitable for such applications by connecting a few turns in series with
the armature as shown in Fig. 2.75. The field produced by these series turns assist the field produced by
the shunt winding. Such generators are known as compound generators. In such generators whenload
current increases, the flux increases which increases the induced emf This extra induced emf
compensates the voltage drop in the armature resistance and the demagnetizing effect due to armature
reaction. Hence, the terminal voltage V remains substantially constant.

Degree of Compounding
A cumulatively – compound wound generator is shown in Fig. 2.75. Its level of compounding can be
changed by varying the amount of current passing through the series field winding by connecting
a by-pass rheostat Rh.
When the field current is adjusted such that the terminal voltage V on full load remains the same
as that on no-load, the generator is called to be level or flat compounded generator (see Fig. 2.76).
When the terminal voltage on full-load is more than its terminal voltage at no-load, the generator
is called to be an over compounded generator.
On the other hand, when the terminal voltage on full-load is less than no-load voltage, the generator
is called to be as under compounded generator.
 DC Generator

However, if the field produced by the series field winding acts in opposite direction to the field
produced by the shunt field winding, the generator is called to be differentially compounded (see
Fig. 2.76).

Fig. 2.75 Circuit diagram Fig. 2.76 Load characteristics of compound generator

There may be one or more of the following reasons due to which a generator fails to build-up voltage:
1. When the residual magnetism in the field system is destroyed.
2. When the connections of the field winding are reversed. This, in fact, destroys the residual
magnetism due to which generator fails to build up voltage.
3. In case of shunt-wound generators, the other causes may be
(i) the resistance of shunt field circuit may be more than the critical resistance.
(ii) the resistance of load circuit may be less than critical resistance.
(iii) the speed of rotation may be below the rated speed.
4. In case of series-wound generators, the other causes may be
(i) the load circuit may be open: it may be due to faulty contact between brushes and
commutator or commutator surface may be greasy or dirty and making no contact with
the brushes.
(ii) the load circuit may have high resistance.

Rectification: If the generator is not building up because of absence of residual magnetism due
to any reason, the field coils should be connected to a DC source for a small period in order to
magnetise the poles.

Depending upon the characteristics of various types of DC generators, their important applications
are given below:

1. Separately excited DC generators. Although, these generators are more costly than self excited
generators as they require a separate source for their field excitation. But their response to the
 change in field resistance is more quick and precise. Therefore, these are employed where quick
and definite response to control is important such as Ward–Leonard System of speed control.
2. Shunt-wound DC generators. As they provide constant terminal voltage, they are best suited
for battery charging. Along with field regulators, they are also used for light and power supply
purposes.
3. Series-wound DC generators. These generators have very few applications. Their best
application is in the DC locomotives, where they supply field current for regenerative braking.
They are also employed in series arc lighting. Another application of these generators is as
series boosters for increasing DC voltage across the feeders.
4. Compound-wound DC generators
(i) Over-compounded type. These are more suited for lighting and power services, as they
compensate for the voltage drop in the lines and voltage at the terminals of the load remains
constant.
(ii) Differential-compounded type. They are usefully employed as are welding sets. In such
cases, generator is practically short-circuited every time the electrode touches the metal
plates to be welded.

While conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy, a part of energy dissipated in the form
of heat in surrounding air is called losses in the generator.
These losses affect the efficiency of the generator. A reduction in these losses leads to higher
efficiency. Thus, the major objective in the design of a DC machine is the reduction of these losses.
The various losses occurring in a DC machine can be sub-divided as:

1. Copper losses.
2. Iron losses
3. Mechanical losses.

1. Copper losses. The various windings of the DC machine, made of copper, have some resistance.
When current flows through them, there is power loss proportional to the square of their
respective currents. These power losses are called copper losses.
In general, the various copper losses in a DC machine are:
(i) Armature copper loss = I 2a R a
(ii) Shunt field copper loss = I 2 R
sh sh

(iii) Series field copper loss = I 2

R
se se

(iv) Interpole winding copper loss = I 2 R = I 2R

i i a i

(v) Brush contact loss = I 2a R b or 2Iavb

(vi) Compensating winding copper loss = I 2a Rc

The brush contact drop is generally included in armature copper losses.
 DC Generator

2. Iron losses. The losses which occur in the iron parts of a DC generator are known as iron losses
or core losses or magnetic loss. These losses consist of the following:
(i) Hysteresis loss. Whenever a magnetic material is subjected to reversal of magnetic flux,
this loss occurs. It is due to retentivity property of the material. It is expressed with
1.6
reasonable accuracy by the following expression: Ph = K hV f B m .…(2.28)
where, K h= hysteresis constant in J/m3 i.e., energy loss per unit volume of magnetic material
during one magnetic reversal, its value depends upon nature of material;
V = Volume of magnetic material in m 3;
f = frequency of magnetic reversal in cycle/second and
Bm = maximum flux density in the magnetic material in tesla.
It occurs in the rotating armature. To minimise this loss, the armature core is made of
silicon steel which has low hysteresis constant.
(ii) Eddy current loss. When flux linking with the magnetic material changes (or flux is cut
by the magnetic material) an emf is induced in it which circulates eddy currents through
it. These eddy currents produce eddy current loss in the form of heat. It is expressed with
reasonable accuracy by the expression:
Pe = K e V f 2 t 2 Bm
2
…(2.29)
where, Ke = constant called co-efficient of eddy current, its value depends upon the nature
of magnetic material;
t = thickness of lamination in m;
V, f and Bm are the same as above.
The major part of this loss occur in the armature core. To minimise this loss, the armature
core is laminated into thin sheets (0.3 to 0.5 mm) since this loss is directly proportional
to the square of thickness of the laminations.
3. Mechanical losses. As the armature of a DC machine is a rotating part, some power is required
to overcome:
(i) Air friction of rotating armature (windage loss)
(ii) Friction at the bearing and friction between brushes and commutator (friction loss).
These losses are known as mechanical losses. To reduce these losses proper lubrication is done
at the bearings.

The losses in a DC generator may also be sub-divided into:

1. Constant losses; 2. Variable losses

1. Constant losses. The losses in a DC machine which remain the same at all loads are called
constant losses. The constant losses in a DC machine are:
(i) Iron losses; (ii) Mechanical losses; (iii) Shunt field copper losses
2. Variable losses. The losses in DC machine which vary with load are called variable losses.
The variable losses in a DC machine are;
 (i) Armature copper loss; (ii) Series field copper loss (iii) Interpole winding copper loss and (iv)
Compensating winding copper loss.

2.23 Stray Losses

The sum of the iron losses and mechanical losses in a DC machine are known as stray losses i.e.,
Stray losses = Iron losses + Mechanical losses.

The mechanical power ( ωT m) is supplied to the generator which is converted into electrical power (VIL).
While conversion, various losses occur in the machine. The power flow diagram for a DC generator
is shown in Fig. 2.77.

Fig. 2.77 Power flow diagram of a DC generator

The ratio of output power to the input power of a DC generator is called its efficiency.
output
Efficiency, ɳ = ; where, Power output = VlL watt

Input
Power input = Power output + Variable losses + Constant losses
Since the shunt field current Ish is very small as compared to line current,
therefore, IL = Ia (neglecting Ish)

 Variable losses = I L 2 . Ra

Constant losses = Pc (say)

Then, power output = VIL + IL 2 Ra + Pc

VIL
 ɳ= …(2.30)
VI + I2 R + P
L L a c
 DC Generator

The efficiency of a DC generator is given as: