Module-IV

Electrical Machines
 Contents
Construction, working principle & applications of
•DC Machines
•Transformers
•Three-phase Induction motors
•Synchronous Generators
•Single phase Induction motors
•Stepper motor
•Universal motor
•BLDC motor
 Electric Machine
Electric machines can be divided into 2 types:
 AC machines
 DC machines
 Special Machines

All Electric machines have:

 Stationary members (stator)
 rotating members (rotor)

 Air gap which is separating stator and rotor

Complete assembly of D.C. Machine
D.C. machines have components
(i) Magnetic frame
(or) yoke

(ii) Pole cores field

(or) shoes
field

(iii) field winding

(d.c supply is given armature
to this winding provide
magnetic field, it is
stationary part)
armature

(iv) armature core

(v) armature winding
(Rotating part)

(vi) commutator
(vii)Brushes and bearings
External view: Parts of d.c. machine
Cross sectional view of d.c. machine
 Parts of DC machine
(1) Magnetic frame (or) yoke
It provides
(i) Mechanical support for the
whole machine.
(ii) It carries the magnetic flux
produced by the poles.
(2) Pole cores (or) shoes

(i) To spread out the flux in the air

gap uniformly,
(ii) it supports field or exciting
coils.
(3) Field winding
Field coils are copper wires
wound over field core, when current is passed through these coils,
they electromagnetise the poles which produce necessary flux
which is cut by revolving armature conductors.
(4) armature core
The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates
between the field poles. It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations
(insulated from each other) that are stacked to form a cylindrical core.
The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy
current loss. Armature core holds the armature winding
(5) Armature winding
The armature winding is placed in armature slots. This is the
winding in which e.m.f. is induced.
The armature conductors are connected in series-parallel; the
conductors being connected in series so as to increase the voltage and in
parallel paths so as to increase the current. The armature winding of a d.c.
machine is a closed-circuit winding.
(6) Commutator
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the
alternating voltage generated in the armature winding into direct voltage
across the brushes. The commutator is made of copper segments insulated
from each other by mica sheets and mounted on the shaft of the machine.
The armature conductors are soldered to the commutator segments.

(7) Brushes
The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections
between the rotating commutator and stationary external load circuit. The
brushes are made of carbon and rest on the commutator.
 Construction
Pole Shoe Pole Core

N
Rotor
+ If

Vf If

- Stator
If
S
Field Winding
 D.C Generator
Working Principle

A D.C Generator is the an electrical machine which converts

mechanical energy into electrical energy.

It is based on the Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic induction

principle that whenever flux is cut by a conductor, an e.m.f. is
induced, which will cause a current to flow if the conductor
circuit is closed. The direction of induced e.m.f. (and hence
current) is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.

Therefore, the essential components of a generator are:

(a) magnetic field (stationary part-stator)
(b) rotating conductor or a group of conductors
(vi) position 6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity
and hence the direction of generated e.m.f. is reversed.
(vii) The maximum e.m.f. in this direction (i.e., reverse direction, See
Fig. 2) will be when the loop is at position 7 and zero when at
position 1.
This cycle repeats with each revolution of the coil.
 Commutator
The e.m.f. generated in the loop is alternating one. The alternating
voltage generated is converted into direct voltage by a device called
commutator. Commutator is a mechanical rectifier.
The commutator reverses the connection of the coil side to the
external load at the same instant the current in the coil side reverses, then
the current through the load is direct current.
Types of DC Generator
 Applications of various types
of Generator
• Separately Excited Generators
– Use is restricted to special applications like electro-plating, electro-refining
of materials etc.
• Shunt Generators
– Battery charging and ordinary lighting purposes
• Series Generators
– Boosters on DC feeders, as a constant current generator for welding
generator and arc lamps
• Cumulatively Compound generators
– Domestic lighting purposed and to transmit energy over long distance.
• Differentially compound generators
– Very rare, used for special applications like electric arc welding
 DC Motor
A motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
Working principle
The principle of working of a DC motor is that "whenever a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical
force".
Direction of Rotation of Motor
Significance of Back EMF
Applications
Transformer
 Construction

 Elements of a transformer consist of two coils having mutual inductance and a

laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other
 Transformer core is constructed of transformer sheet steel laminations assembled
to provide a continuous magnetic path with a minimum of air-gap included.
 The steel used is of high silicon content, sometimes heat treated to produce a high
permeability and a low hysteresis loss at the usual operating flux densities.
 The eddy current loss is minimized by laminating the core, the laminations being
insulated from each other by a light coat of core-plate varnish or by an oxide
layer on the surface.
 The thickness of laminations varies from 0.35 mm for a frequency of 50 Hz to 0.5
mm for a frequency of 25 Hz.
 Types of Transformer

Constructionally, the transformers are of two general types, the two types are
known as
(i) core-type and (ii) shell-type.
In core type transformers, the windings surround a considerable part of the core
In shell-type transformers, the core surrounds a considerable portion of the
windings
 Principle of operation
Ø

 Consider an ideal transformer whose secondary is open and

whose primary is connected to sinusoidal alternating voltage V1.
 Potential difference causes an alternating current to flow in the
primary.
 The alternating current produces an alternating flux which links
with primary as well as with the secondary.
 Therefore, it produces self-induced e.m.f. E1 in the primary and
mutually induced e.m.f E2 in the secondary
Voltage Transformation Ratio
 Applications
• The main application of a transformer is to step-up or step-down the
level of voltage or current while maintaining power and frequency is
constant in power plant generation stations, receiving end substations
and distributing the electrical power to the consumer units for demotic
and industrial applications.
• Power Transformer – step up the voltage for transmission from
generating stations
• Distribution Transformer – step down the voltage for distribution to
consumers
• Autotransformers – isolation
• Current transformers and potential transformers – measuremen.
• Additionally, transformers are also used for impedance matching .
 Induction motors

Three Phase Induction Motors

 Construction
1. Stator
It consists of a hollow,
cylindrical core made up of thin
laminations of silicon steel to reduce
hysteresis and eddy current losses. This
has slots to accommodate a 3-phase star
or delta connected winding, called as
stator winding.
2. Rotor
The rotor, mounted on a shaft, is a hollow laminated core
having slots on its outer periphery, in which rotor winding is placed.
There are two types of rotor winding in three phase induction motors,
based on which rotor is classified as
(i) Squirrel cage rotor
(ii) Slip-ring or Wound rotor
 (i) Squirrel cage rotor. It consists of a laminated cylindrical core
having parallel slots on its outer periphery. One copper or aluminum bar
is placed in each slot. All these bars are joined at each end by metal rings
called end rings. This forms a permanently short-circuited winding.
The entire construction (bars and end rings) resembles a squirrel
cage and hence the name. Those induction motors which employ
squirrel cage rotor are called squirrel cage induction motors.

The disadvantage of squirrel cage motor is its low starting

torque.
(ii) Wound rotor.
It consists of a laminated cylindrical core and carries a 3-
phase winding, similar to the one on the stator. The open ends of
the rotor winding are brought out and joined to three insulated slip
rings which are connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat.
At starting, the external resistances are included in the
rotor circuit to give a large starting torque. This is the advantage
of slip-ring IM.
When the motor attains normal speed, the external resistances
are removed so that the wound rotor runs like a squirrel cage rotor.

To obtain
large starting torque
 Principle of Operation
Like a transformer, a 3Φ induction motor works on the
principle of electromagnetic induction. so it is also called as a rotating
transformer with a rotating short circuited secondary (rotor). The stator
corresponds to primary and rotor corresponds to secondary.
When a current carrying conductor is placed in magnetic
field, a mechanical force acts on the conductor.
The operation of Induction motor can be explained as

(i) When 3-phase stator winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a rotating
magnetic field is set up which rotates at synchronous speed,
Ns (= 120 f/P)
(ii) When the rotating field cuts the rotor conductors, e.m.f is induced in it due to
induction principle. Since the rotor circuit is short-circuited, current flows in
rotor conductors.
(iii) The nature of this current is to oppose the cause producing it which is the
relative speed difference between the stator flux and the rotor and hence it
develops a torque to rotate the rotor in the same direction as that of stator flux
 Applications
 Lifts
 Cranes
 Hoists
 Large capacity exhaust fans
 Driving lathe machines
 Crushers
 Oil extracting mills
 Textile and etc.
Single-Phase Induction motors
 Construction
A single phase induction motor has
(i) Stator: single phase winding is
distributed over the inner periphery of the
stator.

(ii) Rotor: It is squirrel-cage type,

with copper bars placed in its slots. The
ends of these bars are shorted by end-rings
to form closed rotor circuit.
 Working Principle
The single-phase stator
winding produces a magnetic
field that pulsates i.e the field
polarity reverses after each
half cycle but the field does
not rotate.
Consequently, the alternating
flux cannot produce rotation
in a stationary squirrel-cage
rotor and hence single phase
induction motor are not a self-
starting motor.
However, if the rotor is started
by auxiliary means, the motor
will quickly attain me final
speed.
 Self-starting
For this purpose, the stator of a
single-phase motor is provided
with an extra winding, known as
starting (or auxiliary) winding, in
addition to the main or running
winding.
It is so arranged that the phase-
difference between the currents in
the two stator windings is very
large (ideal value being 90º).
Hence, the motor behaves like a
two phase motor and produces a
revolving flux and hence make the
motor self-starting.
Capacitor Start-and-Run Motor
In these motors, the necessary phase difference between Is and Im is
produced by connecting a capacitor in series with the starting
winding.
The capacitor is generally of the electrolytic type and is usually
mounted on the outside of the motor as a separate unit
The capacitor is designed for extremely short-duty service and is
guaranteed for not more than 20 periods of operation per hour.

The advantages of leaving the capacitor

permanently in circuit are (i) improvement
of over-load capacity of the motor (ii) a
higher power factor (iii) higher efficiency
and (iv) quieter running of the motor which
is so much desirable for small power drives
in offices and laboratories.
 Applications
These are used in low power applications and widely used in
domestic applications as well as industrial. And some of those are
mentioned below

 Pumps
 Compressors
 Small fans
 Mixers
 Toys
 High speed vacuum cleaners
 Electric shavers
 Drilling machines
Synchronous Generator
 Introduction
• Synchronous generators or alternators are used to convert
mechanical power derived from steam, gas, or hydraulic-turbine
to ac electric power
• Synchronous generators are the primary source of electrical
energy we consume today
• Almost the entire India is powered by AC generators connected
together in parallel.
• The turbines called prime movers use oil, coal, natural gas, or
nuclear energy.
• Synchronous motors are built in large units compare to induction
motors (Induction motors are cheaper for smaller ratings) and
used for constant speed industrial drives
 Construction
There are two basic types of alternators:
– Revolving-armature-type alternators
– Revolving-field-type alternators

Revolving armature design. Revolving field design

Advantages of Rotating Field
• Output current led directly to load circuit without passing
through brushes(Stationary armature)

• Easier to insulate stationary armature for high voltage A.C

• Sliding contacts in low power DC field circuit – easily

insulated

• No mechanical stress or deformation of heavy rotating

conductors
 Rotating Field type Alternator
 Basic parts of a synchronous generator:
• Rotor - dc excited winding
• Stator - 3-phase winding in which the ac emf is generated

 Stator consists of distributed armature winding whose leads

are taken out as R , Y and B
 The rotor is an electromagnet that provides the magnetic field
needed to induce a voltage into the stator windings.
 Excitation current (DC) in the rotor is required to establish the
magnetic field.
 Various Types
 Salient-pole synchronous machine

 Cylindrical or round-rotor synchronous machine

 Operation Principle
The rotor of the generator is driven by a prime-mover

A dc current is flowing in the rotor winding which

produces a rotating magnetic field within the machine

The rotating magnetic field induces a three-phase voltage

in the stator winding of the generator
 A

B
N
S S

N
 A

S B
N

N S
 A

B
S
N N

S
 A

N B
S

N
 A

B
N
S

N
• One cycle of induced emf in a conductor when one pair of poles passes over it.

• If P is no of poles, then pair of poles =P/2

  For one revolution there will be P/2 cyles i.e P/2 cycles/revolution

• Alternator makes say N/60 revolutions / sec

• Hence Cycles / sec = cycles/revolution * revolution / sec

• i.e Frequency = P/2 * N / 60

• Or f = NP/120
 Electrical Frequency
Electrical frequency produced is locked or synchronized to the
mechanical speed of rotation of a synchronous generator:

PN
fe 
120
where fe = electrical frequency in Hz
P = number of poles
N= mechanical speed of the rotor, in r/min
STEPPER MOTORS
 Principle
• A stepper motor is a unique type of DC motor that rotates in
fixed steps of a certain number of degrees. Step size can range
from 0.9 to 90°.
• It consists of a rotor and stator.
• In this case, the rotor is a permanent magnet, and the stator is
made up of electromagnets (field poles).
• The rotor will move (or step) to align itself with an energized
field magnet. If the field magnets are energized one after the
other around the circle, the motor can be made to move in a
complete circle
• The rotor will move (or step) to align itself with an energized
field magnet. If the field magnets are energized one after the
other around the circle, the motor can be made to move in a
complete circle
For more steps
 Types of Stepper Motor
Stepper motor are classified as
• Variable Reluctance - VR
• Permanent Magnet - PM
• Hybrid

Variable Reluctance
salient pole rotor, made up of ferromagnetic material.
It is called variable reluctance motor because the reluctance
of the magnetic circuit formed by the rotor and stator teeth varies
with the angular position of the rotor.
Permanent Magnet:
cylindrical rotor, made of permanent magnet.
Hybrid motor:
salient pole rotor, made up of permanent magnet.
 Advantages
Stepper motors are particularly useful in control applications because the
controller
•can know the exact position of the motor shaft without the need of
position sensors. This is done by simply counting the number of steps
taken from a known reference position. Step size is determined by the
number of rotor and stator poles
•There is no cumulative error. i.e The controller sends the motor a
determined number of step commands and assumes the motor goes to
the right place..
•Steppers have inherently low velocity and therefore are frequently used
without gear reductions.
•Stepper motors can easily be controlled to turn at 1 rpm or less with
complete accuracy.
 Applications
Industrial Machines – Stepper motors are used in automotive gauges
and machine tooling automated production equipments.

Security – new surveillance products for the security industry.

Medical – Stepper motors are used inside medical scanners,

samplers, and also found inside digital dental photography, fluid
pumps, respirators and blood analysis machinery.

Consumer Electronics – Stepper motors in cameras for automatic

digital camera focus and zoom functions.
Universal Motor
 Introduction
• A universal motor is a special type of motor that runs on both
AC and DC power supplies.
• Universal motors are series-wound (the armature and field
windings are in series). The series connection allows them to
generate high torque; hence the universal motors are generally
built into the device they are meant to drive.
• Most of the universal motors are meant to operate at speeds as
high as 3500 RPM. These motors run at a higher speed on DC
supply than they run on AC supply of the same voltage. This
is due to the reactance voltage drop that is present only in AC
and not in DC.
 Construction
• A universal motor consists of a stator on which the field poles are
mounted.
• Field coils are wound around the field poles.
• Both the stator field circuit and armature of a universal motor are
laminated.
• Laminations are necessary to reduce the eddy currents that are
produced while operating on AC power.
• The universal motor’s rotary armature is made of straight or
skewed slots on which the commutator and brushes rest.
• The commutation on AC is poorer than that for DC because of the
current induced in the armature coils.
• For this reason, the brushes used have high resistance.
 Operation
• When fed with a DC supply
• When the universal motor is fed with a DC supply, it works as
a DC series motor.
• In this case, when the current flows in the field winding, it
produces an electromagnetic field.
• The same current also flows in the armature conductors. When
a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the
conductor experiences a mechanical force.
• This mechanical force causes the rotor to rotate.
• Fleming’s Left-hand rule gives us the direction of this force.
 Operation
• When fed with an AC supply
• A unidirectional torque is produced when the universal motor is
supplied with AC power.
• This is because the armature winding and the field winding are
connected in series and are in the same phase.
• Therefore, whenever the polarity of the AC changes, the direction of
the current in the armature and the field winding changes
simultaneously.
• The direction of the magnetic field and the direction of armature
current reverse so that the direction of force experienced by armature
conductors remains the same.
• Thus, regardless of AC or DC supply, universal motors work on the
same principle that DC series motors work on.
 Applications
• Universal motors are used in applications where
high speed and good speed control is
necessary. Following are the various
applications of universal motor:
• Universal Motors are used in table fans,
hairdryers and grinders.
• They are used in portable drill machines.
• They are used in polishers, blowers and kitchen
appliances.
Brushless DC electric motor
 Introduction
• In DC motors section, we have seen that brushes are required to
convert alternating current generated in DC generators to direct
current (and vice versa for DC motors).
• We have also seen that a field winding is used to produce the
magnetic field required for energy conversion. If the winding is
replaced by permanent magnets, the rotating magnetic field is then
generated without the need of separate winding.
• Besides, the losses in the field will be eliminated.
• There has been a significant improvement in permanent magnet
technology since last few years.
• The permanent magnets are alloys like Neodymium Iron Boron
(NdFeB) and Samarium Cobalt have become popular in recent years.
• Now, if permanent magnets are placed on rotor, the armature winding will
be stationary and hence brushes can be removed. This has two advantages –
• 1. Resistive losses in brushes are completely eliminated
• 2. Maintenance and safety issues are also taken care of.
• Thus, the DC motor with permanent magnets without brushes is called
brushless DC motor or simply BLDC motor.
• Brushless DC motors (BLDC motors, BL motors) also known as
electronically commutated motors (ECMs, EC motors) are synchronous
electric motors powered by direct-current (DC) electricity and having
electronic commutation systems
• BLDC motors may be described as Stepper motors, with fixed permanent
magnets and possibly more poles on the stator than the rotor, or Reluctance
motors.
 Principle of operation
• As its name implies, BLDC motors do not use brushes for
commutation. Since the coils are static, there is no need of a
mechanical commutator to energize the windings. Instead, the
commutation is done electronically, usually via a microcontroller
unit and semiconductor switches.
• Electronic commutation consists of a series of steps where current
from an external drive circuitry is delivered to each phase coil in a
controlled sequence, producing a proper motor rotation by
magnetic interaction between rotor and stator.
• To achieve this in a three-phase motor, current flows into one of
the windings, goes through a common node, and flows out from
another; leaving a third one open circuit. That way, when a rotor
pole is about to align with its electromagnetic counter-pole on the
stator, this is turned off and the next phase turned on, which makes
the rotating motion continuous.
• The key part of this process is
always keeping track of where
the rotor is with respect to the
stator so that the right phase
can be excited at the right
time. This is known as position
feedback, which can be
achieved with the aid of
sensors or by reading the back-
EMF produced in the
windings.
 Application
Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors are one of the motor
types rapidly gaining popularity.
– Appliances - Washing machines, compressors and dryers ,
Fans, pumps and blowers
– Automotive
– Aerospace and Aviation
– Medical - health care equipment's
– Industrial Automation Equipment - Industrial robots, CNC
machine tools, and simple belt driven systems
– Instrumentation.
– Electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and electric bicycles