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126 Fault calculation

3,4 Calculation of unbalanced fault conditions

3.4,1 Symmetricaleomponents

A full and proper analysis of unbalanced conditions in a three-phase network is

made possible by the fact that any given set of unbalanced three-phase vectors,
which may be voltages or currents, can be represented by the sum of three sets of
balanced or symmetrical vectors, namely: the positive-sequence set, consisting of
three vectors all equal in magnitude and symmetrically spaced, at 120 ° intervals, in
time.phase with a stated phase order (termed the positive-sequence phase-order)
equal to the phase order of the system generated voltages; the negative-sequence
set, consisting of three vectors all equal in magnitude and symmetrically spaced, at
120 ° intervals, in time-phase, their phase-order being the reverse of the positive-
sequence phase-order; and finally, the zero-sequence set, consisting of three vectors,
all of which are equal in both magnitude and phase.
These three sets of component vectors are called the positive, negative and zero
phase-sequence components of the given set of vectors, and are represented
vectoriaUy in the manner shown in Fig. 3.4.1A. The assumed direction of rotation
for all voltage and current vectors is the anti-clockwise direction, and it thus follows

f
a

Positive sequencu Nugativ*: sequence Zero suquence

Fig, $,4.1A Phase-diQgramrepresentation o f phase-sequence components

that the positive-sequence vectors rotate in the positive-sequence phase-order a, b,

c and the negative-sequence vectors in the phase-order a, c, b.
Relations between phase vectors and their sequence components: Let Is, I b and
Io be any set of unbalanced three-phase vectors, where the subscripts a, b and c
denote the three phases in positive-sequence phase-order. Then denoting the posi-
tive, negative and zero phase-sequences by the second subscripts l, 2 and 0,
respectively, the three sets of component vectors are the positive-sequence set
 Fault calculation 127

lax ,lt,l (= a21at) and Ict (= alal) 3,4A.1

the negative-sequence set
Ia2 , It, 2 (= ala2 ) and le2 (= a2 Ia2 ) 3,4.1.2
and finally, the zero sequence set
Iao, lt,o (=Iao)andleo (= Ia0) 3.4.1,3
where the symbol a (not to be confused with the phase reference ) is the 120'
operator already referred to in Section 3.3.1.
It will be noted that the nine sequence components can all be expressed in
terms of the three components of any one chosen reference phase, here denoted
by phase a.
From what has already been said, therefore, we have that

It, = lb~ +It,2 +1be 3,4,1.4

and rewriting these equations in terms of the reference-phase (phase-a) sequence

components only, we get

la =11 +12 +1o

It, = a2 It +a/2 +Io 3.4.1.5
l~=aI~ +a212 +1o

the phase a subscript being omitted from the sequence components because phase-a
is understood.
From these equations, the sequence components of the reference phase (phase a)
can be obtained in terms of the three phase currents, the resulting equations being

I, =~- (Io +atb +a~Ic)

,q =~- (Io +a2~rt, + a,rc) 3.4.1.6
Io =~-6ra +It, +L)
as can readily be checked by substituting for Is, Ib and le in this latter set of
equations using the values (expressed in terms of the phase-a sequence components)
given by Eqns. 3.4.1.5.
The validity of these relationships between phase vectors and their sequence
components can be demonstrated by the three vectors

I a = 0 +j14
.rb = 5 +/5
Ic =4-]8

shown in Fig. 3.4.1B. Applying eqns. 3.4.1.4, 3.4.1.5 and 3.4.1.6 to these phase
t28 Fault calculation

values we obtain

Jal ~
(0 +/14) * + .(-
........
0.5 +/0.866X5 +/5) + (- 0-5 =/0.866)(4 - / 8 )
........

(0 +/14) + (- 0.5 -/0.866X5 +/5) + (- 0.5 +/0.866X4 - / 8 )

I , ' ) '~l m; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3

(0 +/14) + (5 +/5) + (4 - / 8 )
IIIO ga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3

from wkleh ial =" 5,253 +/5.455

la2 ffi2.253 +/4.878
lao ffi3.000 +/'3.667

Using these values to obtain those for the other two phases gives
lbt = (- 0.5 - i0,866) (- 5.253 +/5-455) = 7.350 +/1.822
Ib2 " (- 0,5 +/0.866)(2.253 +/'4.878) = - 5.350-/0.488
lao ffi3.000 ÷/3.667
and
lcl = (- 0.5 +/0.866) (- 5.253 + i5.455) = - 2.101 -/6.976
lea = (- 0.5 -/0.866) (2.253 +/4.878) = 3.098 -/4.390
/co - 3.000 +i3.667

The== sequence components, rewritten in polar form, are

L,t ffi 7,5731133:9', 182 = 5.372[65"2 ° ) Iao = 4.737/50.7 °
/bt = 7'573113"9*, Ib: = 5.372/-178-8", It, o = 4.737[50.7"
Icl = 7'573/" 106'1", Ic2 = 5.372[-54.8 °, lco = 4.737[50.7 °

The sequence components are shown in vector-diagram form in Fig. 3.4.1B.

The relationships between phase values and sequence-component values,
although applied to current vectors in eqns. 3.4.1.1 to 3.4.1.6, are, of course,
equally applicable to voltage vectors, the resulting equation being

Va = V~ + V~ + v° 1
Vl, = ai V~ + aV2 + Vo 3.4.1.7
Vc "-aVl +a2V2 + Vo

for the phase values in terms of the reference-phase (phase-a) sequence components
and
Vt + aVb + a 2 Vc) I
I/2 ='~(Va + a2 Vb +aVe) I 3.4.1.8
Vo + vb +
 Fault calculation 129

for the converse relationships giving the sequence components of the reference
phase (phase a ) in terms of the phase values.
Because the symmetrical components of current and voltage in each of the three
phases can be expressed in terms of those of the chosen reference phase (phase a), it

a2l~ al h

\
\ la
\
h \

0
7 Ibl

Posltive
~1 c
a21h /al c

r// \\ \
Ia \ Ic
I / /
la2 /
//
/f
Ib2 Negative /luo, Iho, leo

Ic2
0 ~¢ro

I I
0 .~ I0 Amps
Fig. 3.4.1B
is usual to perform symmetrical-component analysis in terms of the sequence
components of this reference phase. This permits the phase subscripts to be deleted
from the sequence quantities, it being understood that, in the absence of the phase
subscript, the sequence quantities referred to are the phase-a values.

3.4.2 Phase-sequence networks and impedances

The balanced nature of power-system plant impedances has already been referred to
130 Fault calculation

in Section 3.3,1, and it follows directly from this characteristic phase symmetry
that, in any such balanced-impedance circuit, the voltage-drops produced in the
three phases by phase currents of any given phase-sequence will themselves be of
that same phase-sequence. Thus, the flow of positive sequence currents through
such a circuit will produce positive-sequence voltage-drops in the three phases and
no others. Similarly, negative-sequence currents will produce only negative-sequence
voltage-drops and zero-sequence currents only zero-sequence voltage-drops.
The vector ratio of the phase-sequence voltage-drop to the phase-sequence
current producing it ts the same in all three phases and is termed the appropriate
phase-sequence impedance of the circuit concerned. There are thus, in general,
three phase-sequence impedances for any given three-phase circuit, namely the
positive-sequence impedance denoted by Zt, the negative sequence impedance
denoted by Z~, arid the zero-sequence impedance denoted by Zo. These impedances
and their associated phase-sequence currents and voltage-drops are related by
Ohm's Law, giving:

Val = Z l l a l Va2 = Z2Ia2 Vao = Zol~o ]

Vbl =Zllbl Vb2 =Z2Ib2 VbO =Zo[bO 3.4.2.1
V¢1 = ZIIcl go2 = Z2Ic2 Vco = Zolco t
In general, the phase-sequence impedances Z~, Z 2 and Zo of any given three-phase
circuit have different values, although for static (that is, non-rotating) plant the
positive and negative sequence impedances Z~ and Z2 are always equal.
Expressed in terms of phase a, the voltage-drop equations are
Vl = Zsll
V2 = Z212 3.4.2.2
Vo = Zolo

the phase subscript being deleted since phase a is understood.

Considering, now, any balanced-impedance three-phase circuit carrying un-
balanced phase currents la, lb and lc, the corresponding reference-phase (phase a)
sequence currents are given by eqns. 3.4.1.5 and the resulting phase-sequence
voltage-drops (phase-a values) by eqns. 3.4.2.2. The resulting total voltage-drops in
the three phases are therefore

Ira ~ IiZl +I2Z2 + IoZo }

Vb =a2IiZs +a12Z2 + IoZo 3.4.2.3
Ve =aliZi +a212Z2 +IoZo

those equations being obtained by substituting from equations 3.4.2.2. into eqns.
3.4.1.7.
Phase.sequence networks: The analysis of balancedqoad and three-phase short-
circuit conditions has already been discussed in Section 3.3 where use was made of
the equivalent single-phase (reference-phase) representation of the power system
 Fault calculation 131

appropriate to such balanced conditions. This equivalent network, termed the

system positive-sequence network, is valid for the balanced conditions in question
since, under such conditions, the power system voltages and currents, and the
appropriate power system impedances, are all positive-sequence quantities. In order
to be able to analyse unbalanced fault conditions, therefore, it is necessary first to
consider the equivalent system networks appropriate to such unbalanced conditions,
bearing in mind that the system voltages, currents and impedances to be taken into
account now include, in general, both negative and zero sequence values in addition
to positive-sequence values.
In balanced-impedance circuits, as already stated, currents of any given phase-
sequence produce voltage-drops of that same sequence only, the value of the
voltage drop for a given value of phase-sequence current being fixed by the appro-
priate phase-sequence impedance of the circuit concerned and being quite inde-
pendent of the presence of currents of any other phase sequence in the circuit in
question. This independence of the phase-sequence quantities means that in any
power system consisting of balanced circuits:
(a) the positive-sequence currents are determined solely by the positive-sequence
driving voltages produced by the power sources, the positive.sequence voltage
at the point of fault and the system positive-sequence impedances;
(b) the negative-sequence currents are determined solely by the negative-sequence
voltage at the point of fault and the system negative-sequence impedances;
and,
(c) the zero-sequence currents are determined solely by the zero-sequence voltage
at the point of fault and the system zero-sequence impedances.
It is important to note that the e.m.f.s produced by the generators and other
synchronous machines are positive-sequence voltages, there being no generated
negative- or zero-sequence voltages in the power system. Hence, any negative- or
zero-sequence currents present in the power system exist solely as a result of the
negative-sequence and zero-sequence voltages, respectively, at the point of fault.
It will now be evident from the above-mentioned considerations that the analysis
of unbalanced fault conditions requires, in general, the use of three single-phase
(reference-phase) networks, one for each of the three phase-sequences. These
networks are termed the system positive, negative and zero sequence networks, the
several items of plant which constitute the given power system being represented in
each network by their appropriate phase-sequence equivalent circuits.
Positive-sequence network: The system positive-sequence network, already
referred to in Section 3.3.1, is a single-phase network representing the reference
phase (phase a ) of the given power system in so far as positive-sequence quantities
are concerned. Each three-phase circuit is therefore represented by its positive-
sequence impedance or impedances and, in the case of a power source, by a driving
voltage representing the generated e.m.f, behind the source positive-sequence
impedance.
Negative-sequence network:The system negative-sequence network is a single-
phase network representing the reference phase (ph.ase a ) of the given power
132 Fault calculation

system in so far as negative-sequence quantities are concerned. Each three-phase

circuit is therefore represented by its negative-sequence impedance or impedances.
Because there are no generated negative-sequence e.m.f.s in the power system, every
power source is represented simply by its negative-sequence impedance, there being
no driving voltages corresponding to those in the positive-sequence network. As
already pointed out, the positive and negative sequence impedances of any item of
static plant are always equal, and it therefore follows that the positive and negative
sequence networks differ only in so far as the representation of rotating machines is
concerned.
Zero-sequence network: The system zero-sequence network is a single-phase
network representing the reference phase of the given power system in so far as
zero-sequence quantities are concerned. Each three-phase circuit is therefore
represented by its zero-sequence impedance or impedances. Because there are no
generated zero-sequence e.m.f.s in the power system, the zero-sequence network,
like the negative.sequence network, contains no driving voltages. The zero-sequence
network is the only network in which neutral-to-earth connections are shown, the
currents in such earthing connections consisting of zero-sequence currents only.
Sequence network representation: It is convenient to depict the three phase-
sequence networks, in general terms, by the simple block-diagram form of repre-
sentation shown in Fig. 3.4.2A, it being appreciated that the rectangle representing
any given sequence network is assumed to contain the whole of that sequence
network for the particular power system under consideration. Any particular
point in the power system (for example, a point of fault F) can be represented by a
suitably lettered corresponding point in each of the three sequence networks.

Positive-seq u e n c e Negative-seq uent'e Zero-seq uence

network network network

Fig. 3.4.2A Block diagram representation of sequence networks

The thick base line of each rectangle in the block-diagram representation is
termed the zero.potential bar and represents the zero-potential reference for the
power system, namely earth potential. It is important to note, however, that under
fault conditions the earth potential will, in general, be different at different points
in the power system, these potential differences being caused by the flow of current
through the earth. However, because it is never necessary to determine the values of
the phase-sequence voltages at any given point on the system with respect to the
earth potential at some other point, any ambiguity is avoided by always interpret-
ing the term 'earth potential' to mean local earth potential. Thus, in the case of the
zero-sequence network, the voltage at any point in this network, measured with
respect to the zero-potential bar, represents the zero-sequence voltage at the corres-
ponding point in the power system, measured with respect to the local earth at that
point. Similar reasoning is applicable in the case of the positive and negative
 Fault calculation 133

sequence networks, although for these two networks it is equally valid to regard the
zero-potential bar as representing the system neutral.
Considering any short-circuit condition at a point F in the power system, this
may be represented by the sequence networks in the manner shown in Fig.
3.4.2B(a), where the phase-a sequence currents flowing in to the fault are denoted by
If t, If2 and I/~ and the phase-a sequence voltages at the point of fault by Vft, Vf2
and Vfo. In the case of the open-circuit fault condition, the sequence-network
representation is as shown in Fig. 3.4.2B(b), the two sides of the open-circuit in the
faulted circuit being denoted by P and Q. In this latter case, the voltages Vft, Vf2
and Vfo are the phase-a sequence voltages produced between the points P and Q by
the open-circuit fault condition, I~,/2 and Io being the resultant phase-a sequence
currents in the faulted circuit.
The phase-sequence voltages and currents produced by the different types of
fault are determined in Sections 3.4.4 and 3.4.5 together with the sequence-
network interconnections necessary to represent these fault conditions.

Ifl

FI Pl QI
Positive-seq uence posit ire -seq ue nce
network network
v

If2

~i'
F2
Negative-sequence
P2 Q2
Negative-seq uence
network network

lfo
>

I
F"0
1 i
Zero-seq uence
network
Zern°e;ewq:/knce
v

(a) Short-circuit condition (~) Opon-circuit condition

Fig. 3.4.2B Representation of fault conditions by sequence networks

134 Fault calculation

3.4.3 Phase-sequence equivalent circuits

The positive, negative and zero phase-sequence impedances of any given three-phase
circuit can be determined by test by applying three-phase voltages of the appropriate
phase-sequence and measuring the resultant phase currents, short-circuiting connec-
tions being applied to the circuit terminals, as necessary, in order to provide a path
1 P Q
--~ ) e --- o •
a21 1
---~ ) o --- c

__@ ]
.=.-

Z I = Z 2 = E/I
z~ (=z2)
PO ! I OQ
Positive (and negative)
sequence circuit

Fig. 3.4.3A Measurement o f the positive (and negative) sequence impedance o f a trans-
mission line
for the flow of the phase-sequence currents. Thus, the positive (and negative)
sequence impedances o f an overhead-line circuit (shunt-admittance ignored) and a
star/delta transformer could be measured in the manner shown in Figs. 3.4.3A and

__Q •
-@ a21
,
a,
)

....-

Z I = Z 2 = E/I = Z H L

z i (=z2)
It O | | 0 L'
Positive (and negative)
sequence circuit

Fig. 3.4.3B Measurement o f positive (and negative) sequence impedance o f a transformer

 Fault calculation 135

I P Q
o

I o c

I
I

z o = Ell

Zo
v o I I OQ

Zero-seq uence
circuit

Fig. 3.4.3C Measurement o f the zero-sequence impedance o f • transmission line

I H
>

rQ
1
r

I
I
31 I
_L
Z 0 = E/I = Z H L

Zo

Zero-sequence H 0 [ I I n 0 L'
circuit
/
Fig. 3.4.3D Measurement o f the zero-sequence impedance o f a transformer
3.4.3B, respectively, and the zero-sequence impedance in the manner shown in
Figs. 3.4.3C and 3.4.3D. Because these are both items of static (that is non-rotating)
plant, the negative-sequence impedance is in each case equal to the positive-sequence
value.
Table 3.4.3A gives the phase-sequence circuits of a number of arrangements of
lumped impedances, the arrangements in question being representative of a number
of typical items of power system plant. Thus, the first arrangement shown, namely
a simple three-phase series circuit could represent a three-phase series reactor, and
the second, namely the star-connected impedances, a three-phase shunt-reactor,
136 Fault calculation

Circuit Pos've and neg've Zero

arrangement sequence c i r c u i t sequence circuit

Z
0...1 ; 0
Z Z Z
C ~ I ¢ ; ; 0
o ~

;/111////////////

Z
0"I r
z Z
o C ~ on

.////////////////

o..4---=i
Z
Z Z n
0 I Z]_~,.~l ,n 0 l"=-=l i 0 i :
L I
o ,
3Z n

i ii
.///i////////, ./
n n

Z.//////~//////
// Not
applicable

t 3Z n

:o
z/3
C ; I

"///////////////

shunt-capacitor or load. The phase-sequence circuits appropriate to the arrangement

of delta-connected impedances are obtained by applying the delta-to-star trans-
formation, the resulting positive (and negative) sequence impedance being Z/3 as
shown, where Z is the value of each impedance in the delta. The zero-sequence
impedance of the delta-connected impedances, as seen from the circuit terminals,
is obviously infinite since there is no path to earth for the flow of zero-sequence
current. The zero-sequence circuit in this case, therefore, is simply an uncon-
nected terminal, as shown.
In obtaining the positive and negative-sequence circuits, it is important to note
 Fault calculation 137

that the system electrical neutral points are all at zero potential with respect to
earth in so far as positive and negative-sequence voltages are concerned. The star
point n of the set of three star-connected impedances (all equal) is therefore shown
connected to the zero-potential bar in the positive and negative-sequence networks.
In the case of the delta-connected impedances, the positive and negative-sequence
circuits are the same in form as that for the star-connected impedances, the impe-
dance value being Z/3 instead of Z as a result of the delta-to-star transformation.
In this case it is the star point of the equivalent-star arrangement which can be
regarded as connected to the zero-potential bar.
Neutral earthing impedances: It will be noted from Table 3.4.3A that the zero-
sequence circuit for a neutral earthing impedance, of value Zn is 3Zn and the
reason for this can be readily understood from Fig. 3.4.3E. At the neutral point, as

El . . . .

b .... ~ ~ n

c .... Zn 3Z n

Zero-sequence circuit

Fig. 3.4,3E Zero-sequencecircuit of a neutral earthing impedance

shown, the zero-sequence currents Io in the three phases combine to give a current
of 3/o in the neutral earthing impedance, the three zero-sequence currents being all
equal in both magnitude and phase. Now the potential Vo of the neutral point with
respect to earth is the same as the potential of the three phase conductors at the
neutral point and hence the zero-sequence voltage at the neutral point, from eqn.
3.4.1.8, is
Vo =~z(v. + v. + v.)= v.
But,
Vn = 3IoZn
and because the zero-sequence impedance is the zero-sequence voltage-drop divided
by the per-phase zero-sequence current, it follows that the zero-sequence
impedance of the earthing impedance is given by

3IoZn
Z o =' = 3Z n
Io
and is thus seen to be three times the value of the neutral earthing impedance as
shown in the figure.
Synchronous machines:The positive, negative and zero-sequence circuits for a
synchronous machine (that is a generator, synchronous motor or synchronous
138 Fault calculation

condenser) are shown in Fig. 3.4.3F and require little further comment. The
negative-sequence impedance is usually of roughly the same value as the positive-
sequence sub-transient impedance, the zero-sequence impedance tending to vary
considerably from one design of machine to another but being usually less than the
negative-sequence impedance. All the machine impedances can generally be
regarded, for most practical purposes as pure inductive reactances. It should be
noted that the negative and zero sequence impedances have single fixed values for

ZI

Positive s e q u e n c e

Z2

! | -I

Negative sequence

Zo
nO f-'--I o

Zero sequence

Fig. 3.4.3F Phase-sequence circuits o f a synchronous machine

any given machine (subject to slight variation due to saturation effects) whereas
there are three values of positive-sequence impedance, as already discussed in
Section 3.3.6, namely the subtransient, transient and synchronous values.
Overhead-line and cable circuits: The phase-sequence circuits for an overhead-
line or underground cable circuit can generally be represented by the simple series
circuits shown in Fig. 3.4.3G, these circuits being valid if the phase.to-phase and
phase-to-earth admittances of the circuit are negligibly small. If these shunt ad-
mittances are not negligibly small, the phase-sequence circuits may be represented
by the nominal-rr circuits shown in Fig. 3.4.3H, where Y~ and Yo are, respect-
ively, the positive-sequence and zero-sequence admittances for the total length of
the given circuit.
The value of the zero-sequence impedance Zo depends on the fact that the
 Fault calculation 139

0
0
0

IIIIlllllllllll )llllllllllllll

z I ( = z 2)
P o (" ] oo

Positive and negative

seq u¢ i| ('e

Zo
po |" 1 o Q

Zdr(i $¢q uer~ce

Fig. 3.4.3G Phase-sequence circuits o f an overhead-line or cable circult

Z1

Y1 Y1 Positive and negative

2 ~ sequeflc¢

Zo

Zero $¢quen¢¢

Fig, 3.4.3H Phase-sequence circuits o f an overhead-line; or cable circuit including shunt.

admittances
140 Fault calculation

0
PA ¢ -++ o QA
4~ . . . . . ---- 0

C . . . . . . m ~ _ ~ O

PB ¢ ++ -------- 0 QB
¢ ++ ---- 0

•% , , , , . , , , , , , , "-----,.,,,,,,,,,,,,

Z]A (=Z2A)
PA C .... : : :) QA
Positive and negative
ZIB (=Z2B) sequence
PB C - .... | ; ~ QB

Z0A - Z0M Z0M

PA C ...... "'- i ,, r ~ ~ QA

Z0B - Z0M
PB C+++ ; ..... : - f / ~ i' L " O QB Zero sequence

Transformer

Fig. 3.4,31 Phase.sequence circuits o f a pair o f overhead.line or cable circuits with zero.
sequence mutual coupling

return path for the zero-sequence currents is through earth, the term 'earth' here
being meant to refer to the body of the earth together with any circuit earth-wires
or cable-sheaths connected to it. The zero-sequence impedance is generally greater
than the positive (and negative) sequence impedance being usually in the order of
two to three times the positive-sequence value in the case of overhead-line circuits.
The zero-sequence circuits of Figs. 3.4.3G and 3.4.3H assume the overhead-line or
cable circuit to be sufficiently remote from other circuits as to have no electro-
magnetic or electrostatic coupling with such circuits. Where this is not the case, as
with the two circuits of a double-circuit overhead line, the required zero-sequence
circuits (self and mutual shunt-admittances ignored) are as shown in Fig. 3.4.3I, the
 Fault calculation I41

Z0A
PA C ~ ~ - - ~1 QA

-ZoM ~ - Z O M

PB C ~ ; - :) QB
ZOB

Fig. 3.4.3J Alternative form o f zero-sequence circuit for the two c/rcu/tl o f Fig. & & 3 1

circuits shown taking due account of the zero-sequence mutual impedance ZOM,
between the two circuits concerned. The use of the perfect one-to-one ratio
coupling-transformer in the zero-sequence circuit can be avoided if the given circuit
is replaced by the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 3.4.3J. If the two circuits are
connected to a common busbar at one end, the resultant.zero.sequence circuit is
that shown in Fig. 3.4.3K, Fig. 3.4.3L shows the equivalent zero-sequence circuit
Z0A - Z0M
PA O ~ [
Z0M
1 ; j..--,---,--o QA' QB
ZOB - ZOM [
PB C ; I I

Fig. 3.4.3K Alternative form o f zero-sequence circuit for the two circuits o f Fig. 3,4,31e the
two circuits being connected to a common busbar at end Q

for the case where the two circuits are connected to common bushars at both ends.
Allowance for shunt-admittance effects can be made in a similar way to that
already referred to in connection with single-circuit lines, that is by means of

ZoAZoB - Z20M
ZOA + ZOB - 2ZoM
PA'PB 0 ~ ~, QA'QB

Fig. 3.4.3L Alternative form o f zero-sequence circuit for the two clrcutt~ o f Fig, 3,4,31, the
two circuits being connected to common busban at both ends
 142 Fault caloulation

shunt-connected impedances at the circuit ends, these impedances including circuit-

to-circuit impedances in the zero-sequence circuit to represent the effects of zero-
sequence mutual admittance between the two circuits. Positive and negative
sequence mutual admittance can usually be assumed to be negligibly small.
Transformer circuits: The positive-sequence circuits of transformers have been
considered in some detail in Section 3.3.3 and require tittle further comment other
than to point out that they are equally valid for the negative-sequence network,
there being no difference between the positive and negative-sequence circuits in so
far as static plant is concerned. As pointed out in Section 3.3.5, the positive-
sequence circuit of a transformer is based on the assumption that all the windings
are star-connected, and this assumption applies similarly to the negative-sequence
circuit. The effect of the actual transformer-winding connections (for example star/
delta, star/interconnected-star, etc.) being simply to produce known phase-shifts
of the network currents and voltages. This question of transformer phase-shifts is
considered further in Section 3.4.5.
The zero-sequence circuit of a transformer is dependent on the paths which the
transformer provides for the flow of zero-sequence current, the flow of zero-
sequence currents in one winding requiring a balancing flow of zero-sequence
currents in one or more other windings. Thus, considering the star/delta trans-
former of Fig. 3,4.3D, it will be noted that zero-sequence currents can flow in the
star winding provided the neutral is earthed, the ampere-turns produced by these
currents being balanced by a circulating zero-sequence current in the delta-winding
of the transformer, It is important to note that the delta winding of the transformer
provides no connection to earth for zero-sequence currents flowing in from the
delta-winding terminals. The zero-sequence impedance of the transformer as seen
from the delta-winding terminals is therefore int~mite.
The zero-sequence circuit for the star/delta transformer is thus as shown in
Fig. 3,4,3D, the transformer impedance ZHL being the sum of the star-winding
leakage-impedance Z//per phase, and the referred delta-winding leakage-impedance,
Z~ per phase. For most practical purposes, the impedance ZHL can be assumed to
be the same for zero-sequence conditions as for positive (and negative) sequence
conditions. The impedance ZnL is the phase-sequence impedance in ohms referred
to the nominal rated voltage of winding H and can be referred to any other rated
voltage or converted to per-unit or per-cent value by the methods already described.
It is of interest to note, in Fig. 3.4.3D, that short-circuiting of the delta-winding
terminals is unnecessary in the zero-sequence test, since the delta winding already
provides a closed path for the flow of zero-sequence current. If the delta-winding
were replaced by a second star-winding, however, the zero-sequence test would, of
course, require the neutral and all three phase terminals of this star winding to be
connected together, thus providing the necessary path for the flow of the zero-
sequence currents,
The phase-sequence circuits for a star/delta transformer with an impedance-
earthed neutral are shown in Fig. 3.4.3M, the zero-sequence circuit being readily
derived from Figs. 3.4.3D and 3.4.3E. It will be noted that the earthing impedance
 Fault calculation 143

affects only the zero-sequence circuit, the positive (and negative) sequence circuit
consisting of the transformer impedance only.

Ho

Zn

ZHL
H 0 l ; c, L~

Positive (and negative)

seq uence

ZHL

3Zn Zero seq uonce

Fig. 3.4.3M Phase-sequence circuits of a star/delta transformer with impedance-earthed

neutral

Fig. 3.4.3N shows the phase.sequence circuits of a star/star transformer, each of

the two neutral points being individually earthed through an impedance. Here
again, the given circuits are referred to the nominal rated voltage of winding H, The
zero-sequence impedance of the circuit is seen to be

g i l l "1"3Znh + 3Zn'1

where Z~r is the neutral impedance Znt referred to winding H and is therefore given
by
7-.'i -- N~Z.l
As before, N is the transformation-ratio of the transformer.
The zero-sequence circuit of Fig. 3.4.3N is, strictly speaking, only valid for the
case of a five-limb transformer or its equivalent (for example, a three,phase unit
144 Fault calculation

~ L

Znh Znl

ZHL
H O , , - . . . . . o u
Positive (and negative)
sequence

ZHL + 3Znh + 3Z~I

HC . . . . . . . . :_ ~ o L'

Zero sequence

Fie. 3.4,3N Phase.sequence circuits of a star~star transformer with impedance-earthed

neutrals

composed of three single-phase transformers). In the case of a three-limb star/star

transformer, the zero-sequence fluxes cause currents to be induced in the sides of
the transformer tank (tel Edith Clarke Vol. II) with the result that the latter acts
as an effective high-impedance delta winding.
The phase-sequence circuits for a star/star auto-transformer are shown in Fig.
3A.3P, the transformer neutral being impedance earthed. Here again, the zero-
sequence circuit is only valid for the case of a five-limb transformer or its equivalent.
Star/star transformers are commonly provided with a delta-connected tertiary
winding, and the phase-sequence circuits for such a transformer are shown in
Fig, 3,4.3Q, the two star.winding neutrals being individually earthed through impe-
dances. The zero-sequence circuit applies equally to the case where the delta-
winding does not exist physically but is an effective winding formed by the trans-
former tank. As before, the given phase-sequence circuits are referred to the nominal
rated voltage of winding H, referred impedance values being indicated by dashed
symbols,
Fig, 3A.3R shows the phase-sequence circuits for a star/star auto-transformer
equipped with a delta.connected tertiary winding, the neutral being again impe-
 Fault calculation 145

V o l t a g e r a t i o H tO L -" N

Zn

ZHL
H ~ ~' I ~, L~

Positive (and negative)

sequence

ZHL + 3(N-I)2Z n
H O t : ~ L~

Zero sequence

Fig. 3.4.3P Phase-sequencecircuits of a star/delta auto-transformer with Impedance.earthed

neutral

dance earthed. The phase-sequence circuits, as previously, are referred to winding H,

In all the zero-sequence circuits which have been given, the case of solid
earthing of any given neutral is obtained by simply assuming a z0ro value for the
earthing impedance in question. Similarly, in all cases except that given in Fig,
3.4.3R, the representation of an unearthed neutral is obtained by simply assuming
an infinite value (that is an open-circuit) for the earthing impedance concerned, In
the case of the star/star auto-transformer of Fig. 3.4.3R, putting Z n equal to
infinity in the given zero-sequence circuit gives an indeterminate result. For this
case, therefore, the required zero-sequence circuit with the neutral unearthed is as
shown in circuit (a) of Fig. 3.4.3 S. This latter circuit is obtained by transforming
the star circuit of Fig. 3.4.3R into its equivalent delta and then putting Z, equal to
infinity. An alternative form of the zero-sequence circuit is shown in circuit (b) of
Fig. 3.4.3S.
As already stated, it is common practice to assume the transformer.winding
leakage-impedances to be the same for zero and positive (and negative) soquenoo
conditions. This equality of the sequence-impedances is exact for the special case of
three-phase banks of singie-phase transformers but for the more usual case of throe.
146 Fault calculation

phase transformers it should be noted that differences may exist between the
positive (and negative) and zero-sequence values. These differences are generally
small, however, and are usually ignored in the great majority of fault calculations.

H o T O L

0 O

Znh Znl

zL
0 LI

ZH
HC : :
a
ZT
I ; 0 T#

Positive ( a n d n e g a t i v e ) s e q u e n c e

zl. + 3zl, i
! l 0 L~

Z H + 3Znh

O T)

Zero sequence

Fig, 3.4.3Q Phase-sequencecircuits o f a star/star

In the case of three-winding transformers in which one winding is a permanently

connected delta winding, the measurement of the zero-sequence equivalent circuit
is complicated slightly by the presence of the delta winding. Thus, consider a
transformer with star-connected high-voltage and low-voltage windings and a delta-
 Fault calculation 147

¢
o L

H 0 T

O
0

Zn Voltage ratio H to L = N

zt.
I ; O LI

zH
HO I
z~
I ; O T~

Positive (and negative) s e q u e n c e

Z~. + 3 N ( N - I ) Z n
! .... ," O L~

ZH - 3(N-I)Z n |
H O

0 T#
Z~ + 3NZ n

Zero s e q u e n c e

Fig. 3 , 4 . 3 R Phase-sequence circuits o f a star/star auto-transformer with delta-tertiary

winding

connected tertiary winding and let the common-base zero-sequence equivalent

circuit be the star circuit composed of impedances ZH, ZL and ZT.
Then, let Z A = zero-sequence impedance measured at the terminals of winding
H with winding L an open-circuit
Z B = zero-sequence impedance measured at the terminals of winding
H with winding L short-circuited to neutral
Z C = zero-sequence impedance measured at the terminals of winding
L with winding H on open-circuit
148 Fault calculation

NZ
U"'! ~) LI

H ¢

N2Z 0 T' (a)

I-N

{
0 Lf

Z I:N
H O U"'!

N2 Z~

Fig. 3.4.3S Alternative forms of zero-sequence circuit for the transformer of Fig. 3.4.3R
when the neutral is unearthed

p o..r,"v'Y"..

Zn

Star/delta Interconnected-star

Z0
P 0
Po---f"-:, 1" 3Z n

III I

Positive (and negative) sequence Zero sequence

Fig. 3.4.3T Phase-sequencecircuits of an aarthing transformer

 Fault calculation 149

Z D = zero-sequence impedance measured at the terminals of winding

L with winding H short-circuited to neutral
Assuming all impedances to be to a common base, then

Z~ = ZH +Z r

Z B = Z H + -ZTZL
-
Z T +Z L

ZC = ZL +Z r

ZTZH
ZD=ZL+-
ZT +ZH
from which

ZT =~/ (ZA(Zc- ZD))=~/ (Zc(ZA - ZB))

ZH =ZA - ZT
ZL = Zc - Z r
The same test method is applicable to the case of the star/star auto-transformer
with delta-tertiary winding.
Earthing transformers: The transformers considered so far have all been of the
type required to provide interconnection facilities between network sections and,
as already seen, such transformers commonly provide neutral earthing facilities for
one or more of the network sections concerned. In certain cases, however, a trans-
former may be used solely for the provision of a neutral earthing point where
such a neutral point would not otherwise exist, for example, on the delta side of a
star/delta transformer.
The requirements of a neutral earthing transformer are that it should present a
low impedance to the flow of zero-sequence currents but a high impedance (ideally
infinitely high) to the flow of positive (and negative) sequence currents. Two
commonly used earthing-transformer arrangements are shown in Fig.3.4.3T, namely
the star/delta transformer and the inter-connected-star earthing-reactor. In each
case, -the positive (and negative) sequence impedance can be regarded as infinitely
high for most practical purposes, this impedance being the positive (and negative)
sequence magnetising-impedance. The positive-sequence circuit thus consists of the
unconnected terminal as shown. In the case of the star/delta transformer, the zero-
sequence impedance Zo is the sum of the star.winding and delta-winding lea~ge
impedances as already explained, while in the case of the interconnected-star
earthing reactor it is the sum of the leakage impedances of the two equal half-
windings which constitute each leg of the reactor. It will be noted that the flow of
zero-sequence current through the earthing reactor produces zero magnetising
ampere-turns on each leg of the reactor since the ampere-turns produced by one
150 Fault calculation

Table 3.4.3B Typical per¢ent reactances of synchronous machines at 5O Hz

Positive sequence Negative Zero Short-

Type and rating of machine sequence sequence circuit
Xst Xt X, X2 Xo ratio .d

I 1 kV salient-pole
alternator without dampers 22-0 33.0 110 22.0 6.0 -

11-8 kV 60 MW 75 MVA
turbo-alternator 12-5 17-5 201 13-5 6.7 0.55

11.8 kV 56 MW 70 MVA
gas-turbine turbo-alternator 10.0 14-0 175 13.0 5.0 0-68

11-8 kV 70 MW 87.5 MVA

gas-turbine turbo-alternator 14.0 19.0 195 16.0 7.5 0.5.5

13.8 kV 100 MW 125 MVA

turbo-alternator 20.0 28-0 206 22-4 9.4 0.58

16.0 kV 275 MW 324 MVA

turbo-alternator 16.0 21-5 260 18-0 6.0 0.40

18.5 kV 300 MW 353 MVA

turbo-alternator 19.0 25.5 265 19.0 11.0 0.40

22 kV 500 MW 588 MVA

turbo-alternator 20.5 28-0 255 20.0 6.0- 12.0 0-40

23 kV 660 MW 776 MVA

turbo-alternator 23.0 28.0 207 26.0 15.0 0.50

Table 3.4.3C Typical impedance values for overhead lines at 50 Hz

Sefiesimpedance Shunt suseeptance

Conductor fZ/km /af2-l/kin Charging
Voltage size in current
kV mm 2 al. Zl Zo Zorn ° Zl Be Born* amps/
(and Z2) (and B2) km

33 75 0.36 + 0.56 + - -
/0.41 /1.02
33 100 0.27 + 0.48 + - - _ _ m

/0-39 /'0.98
33 175 0.15 + 0.35 + - - D _ - -

/0.37 /0-97
132 175 0.177 + 0.354 + 0-178 + 2.85 1-66 -0-463 0-22
/0.402 jl.022 /0.509
132 400 0.076 + 0.191 + 0-115 + 3.04 1.73 -0-494 0.24
/'0.379 /0.963 /0-474
274 2 x 175 0.089 + 0.198 + 0.110 + 3.52 2.04 -0.681 0.58
i0.324 /0-854 /'0.462
275 2 x 400 0.038 + 0-147 + 0-109 + 3.59 2-06 -0.682 0.58
/0.320 /0.839 /0-450
400 2 x 400 0.039 + 0.146 + 0.107 + 3-59 2..09 -0.663 0.85
/0.328 /'0.851 /'0.445
400 4 x 400 0.019 + 0.105 + 0.086 + 4.13 2-33 -0-684 0.98
/0-277 i0.790 /0-425
 Fault calculation 151
e~ o. ~ 6 ~ o.
o I I ~. I "'. "', + "'. ""
+ 4- 4" ~0 4- 4-
t,j
",.0 ~.0 ("4 ',.0 ~ "~
o. ~ o. ~ o.
6 o 6 o 6 o
"0
~ =..=. =. ~. ~ . . . + +
-f. 4- 4- 4- 4- + ',0 cO 0 t'~
N •~ o. o. o. o. o. o. o. o.
6 o o o o o o o o
.,= E E E E E ~
~o'~ o o ~ ~ ~ o ~ o ,,, ~
.g
014
g E
~m
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0
~.~ .,-,, ~ ¢'~ ',,0 hr~ ',,0 ,'~ 0 0 0
&
~4
4
.11.
152 Fault calculation
;> @@
',,0 ',.0
s,--+ ~,-,<
0 I I I I I I I I I I i
0
,,¢ ,,.¢
1 , - ~ 1-,-4
=> @
0
I"'.,.
("4
=>
0,13
.+
= >.
,,o o. ,,?.
:~ ~ ,.o ,,or-. @ @ @ @ @
~ O O 0 0
~ .~ :> :,.o. O..:,0 ,;,
'T " ""
<~. ....+
I I
0 0 0 v'+
Z O0
0
O0
<'9. t":. I I I I
<:
¢z.1
+:
 Fault calculation 153

Table 3.4.3F Typical percent reactances of auto-transformers at 50 Hz

All transformers equipped with delta-tertiary windings

Per-cent reactance
Transformer
rating XHL XHT XLT XH XL XT

120 MVA
275/132 kV 15-0 38.0 18.0 17.5 - 2.5 20.5

180 MVA
275/132 kV 15-0 40.0 20-0 17.5 - 2.5 22.5

240 MVA
275/132 kV 20.0 52.0 25.0 23.5 - 3.5 28-5
240 MVA
400/132 kV 20.0 52.0 30.0 21-0 - 1.0 31.0
500 M V A
400/132 k V 12.0 80.0 52.0 20.0 - 8.0 60-0

750 MVA
400/275 kV 12.0 85.0 60.0 18.5 -6.5 66.5
1000 MVA
400/275 kV 16.0 110.0 84.0 21.0 - 5.0 89.0

half-winding are equal and opposite to those produced by the other.

Plant impedance values:Typical impedance values for synchronous machines,
overhead lines, cable circuits and transformers are given in Tables 3.4.3B, 3.4.3C,
3.4.3D, 3.4.3E and 3.4.3F.

3.4.4 Analysis of short-circuit conditions

The analysis of unbalanced fault conditions has already been shown to involve, in
general, the three phase-sequence networks of the given power system, namely the
positive, negative and zero-sequence networks. It is convenient to represent each
sequence network in its simplest form as viewed from the point of short-circuit, F,
the positive-sequence network being thus represented by a driving voltage E in
series with a positive-sequence impedance ZI, the negative-sequence network by the
negative-sequence impedance Z2 and the zero-sequence network by the zero-
sequence impedance Z0. In other words, the power system as seen from the point
of fault, F, is considered as a single equivalent three-phase generator of terminal
voltage E(reference-phase-to-neutral) and phase-sequence impedancesZl, Z2 andZ0.
These conditions'are shown in Fig. 3.4.4A.
It will be noted that the voltage E is the pre-fault reference-phase voltage at the
point of fault and that Z~, Z2 and Zo are the impedances of the positive, negative
154 Fault calculation

and zero-sequence networks, respectively, as measured from the point of fault.

The symmetrical-component equations representing any given fault condition
are obtained from a knowledge of the voltage and current constraints at the point
of fault, these constraints being expressed in symmetrical component terms. The
standard formulae for a number of short-circuit conditions are derived below, phase
'a' being used as the reference phase. The symbols VI, I/2 and Vo denote the
reference-phase sequence voltages at the point of short-circuit and the symbols 11,
12 and Io the reference-phase sequence currents flowing into the fault.
a

Power system -- O F
-- O

_I_
'w

] Z2 [ ZO
I- l r--"-).--.--.-o ~2 ! ; O 1"0

v
Positive Negative Zero
Fig. 3.4.4A Equivalent phase-sequence circuits o f a power system as seen from the p o i n t o f
fault
(a) Three-phase fault: Considering, first, the three-phase fault clear of earth,
shown in Fig. 3.4.4B, the conditions at the point of fault are

Va = Vb = Vc = V, say 3.4.4.1
and
I~ +Ib +1c=o 3.4.4.2
Expressing eqn. 3.4.4.2 in terms of symmetrical components gives

(I~ +/2 +lo)+(a2I~ +a12 +Io)+(aI~ +a212 + I o ) = 0

__[a b
0
Power system
-- [ c ¢

_L
Fig. 3.4.4.B Three-phase fault
 Fault calculation 155

from which
Io=0
because 1 + a + a 2 is equal to zero.
Expressing eqns. 3.4.4.1 in terms of symmetrical components (with I0 = 0) gives

Va = E - I i Z l - 12Z2 = V ]
Vb = a a E - a ~ I i Z l - aI2Z2 = V 3.4.4.3
V~ = a E - a l l Z l - a212Z2 = V
and adding the three equations together we obtain
I
Va+Vb+Vc=O=3V
Hence
Va=Vb= Vc=O

Now, from eqn. 3.4.4.3 it is seen that

v , - aVb =(a 2 - 1)/2z2 =(I - a)V=O

Hence
/2=O
The required symmetrical-component equations for the three.phase fault are
therefore
E

~q=o 3,4.4.4
io=o

Turning, now, to the three-phase-to-earth fault, the only difference from the
conditions just considered is that the three phase conductors, in addition to being
connected to each other, are also connected to earth. The conditions at the point of
fault are, therefore, now given by

Va = E- IIZ1 - IaZ2 - loZo = 0

Vt, *~a2 E - a2 I i Z l - aI2Z2 - l o Z o = 0 3,4,4.5
V c r. a E - a / l Z 1 - a212Z2 - l o Z o = 0

Adding these three equations together gives

Va + lib + Ve = - 31oZo = 0
from which
Io=0

because 1 + a + a 2 is equal to zero.

156 Fault calculatlo~

Also from these same equations

Va " aYb = (a 2 - 1)I2Z2 = 0

from which
15=0
The required symmetrical-component equations are therefore precisely the same as
those already given by eqns. 3.4.4.4 for the three-phase fault clear of earth. The
electrical conditions are thus the same for both types of fault, there being zero
current in the earth connection for the three-phase-to-earth fault.
Since the only currents present are positive-sequence currents, the phase currents
flowing into the fault are
E
la =11 = ~
ZI
a=E
Ib =a21 = 3.4.4.6

aE
tc =a/i ='~-'-

the sum of the three currents being zero as already indicated.

(b) Phase.to-phase fault: It is convenient to assume the phase-to-phase fault to be
between phases b and c, as shown in Fig. 3.4.4C, the conditions at the point of
fault being
la = 0 3.4.4.7

Ib+~=0 3.4.4.8

Vb = Vc = V, say 3.4.4.9

a
m II

b
Power O
system
m Co 1
F

Fig. 3,4,4C Phas~to-phasafault

Writing eqns. 3,4,4,7, and 3.4.4.8 in terms of symmetrical components gives

Ia =Iz +/a +Io = 0

Io +I~ = (a2Ii +a/2 +Io) + (a/l +aaI2 +Io) = 0
 Fault calculation 157

from which
Ib + Ic =- I 1 - 1 2 + 2/o = 0
Hence, it is seen that
~r~+Ib +,r =3Io =0
so that
lo=0
Also, from the equations for Ia and Ib + Ic it is seen that

~r,- (lb +t~) = 2/, +2/2 =0

from which
12 =-11

Expressing eqns. 3.4.4.9 in symmetrical-component form gives

Vt, = aa E - aaliZl - a12Z2 = V

Ve = a E - aliZl - a212Z2 = V
from which
let, - Vc = (a s - a)E- (a" - a ) l ~ Z l - (a - a2)12Z2 = 0
giving
E - IIZ1 +I2Z2 = 0
But 15 = -11 and hence it is seen that
E-11(ZI + Z2) =0
The required symmetrical-component equations for the phase.to.phase fault are
therefore
E
/1 = ~
ZI + Z2

-E
3,4,4.10
Za +Z2

Zo=O
The phase currents flowing into the fault can now be obtained and are given by

Ia =Ii +I2 =0

-/43e
It, =a2ll +a12 = - - 3,4.4,11
ZI + Z2

/x/3E
Ic=all +a212 =
Z~ +Z2

because a 2 - a is equal to - ix/3.

 158 Fault calculation

a
- a o

b 0
Power
system c
o
F

±
Fig. 3.4.40 Single-phase.to-earth f a u l t

(c) Single-phase-to earth fault: For this fault condition, it is convenient to

assume the short-circuit to be between phase a and earth, as shown in Fig. 3.4.4.D,
the conditions at the point of fault being

Va = 0 3.4.4.12

Ib = Ic = 0 3.4.4.13

Writing eqns 3.4.4.13 in symmetrical-component form, we obtain

lb =a2lz +a12 +Io = 0

I c = a l z +aal2 +1o = 0

and from these equations it is seen that

Ib - to = (a s - a ) t , + ( a - a ~ ) I 2 = 0
from which
11 =12

Substituting for 12 therefore

lt, + Ic = - Ii -I1 +2/0=0

from which
Io =Ii
Hence
11 =12 =Io

Wdting eqn. 3,4.4.12 in symmetrical-component form gives

ga = E = I z Z l = I2Z2 - IoZo = 0

but because Is and Io are both equal to 11, this can be written

E - I i ( g l + Z= + Z o ) = 0
 ~ult~u~n i~

Hence, the required symmetrical-component equations for the single-phase-to.

earth fault are
E
I1 =/2 = Io = 3.4.4.14
Zz + Z2 + Zo
The phase currents flowing into the fault can now be obtained and are given by

3E
Ia =11 +12 +-to =
Zz +Z2 +Zo
3.4,4,15
Ib = a 2 I i +a/2 +Io =0
Ic =aI1 +a212 +Io = 0

(d) Two-phase-to-earth fault: It is convenient to assume the two.phase-to-earth

fault to be between phases b and c and earth, as shown in Fig. 3.4.4E, the eondi.
tions at the point of fault being

=0 3.4,4.16
= ~=0 3.4.4,17

a
u .
0

Power
system

i_
Fig. 3.4.4E Two-phase-to-earth fault

Writing eqn. 3.4.4.17 in symmetrical-component form gives

Vb = a 2 E - a 2 I z Z l - a/2Z2 - IoZo = 0
V~ = a E - a l l Z t - a212Z2 - IoZo = 0

from which
Vt, - a v e = (1 - a)I2Z2 - (1 - a ) l o Z o = 0
giving
I2Z2
/o =
Zo
Writing eqn. 3.4.4.16 in terms of symmetrical components gives
Ia =11 +12 +1o = 0
160 Faultcalculation

which, on substitutingfor Io, becomes

(Z2 +Zo)I2
Io=I1 + =0
Zo
Hence
-ZoI1
Za + Zo

-Z 211
Io ~ ~
Z~ +Zo
Now
Vb + Ve = - E + I,Z, +I2Z2- 2IoZo =O
which on substituting for 12 and Io, becomes

i .. +- :ol
E=II ZI Z2+Zo Z2+Zo

from which
Z2Zo ]
E=II ZI +Z2 +Zo
The symmetricM-component equations for the two-phase-to-earth fault are therefore

(Z2 + Zo)E
Z l Z 2 +Z2Z 0 + Z o Z 1
-ZoE
3.4.4.18
I~ =ZIZ2 +Z2Zo +ZoZ~

-Z2E
Io=
ZtZ2 +Z2Zo +ZoZt
The phase currents flowing into the fault can now be obtained and are given by

Ia =I~ +/2 +Io =0

-/V3~'(Zo - a z 2 )
Ib = a211 + al2 +Io =
Z]Z2 +Z2Zo +ZoZI
3.4.4.19
/x/3E(Zo - a 2Z2 )
I¢=aIl +aaI2 +I'o =
ZIZ2 +Z2Zo +ZoZt
 Fault calculation !61

(e) The phase-to-phase plus single-phase-to-earth fault: It is convenient to assume

the phase.to-phase fault to be between phases b and c and the single-pha,w-to-earth
fault between phase a and earth, as shown in Fig. 3.4.4F, the conditions at the
point of fault being

~=0 3,4A.20
= ~=V, say 3.4,4.21
Ib+~=O 3.4.4,22

Fig. 3.4.4F
Power
system

3_
Phase-to.phaseplus single-phase-to-earth fault
!
Writing equations 3.4.4.20 and 3.4.4.21 in terms of symmetrical components
gives

Va = E - I i Z l " 12Z2 - IoZo = 0

Vb = a a E - a 2 1 1 Z l - oluZa - l o Z o = V
V c = a E - a l i Z 1 - a212Z2 - IoZo = V

Adding these equations together gives

Va + Vb + Vc = -3IoZo = 2V
from which
- 3IoZo
V=
2

Now, from the equations for Vt, and Vc

Vb - a v e = (1 - a)IaZ2 - (1 - a)IoZo = (1 - a)V

giving
I~Z2 - IoZo = V

and substituting for V gives

- 31o Zo
12Za - IoZo =
2
162 Fault calculat/on

Hence
-2/2Z2
Zo
Writing eqn. 3,4,4.22 in terms of symmetrical components gives

Ib +I¢ =(aZll +aIz +lo)+(al, +a2Iz +Io) =0

from which
-11 - 12 + 2/o = 0

Substituting for Io gives

412Z2
-I1 - 1 2 - '=0
Zo
from which
- Ii Zo
4Z2 +Zo
so that
2Zzll
4Za +Zo

Substituting for 12 and Io in the expression for Va gives

Z2Zo 2Z2Zo
I', =E-11 ZI + =0
4Z2+Zo 4Z2+Zo
from which
[ 4ZIZ~ +Z2Zo +ZoZI ]
E - 11 4Z2 +Zo =0

The symmetrical-componentequations for this fault condition are thus

(4Z2 +Zo)E
Il =
4ZIZ2 +Z2Zo +ZoZI

-ZoE
12 3.4.4.23
=4ZlZ2" + Z2Zo + ZoZ~

2Z2E
4Z~Z2 +Z2Zo +ZoZI
 Fault calculation 163

from which the phase currents flowing into the fault are
6Z2E
la =11 +12 +1o -
4ZlZ2 +Z2Zo +ZoZl

-/x/3e(2z2 + Zo)
Ib =a211 +a12 +Io = 3.4.4.24
4ZIZ2 +Z2Zo +ZoZI
/\/3E(2Z2 + Zo)
I,=all +a212 +Io =
4ZlZ2 +Z2Zo + ZoZI

(f) Summary of symmetrical-component formulas: The symmetrical components

of fault current for the five short-circuit conditions are summarised in Table
3.4.4B.
The symmetrical components of voltage at the point of fault are obtained from
the equations:
VI = E - I1Z 1
V2 = -I2Z2 3.4.4.25
Vo = -ioZo
the resulting values being given in Table 3.4.4C. The phase-to-earth voltages at the
point of fault are given in Table 3.4.4D.
From the symmetrical components of fault current and fault voltage, given in
Tables 3.4.4A and 3.4.4C, it will be seen that the given short-circuit conditions can
be represented by interconnection of the sequence networks in the manner shown
in Table 3.4.4E.
The analysis of each fault condition is thus seen to reduce to the solution of an
equivalent single-phase network, the latter being composed, in general, of the three
sequence networks. It is important to note that each sequence network represents
the chosen reference phase of the power system, namely phase a, and that the
sequence network currents and voltages are, in consequence, all phase a values.
In the case of the three-phase short-circuit, the negative and zero sequence net-
works are not interconnected with the positive-sequence network and because the
latter network is the only one containing driving voltages, the currents and voltages
in the negative and zero-sequence networks are all zero. In analysing the three-phase
short-circuit condition, therefore, the only network which requires to be considered
is the positive-sequence network. Similarly, in the case of the phase-to-phase short-
circuit condition, the zero-sequence network has no interconnection with the
positive-sequence network and, hence, for this fault condition the only networks
which require to be considered are the positive and negative-sequence networks. It
will be noted that each of the remaining three fault conditions involves a short-
circuit or short-circuits to earth and that in all three cases the analysis requires
consideration of all three sequence networks.
Table 3.4.4F shows the phase-sequence components of fault current, in vector-
164 Fault calculation
o 0
4" 4"
0 0
0
¢4
4"
~q
o 0
~q
4" 4"
..9 o , + 0
~q
4" 4"
0
0
+
~a
~I~ +. o
~q
¢4
4"
~q
~q
ot
f-%
~.
e~
~o
c~
 Fault calculation 165
0
% +
4" 0
~qo
~÷
o
÷
o
o t~
÷
+
o
0 0
+
÷
to
y
~ ~ ~.~
166 F a u l t calculation
o o o
~q ~q
4- -p +
o
+ e~
I ~q
-F
~q
0
..,,,. o o
~q ~q
-F -F
~q
+
0
o eJ~
¢) ~q ~q
~q -p +
'.h. -F
"F -p
~q
o~
?
?
J3
o ~ ~ o
o
o b J=
6
6
p, E-
 Fault calculation 167
o
~q
.p
+ +
o
÷
÷
I
o
! o
~q ~q
+
+
÷ ÷ o
+
I
!
¢J
°~
o
~q
+
o ÷ 0 0
~q ~q
+
N
9
o=
9
9
o~ 9
9
9 J=
o, .0
o, c~
9 0
0
m
t- o=
O == o ¢0
o
~J
6
168 Fault calculation

Table 3.4.4E Intarconnection o f the sequence networks for the representation o f system
short¢ircuit conditions

Fault condition Positive Negative Zero

Three-phase
(a-h-c or a-h-c-~)

Phase-to-phase
(b-c)

Single-phase-to-earth
(a~)

Two-phase-to-eart h
(b-c-e)

1:2
Phase-to-phase plus
Single-phase-to-earth
(b-c plus a-e)

*Closed for three-phase-to-earth fault.

diagram form, for the five short-circuit conditions considered, the impedances Zs,
Z2 and Zo of the power system, as seen from the point of fault, being assumed to
be all equal. The three impedances are all assumed to have an X/R ratio of 5, corres-
ponding to a phase angle of 78* 42'. The table also shows the phase values of the
fault currents, and it can be readily checked from the vector diagrams that each
phase-current vector is the sum of its associated sequence-current vectors. In
addition to the current vectors, the table also gives the vector diagrams of the
phase-to-earth voltages at the point of fault, the pre-fault phase voltages at the
point of fault, Ea(=E),Ez, and Ec, being shown by broken lines.
It is important to note that the vector diagrams of Table 3.4.4F refer specifically
to the stated case, namely that in which the three phase-sequence impedances are
all equal in both magnitude and phase. It will be noted that, for this case, the
voltage to earth of any unfaulted phase or phases at the point of fault is equal to
the pre-fault voltage of the phase or phases in question. This is not the case, in
general, when the sequence impedances are not equal.

3.4.5 Effect of fault impedance

The analysis of short-circuit conditions, as presented in the previous Section, has

assumed the short-circuiting connections to be of zero impedance. This assump-
tion is sufficiently accurate for the great majority of fault calculations but it is,
nevertheless, sometimes necessary to take due account of fault-path impedance,
 Fault calculation 169
0
m I o
1
I °
,,7
H
~ o.~o ~ o
I Ol
0
2 ~
c~
J
N
Ii
J~
N N 3
o!11 ~ ~o o~ m
~d
~ z
u
,p-
",3
J=
N .c
0
0
Y
~ Y
&
170 Fault calculation

~-- a P

Power b

.~- 'T

3Z e
F'I0 zp
FIQ I
Positive Zero I J,
T l
Fig. 3.4.5A Three-phase fault with fault impedance

a particular instance being the consideration of fault-arc resistance in its effect on

distance protection.
The effect of fault impedance is most readily understood by considering the
phase-sequence impedances which must be added, externally, to the system
sequence networks when the latter are interconnected to represent the short-circuit
condition in question. Thus, considering the three-phase fault shown in Fig. 3.4.5A,
let the fault-path impedances be Zp in each phase, together with Ze between the
star-point of these three impedances and earth. Considering the position F' as the
true short-circuit position, rather than F, it will be evident that the impedances Zp
simply appear as external impedances Zp connected to the fault points FI, F2 and
Fo of the three sequence networks. Similarly, the impedance Ze, as seen from F',
appears as an external impedance 3Ze, connected to the zero-potential (earth) bar
of the zero-sequence network, as shown in the figure. Now, it will be noted that at
F', the three phases are connected together through zero impedance and that this
star-point is connected through zero-impedance to the terminal of the impedance
Z e. It follows, therefore, that the sequence-network connections appropriate to
this fault condition are as shown in the figure, the points FI' and F2' being connected
to the zero-potential bar of the positive and negative-sequence networks, respect-
ively, and the point F0' being connected to the terminal of the impedance 3Ze
associated with the zero-sequence network. As already pointed out in the previous
Section, the inclusion of the negative and zero-sequence networks in the representa-
tion of the three-phase short-circuit is only of academic interest, since the currents
and voltages present in the system are all positive-sequence values.
Considering, now, the phase-to-phase fault shown in Fig. 3.4.5B, let the fault-
path impedance between the faulted phases b and c be 2Zt, and let this be repre-
sented by an impedance Zt, in each of the two phases. Now, there is no flow of
 Fault calculat/on t71

Zp
a
Zp
b
Power ---
system

I_

~ Zp Zp Zp

"1
Positive
I "°
Negative
l F°'
. Zero

T r
Fig. 3.4.5B Phase-to-phase fault with fault impedance

current from phase a into the fault, and hence the electrical conditions will be quite
unaltered by the insertion of a fictitious impedance Zp in series with phase a, as
shown. Each phase now contains an impedance Zp between the fault position F
and the position F', and at this latter position, it will be noted, the phase b and c
are connected together through zero impedance. The fault condition, now
considered as being at F', can therefore be analysed by applying the results of
Section 3.4.4 with the three sequence networks augmented by the added
impedance Zp connected to the fault points F~, F 2 and Fo, as shown in the figure.
The remaining fault conditions, namely the single-phase-to-earth fault, the two-
Zp

Power ---
system Zp

Zp Zp

[ ':'°1
Positive
FT°I
Negative
I ~o6
Zero
~ I
Fig. 3.4.5C Single-phase-to-earth fault with fault impedance
172 Fault calculation

Zp
I -

Z
Power --
system Zp

I I I t Ii " ~

'T: ..... !
Fig. 3,4.8D Two-phase.to-earth fault with fault impedance

phase.to-earth fault and the phase-to-phase plus single-phase-to-earth fault, are

treated in a similar manner, the resulting sequence-network interconnections being
given in Figs, 3.4.5C, 3.4.5D and 3.4.5E.
The treatment of fault impedance described above is based on the assumption
that the fault-path impedances are known fixed values. This assumption is accept-
able for many purposes but it is important to note that in a particularly important
case, namely that of a fault arc, the fault-path impedance (normally regarded as a
pure resistance) is a function of the fault current and the arc length. Warrington

Zp Ze

Power
system ¢

F" FI
. . . . . . A

i
1:2

v26

Fig, 3,4,5E Phase,to-phaseplus slngle-phase-to-earth fault with fault impedance

 Fault ~alculation 173

o\
0
0

.=_ ~

P
<
o
o
o

0
I00 I000 I0000 IOOOO0
Arc current in r.m.s, amps

Fig. 3.4.5F A . C arc voltage as a function o f arc current

expresses the characteristic of such a.c. arcs, in air, by the formula

8750L
V = ~
/0.4

where V is the arc voltage-drop in r.m.s, volts, L is the length of the arc in foot and
I is the arc current in r.m.s, amps. This arc characteristic is represented graphically
in Fig. 3.4.5F in terms of voltage-drop per metre of arc length as a function of arc
current in amps.

3.4.6 Analysis of open-circuit conditions

The open-circuit conditions normally of interest in power-system analysis are the

single-phase open-circuit and the two-phase open-circuit, the remaining possibility,
namely the three-phase open-circuit, being of little practical sigrdficanoe, The
analysis of these conditions is achieved by the use of symmetrical components In a
similar manner to that employed for short-circuit conditions, that rtS by eonsid0rtng
 174 Fault calculation

the voltage and current constraints produced by the fault condition at the point of
fault,
(a) Single-phase open-circuit: It is convenient to assume the single-phase open-
circuit to be in phase a of the given circuit, as shown in Fig. 3.4.6A, the positions P
and Q denoting the points in the circuit between which the open-circuit is assumed
to have occurred, The positions P and Q are assumed to be so close together that
the impedances of the healthy phases between P and Q can be assumed to be zero.
P Q
Ia
>

b Ib
>

¢ Ic
>

T A 1

Positive ! N.te i
Fig. 3 , 4 . 6 A Slngle.ohase open-circuit condition

Writing down the voltage and current constraints at the point of fault gives the
equations

(v~)eQ = (v,)p- (v~)Q ~ o

(Vb)pQ -- (Vb)e - (V~)Q -- 0 3.4.6.1
(Vc)pQ = (Vc)e - (V~)Q -- 0

'a=0 /
Ib:~o 3.4.6.2
lc~O

The symbols (Va)eQ , (Vb)eQ and (Ve)eQ, it will be noted, represent the series
voltage.drops along the phase conductors from P to Q.

The phase sequence components of the voltage-drops are given by

(VI)pQ = ~ [(Va)pQ + a(Vb)pQ + a2(Vc)l,Q] = ](Va)~, Q

(V2)eO = ~ [(Zo)eQ + a2 (Vb)ee + a(Vc)eO] = A(V,)eO 3.4.6.3
(VO)eQ = '3 [(Vo)ee + (Vb)eO + (Vc)eO] = ~(V,)eO
 ~ult~uD~n 1~

because (Vb)pQ and (Vc)pQ are both zero. The positive, negative and zero-sequence
voltage-drops between P and Q are thus seen to be all equal.
Considering, now, the phase-sequence components of the currents, because
la = 0 it follows that

It = ~(Ia +aIo +a2Ie) = ~(alb +a2Ic)

I2 = ~(Io +a2Ib +ale) = ~02Ib +aZc) 3,4.6.4
Io = ~(Ia + Ib + I~) = ~(I~ + Ic)
It is thus seen that

It +12 +Io = 0 3.4,6.5

because 1 + a + a 2 is equal to zero. and hence
12 +Io = -It 3.4.6.6

The constraints imposed by the fault condition, as expressed by eqns. 3,4.6.3 and
3.4.6.6, are seen to be satisfied by the interconnection of the sequence networks
shown in Fig. 3.4.6A. It should be noted that, in each sequence network, the
branch representing the given crcuit is open-circuited between the points corres-
ponding to the positions P and Q in the given circuit, that is the points Pt and Qt,
P2 and Q2 and Po and Qo.
Now let Zt, Z~ and Zo be the impedances of the positive, negative and zero-
sequence networks as measured between Pt and Qt, P~ and Q2 and Po and Q0,
respectively, in Fig. 3.4.6A. Then, the positive-sequence network, as seen from the
points Pt and Qt, reduces to a positive-sequence voltage in series with the impe-
dance Z t , the positive-sequence voltage being given (by Thevenin's Theorem) by
Ztltp1,, where It p.r denotes the pre-fault value of the positive,sequence current in
phase a of the given circuit.
From Fig. 3.4.6A, it follows that the required phase-sequence currents in the
faulted circuit are given by

Zllxp/
I 1 =
Z2Zo
Z~ +
Z2 + Zo

-Zol~
3.4.6,7
Z2 + Zo

-ZII !
/o =
Z2 + Zo
176 Fault calculation

from which the phase currents in the faulted circuit can be shown to be given by

~=o

[, (a2 - I)Z 2 + (a 2 - a)Z o

It, 1 Ill
Z of 3.4.6.8

Ie = ZIZ2 +Z2Zo ÷ZoZ~

It will be noted that the sequence currents and phase currents are zero if the pre-
fault condition is one n which the circuit in question is carrying zero current.
(b) Two.phase open-circuit:For this case it is convenient to assume the open-
circuits to be in phases b and e of the given circuit, as shown in Fig. 3.4.6B.

0
Ia
>

Ib
)

C |C
)

__1L_
, P,~",I v~, ,
[2,L
Fig, 3.4,6B Two~ohaseopen-circuit condition

Proceeding as in the previous case, the voltage and current constraints at the
point of fault are

(re)co = (re)e- ( v , ) e = o I
(Vb)pQ = (lib) P - ( V b ) Q ~ 0 3.4.6.9
(v,)eQ = (v~)e- (v~) o ~ o

,,+° /
Ib = 0 3.4.6.10
I~=0
 Next Page
Fault calculation 177

As before, the symbols (Va)pQ, (Vv)pQ and (Vc)~ represent the series voltage.
drops along the phase conductors from P to Q.
The phase-sequence components of the voltage-drops are given by

(Vt)efl = ~ [(Va)pfl + a(Vb ) efl + a2 ( V c ) ~ ] = ~ [a(Vb)pfl + a2 (Vc)~ ]

(V2)pQ = ~ [(Va)pQ +a2(Vt,)pQ + a ( V c ) ~ ] = ~ [a2(Vb)efl +a(Vc)eQ]. 3,4.6.11
(Vo)~,Q = i [(vo)~ + (v~)pQ + ( v ~ ) ~ ] = ~ [ ( v ~ ) ~ + (vc)m]

because (Va)eQ= 0. From these equations it is seen that:

(VI)p~ + (V2~Q + (Vo)eQ = 0 3,4.6.12

because 1 + a + a 2 in equal to zero.

Considering, now, the phase-sequence components of the currents it follows that

Iz = ~(la + all, + a2Ic) = ~ Ia

•q = ~(I. +a2Ib +ale) = gIa 3.4.6.13
.Io = [(S. + I~ + Zc)= [Zo

because It, and Ic are both zero. The positive, negative and zero.sequence currents
in the faulted circuit are thus seen to be equal.
The constraints imposed by the fault condition as expressed by eqns, 3,4.6.12
and 3.4.6.13, are seen to be satisfied by the interconnection of the sequence
networks shown in Fig. 3.4.6B. As before, the branch representing the given circuit
in each sequence network is open-circuited between the points corresponding to the
positions P and Q in the given circuit, that is the points Pt and Qi, P2 and Q2 and
Po and Qo.
Proceeding as in the previous case, it follows from Fig. 3.4.6B that the required
phase-sequence currents in the faulted circuit are given by
Zlllpl"
It =/2 =Io = 3.4.6.14
= Zt +Z2 +Zo
from which the phase currents in the faulted circuit are seen to be given by

3Zlltpl"
Io=
Zt +Z2 +Zo

I b =0 3.4.6.15
I,=0

It will again be noted that the sequence currents and phase currents are zero if
the pre-fault condition is one in which the circuit in question is carrying zero
current.