SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS Introduction: In 1918, Dr. C.L. Fortescue, an American scientist, showed that any unbalanced system of 3-phase currents (or voltages) may be regarded as being composed of three separate sets of balanced vectors viz. (i) a balanced system of 3-phase currents having positive (or normal) phase sequence. These are called positive phase sequence components. (ii) a balanced system of 3-phase currents having the opposite or negative phase sequence. These are called negative phase sequence components. (iii) a system of three currents equal in magnitude and having zero phase displacement. These are called zero phase sequence components. The positive, negative and zero phase sequence components are called the symmetrical components of the original unbalanced system. The term ‘symmetrical’ is appropriate because the unbalanced 3-phase system has been resolved into three sets of balanced (or symmetrical) components. The subscripts 1, 2 and 0 are generally used to indicate positive, negative and zero phase sequence components respectively. For instance, IR0 indicates the zero phase sequence component of the current in the red phase. Similarly, IY1 implies the positive phase sequence component of current in the yellow phase.
Fig. 4.1. Three Phase currents
Let us now apply the symmetrical components theory to an unbalanced 3-phase system. Suppose an unsymmetrical fault occurs on a 3-phase system having phase sequence RYB. According to symmetrical components theory, the resulting unbalanced currents IR, IY and IB as shown in figure 4.1 can be resolved into: (i) a balanced system of 3-phase currents, IR1, IY1 and IB1 having positive phase sequence (i.e. RYB) as shown in Fig. 4.2 (i). These are the positive phase sequence components. (ii) balanced system of 3-phase currents IR2 , IY2 and IB2 having negative phase sequence (i.e. RBY) as shown in Fig. 4.2 (ii). These are the negative phase sequence components.
1 Fig. 4.2. (iii) a system of three currents IR0, IY0 and IB0 equal in magnitude with zero phase displacement from each other as shown in Fig. 4.2 (iii). These are the zero phase sequence components. The current in any phase is equal to the vector sum of positive, negative and zero phase sequence currents in that phase as shown in Fig. 4.3.
Fig. 4.3. IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR0 IY = IY1 + IY2 + IY0 IB = IB1 + IB2 + IB0 The following points may be noted: (i) The positive phase sequence currents (IR1, IY1 and IB1), negative phase sequence currents (IR2, IY2 and IB2) and zero phase sequence currents (IR0, IY0 and IB0) separately form balanced system of currents. Hence, they are called symmetrical components of the unbalanced system. (ii) The symmetrical component theory applies equally to 3-phase currents and voltages both phase and line values. (iii) The symmetrical components do not have separate existence. They are only mathematical components of unbalanced currents (or voltages) which actually flow in the system. (iv) In a balanced 3-phase system, negative and zero phase sequence currents are zero.
2 Operator ‘a’: As the symmetrical component theory involves the concept of 120º displacement in the positive sequence set and negative sequence set, therefore, it is desirable to evolve some operator which should cause 120º rotation. For this purpose, operator ‘a’ is used. It is defined as under: The operator ‘a’ is one, which when multiplied to a vector rotates the vector through 120º in the anticlockwise direction.
Fig. 4.4. Consider a vector I represented by OA as shown in Fig. 4.4. If this vector is multiplied by operator ‘a’, the vector is rotated through 120º in the anticlockwise direction and assumes the position OB. a I = I ∠120º = I (cos 120º + j sin 120º) = I (− 0·5 + j 0·866) ∴ a = − 0·5 + j 0·866 If the vector assuming position OB is multiplied by operator ‘a’, the vector is further rotated through 120º in the anticlockwise direction and assumes the position OC. a2I = I ∠240º = I (cos 240º + j sin 240º) = I (− 0·5 − j 0·866) ∴ a2 = − 0·5 − j 0·866 Thus the operator ‘a2’ will turn the vector through 240º in the anticlockwise direction. This is the same as turning the vector through 120º in clockwise direction. a2 I = I ∠−120º Similarly, a3I = I ∠360º = I (cos 360º + j sin 360º) ∴ a3 = 1
3 Properties of Operator ‘a’: (i) Adding exps. (i) and (ii), we get, a + a2 = (− 0·5 + j 0·866) + (− 0·5 − j 0·866) = −1 ∴ 1 + a + a2 = 0 (ii) Subtracting exp. (ii) from exp. (i), we get, a − a2 = (− 0·5 + j 0·866) − (− 0·5 − j 0·866) = j 1·732 ∴ a − a2 = j √3 Symmetrical Components in Terms of Phase Currents: The unbalanced phase currents in a 3-phase system can be expressed in terms of symmetrical components as under : IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR0 IY = IY1 + IY2 + IY0 IB = IB1 + IB2 + IB0
Fig. 4.5. Fig. 4.5 shows the vector representation of symmetrical components. It is usually profitable in calculations to express the symmetrical components in terms of unbalanced phase currents. Let us express the symmetrical components of R-phase in terms of phase currents IR, IY and IB. For this purpose, express all symmetrical components of Y and B phases in terms of the symmetrical component of R-phase by means of operator ‘a’ as shown in Fig. 4.5. Note that the positive sequence set shown in Fig. 4.5 (i) can be expressed in terms of IR1 by means of operator a. Thus positive sequence current IB1 in phase B leads IR1 by 120º and, therefore, IB1 = a IR1. Similarly, positive sequence current in phase Y is 240º ahead of IR1 so that IY1 a IR2= 1. In an exactly similar manner, the negative sequence set can be expressed in terms of IR2 by means of operator ‘a’ as shown in Fig. 4.5 (ii).
4 It is clear from Fig. 4.5 that:
The following points may be noted carefully:
(i) The currents I1, I2 and I0 are the symmetrical components of R-phase. Because of the symmetry of each set, the symmetrical components of yellow and blue phases can be easily known. (ii) Although the treatment has been made considering currents, the method applies equally to voltages. Thus the symmetrical voltage components of R-phase in terms of phase voltages shall be:
5 6 Sequence Impedances: Each element of power system will offer impedance to different phase sequence components of current which may not be the same. For example, the impedance which any piece of equipment offers to positive sequence current will not necessarily be the same as offered to negative sequence current or zero sequence current. Therefore, in unsymmetrical fault calculations, each piece of equipment will have three values of impedance—one corresponding to each sequence current viz. (i) Positive sequence impedance (Z1) (ii) Negative sequence impedance (Z2) (iii) Zero sequence impedance (Z0)
7 The impedance offered by an equipment or circuit to positive sequence current is called positive sequence impedance and is represented by Z1. Similarly, impedances offered by any circuit or equipment to negative and zero sequence currents are respectively called negative sequence impedance (Z2) and zero sequence impedance (Z0). The following points may be noted: (a) In a 3-phase balanced system, each piece of equipment or circuit offers only one impedance– the one offered to positive or normal sequence current. This is expected because of the absence of negative and zero sequence currents in the 3-phase balanced system. (b) In a 3-phase unbalanced system, each piece of equipment or circuit will have three values of impedance viz. positive sequence impedance, negative sequence impedance and zero sequence impedance. (c) The positive and negative sequence impedances of linear, symmetrical and static circuits (e.g. transmission lines, cables, transformers and static loads) are equal and are the same as those used in the analysis of balanced conditions. This is due to the fact that impedance of such circuits is independent of the phase order, provided the applied voltages are balanced. It may be noted that positive and negative sequence impedances of rotating machines (e.g. synchronous and induction motors) are normally different. (d) The zero sequence impedance depends upon the path taken by the zero sequence current. As this path is generally different from the path taken by the positive and negative sequence currents, therefore, zero sequence impedance is usually different from positive or negative sequence impedance. Sequence Impedances of Power System Elements: The concept of impedances of various elements of power system (e.g. generators, transformers, transmission lines etc.) to positive, negative and zero sequence currents is of considerable importance in determining the fault currents in a 3-phase unbalanced system. A complete consideration of this topic does not fall within the scope of this book, but a short preliminary explanation may be of interest here. The following three main pieces of equipment will be considered: (i) Synchronous generators (ii) Transformers (iii) Transmission lines (i) Synchronous generators: The positive, negative and zero sequence impedances of rotating machines are generally different. The positive sequence impedance of a synchronous generator is equal to the synchronous impedance of the machine. The negative sequence impedance is much less than the positive sequence impedance. The zero sequence impedance is a variable item and if its value is not given, it may be assumed to be equal to the positive sequence impedance. In short: Negative sequence impedance < Positive sequence impedance Zero sequence impedance = Variable item
8 = may be taken equal to +ve sequence impedance if its value is not given It may be worthwhile to mention here that any impedance Ze in the earth connection of a star connected system has the effect to introduce an impedance of 3Ze per phase. It is because the three equal zero-sequence currents, being in phase, do not sum to zero at the star point, but they flow back along the neutral earth connection. (ii) Transformers: Since transformers have the same impedance with reversed phase rotation, their positive and negative sequence impedances are equal; this value being equal to the impedance of the transformer. However, the zero sequence impedance depends upon earth connection. If there is a through circuit for earth current, zero sequence impedance will be equal to positive sequence impedance otherwise it will be infinite. In short, Positive sequence impedance = Negative sequence impedance = Impedance of Transformer Zero sequence impedance = Positive sequence impedance, if there is circuit for earth current = Infinite, if there is no through circuit for earth current. (iii) Transmission lines: The positive sequence and negative sequence impedance of a line are the same; this value being equal to the normal impedance of the line. This is expected because the phase rotation of the currents does not make any difference in the constants of the line. However, the zero sequence impedance is usually much greater than the positive or negative sequence impedance. In short: Positive sequence impedance = Negative sequence impedance = Impedance of the line Zero sequence impedance = Variable item = may be taken as three times the +ve sequence impedance if its value is not given. Sequence Impedances and Networks of Synchronous Machine: Sequence Impedances and Networks of Synchronous Machine – Fig. 4.6 depicts an unloaded synchronous machine (generator or motor) grounded through a reactor (impedance Zn).
Fig. 4.6.
9 Ea, Eb and Ec are the induced emfs of the three phases. When a fault (not shown in the figure) takes place at machine terminals, currents Ia, Ib and Ic flow in the lines. Whenever the fault involves ground, current In = Ia + Ib+ Ic flows to neutral from ground via Zn. Unbalanced line currents can be resolved into their symmetrical components Ia1, Ia2 and Ia0. Before we can proceed with fault analysis, we must know the equivalent circuits presented by the machine to the flow of positive, negative and zero sequence currents, respectively. Because of winding symmetry currents of a particular sequence produce voltage drops of that sequence only. Therefore, there is a no coupling between the equivalent circuits of various sequences. Positive Sequence Network of Synchronous Machine: Since a synchronous machine is designed with symmetrical windings, it induces emfs of positive sequence only, i.e. no negative or zero sequence voltages are induced in it. When the machine carries positive sequence currents only, this mode of operation is the balanced mode. The armature reaction field caused by positive sequence currents rotates at synchronous speed in the same direction as the rotor, i.e., it is stationary with respect to field excitation. The machine equivalently offers a direct axis reactance whose value reduces from subtransient reactance (X”d) to transient reactance (X′d) and finally to steady state (synchronous) reactance (Xd), as the short circuit transient progresses in time. If armature resistance is assumed negligible, the positive Sequence Impedances and Networks of Synchronous Machine is
If the machine short circuit takes place from unloaded conditions, the terminal voltage constitutes the positive sequence voltage; on the other hand, if the short circuit occurs from loaded conditions, the voltage behind appropriate reactance (subtransient, transient or synchronous) constitutes the positive sequence voltage.
Fig. 4.7. Fig. 4.7(a) shows the three-phase positive sequence network model of a synchronous machine. Zn does not appear in the model as In = 0 for positive sequence currents. Since it is a balanced
10 network it can be represented by the single-phase network model of Fig. 4.7(b) for purposes of analysis. The reference bus for a positive sequence network is at neutral potential. Further, since no current flows from ground to neutral, the neutral is at ground potential. With reference to Fig. 4.7(b), the positive sequence voltage of terminal a with respect to the reference bus is given by
Negative Sequence Network of Synchronous Machine:
It has already been said that a synchronous machine has zero negative sequence induced voltages. With the flow of negative sequence currents in the stator a rotating field is created which rotates in the opposite direction to that of the positive sequence field and, therefore, at double synchronous speed with respect to rotor. Currents at double the stator frequency are therefore induced in rotor field and damper winding. In sweeping over the rotor surface, the negative sequence mmf is alternately presented with reluctances of direct and quadrature axes. The negative Sequence Impedances and Networks of Synchronous Machine with consideration given to the damper windings, is often defined as
Negative sequence network models of a synchronous machine, on a three-phase and single-
phase basis are shown in Figs. 4.8 a and b, respectively. The reference bus is of course at neutral potential which is the same as ground potential.
Fig. 4.8. From Fig. 4.8 b the negative sequence voltage of terminal a with respect to reference bus is
Zero Sequence Network of a Synchronous Machine:
We state once again that no zero sequence voltages are induced in a synchronous machine. The flow of zero sequence currents creates three mmfs which are in time phase but are distributed in space phase by 120°. The resultant air gap field caused by zero sequence currents is therefore
11 zero. Hence, the rotor windings present leakage reactance only to the flow of zero sequence currents (Z0g < Z2 < Z1).
Fig. 4.9. Zero sequence network models on a three- and single-phase basis are shown in Figs.4.9 a & b. In Fig. 4.9 a, the current flowing in the impedance Zn between neutral and ground is In = 3Ia0.
