UC3 Core

COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING MATERIAL
ANIMAL PRODUCTION
(RUMINANTS) NC II
SECTOR : AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FISHERY
QUALIFICATION : ANIMAL PRODUCTION (RUMINANTS) NC II
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : PERFORM BREEDING OF RUMINANTS
MODULE TITLE : PERFORMING BREEDING OF RUMINANTS
ORCHARD VALLEY INC.

Barangays Pagsangaan & Tigum, Pavia, Iloilo City
HOW TO USE THIS COMPETENCY-BASED LEARNING MATERIAL
The unit of competency, “Perform breeding of ruminants”, is one of the

competencies of Animal Production (Ruminants) NC II, a course which comprises
the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required for a TVET trainee to possess.
The module, Performing breeding of ruminants, covers the knowledge,

skills and attitude required in researching general information on food and beverage
cocktails, and sharing in.
In this module, you are required to go through a series of learning activities in

order to complete each learning outcome. In each learning outcome are Information
Sheets, Self-checks, Operation Sheets, Task Sheets, and Job Sheets. Follow and
perform the activities on your own. If you have questions, do not hesitate to ask for
assistance from your facilitator.
Remember to:
● Read information sheet and complete the self-checks.
● Perform the Task Sheets, Operation Sheets, and Job Sheets until you are
confident that your outputs conform to the Performance Criteria Checklists
that follow the said work sheets.
● Submit outputs of the Task Sheets, Operation Sheets, and Job Sheets to your
facilitator for evaluation and recording in the Achievement Chart. Outputs shall
serve as your portfolio during the Institutional Competency Evaluation. When
you feel confident that you have had sufficient practice, ask your trainer to
evaluate you. The results of your assessment will be recorded in your
Achievement Chart and Progress Chart.
You must pass the Institutional Competency Evaluation for this competency
before moving to another competency. A Certificate of Achievement will be awarded
to you after passing the evaluation.
Document No.
ANIMAL PRODUCTION (RUMINANTS) NC II Date Developed: Issued by:
February 2022 Orchard Valley Inc.
CBLM ON PERFORMING BREEDING OF Developed by: Page 1 of 112
RUMINANTS Orchard Valley Inc.
QA System Revision # 00
Animal Production (Ruminants) NC II
List of Common Unit of Competencies
No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code
1. Maintain housing, farm Maintaining housing, farm AFF621901

implements and implements and surrounding
surrounding area area
2. Provide forage Providing forage AFF621902
3. Perform breeding of Performing breeding of AFF621903

ruminants ruminants
4. Raise dairy animals Raising dairy animals AFF621904
5. Raise meat-type animals Raising meat-type animals AFF621905
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MODULE CONTENT
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Perform breeding of ruminants
MODULE TITLE : Performing breeding of ruminants
MODULE DESCRIPTOR : This unit covers the knowledge, skills and

attitudes required to perform breeding of
ruminants. It comprises of preparing animal
stocks, breeding of ruminants, carrying-out
monitoring activities, feeding the animals,
applying basic health care and performing post
breeding activities.
NOMINAL DURATION :
LEARNING OUTCOME
Upon completion of this module, the trainees must be able to:
LO1 - Prepare animal stocks
LO2 - Breed ruminants
LO3 - Carry-out monitoring activities
LO4 - Feed breeding animals
LO5 - Apply basic health care
LO6 - Perform post-breeding activities
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
LO1 - Prepare animal stocks
● Breeds of animals suitable for meat, dairy and mixed-type/dual purpose are
obtained based on breed standards and adoptability on the farm
environment following instructions from authority.
● Animals are placed in suitable house and facilities following Good Animal
Husbandry Practices (GAHP) and Animal Welfare Act.
● Animals are well fed and maintained regularly following Animal Welfare Act.
LO2 - Breed ruminants

● Prepare tools, materials and equipment for breeding operat ions following
breeding schedule and requirements.
● Breeding program for ruminants is followed according to the business
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objective
● Reproductive phenomena of ruminants are observed, recorded and
reported following enterprise protocols.
● Ruminants are bred naturally according to designed mating plan.
● Where necessary, small ruminants are inseminated artificially according to

instructions of supervisor.
● Tasks are performed following Animal Welfare Acts.
● Safety measures are practice according to OSHS procedures.
LO3 - Carry-out monitoring activities

● Breeding performance of ruminants are observed recorded and reported
following enterprise protocols.
● Unproductive animals are treated and disposed according to the set
standard
● Breeding and reproduction data are regularly gathered and kept for
evaluation according to enterprise protocols.
LO4 - Feed breeding animals

● Basal rations for ruminants at various physiological stage are provided
based on industry standard.
● Feed supplements like concentrates, minerals and vitamins are offered
according to animal dietary requirements
● Grazing management for ruminants are identified and practiced
● Grazing capacity of the pasture is determined based on pasture land

condition.
LO5 - Apply basic health care

● Sick animals are reported to appropriate authority.
● Assistance is provided during implementation of medication n program in

accordance with enterprise standards and instructions of authority.
● Safety practices are observed according to OSHS.
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LO6 - Perform post-breeding activities
● Tools, materials and equipment are cleaned and stored following procedural
manual and 5S principles.
● Proper disposal of wastes are practiced according to DENR regulations.
● Records are updated and kept following enterprise protocol.
● Work outputs are reported to the authority following enterprise protocol.
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LEARNING OUTCOME # 1 Prepare animal stocks
CONTENTS:
1. Animal Breeding & Reproduction
ASSESMENT CRITERIA:
o Breeds of animals suitable for meat, dairy and mixed-type/dual purpose
are obtained based on breed standards and adoptability on the farm
environment following instructions from authority.
o Animals are placed in suitable house and facilities following Good
Animal Husbandry Practices (GAHP) and Animal Welfare Act.
o Animals
o are well fed and maintained regularly following Animal Welfare Act.
CONDITIONS:
The students/ trainees must be provided with the following:
● Farm and forage area
● Different breeds of ruminants
● Infrastructures-houses, seed, corrals, sheds
● A.I. kit and paraphernalia
● Feeds, concentrates and additives
● Weighing scale (1000 kg. cap.) – for monitoring of animals weight
● Drenching gun/syringe – deworming purposes
● Pressurized pump – for cleaning of areas
● All workers involved in different activities must be fully oriented and

cautioned on the different specific work activities of the farm
● Technical supervisors should have skills and ability in the successful
implementation of work program activities
METHODOLOGIES:
● Group discussion
● Interactive learning
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ASSESSMENT METHODS:
Competency in this unit may be assessed through:
1. Direct Observation and questioning
2. Demonstration
3. Oral interview and written test
Learning Experiences
Learning Outcome # 1 - Prepare animal stocks

Learning Activities Special Instructions
Read Information Sheet 3.1-1 on Read and understand the information sheet
Animal Breeding & Reproduction and check yourself by answering the self-
Answer Self-Check 3.1-1 check. You must answer all the questions
(Trainee checks answers against correctly before proceedings to the next
the answer key) activity
Refer to Task sheets, it will help you practice

your skills.
The performance criteria checklist will guide

and help you evaluate your work as you are
practicing your skills.
Evaluate your own performance using the

performance criteria checklist. When you are
ready, present your work to your trainer for
final evaluation and recording.
If you have questions and clarification fell free

to ask your trainer.
Document No.
Information Sheet 3.1-1
Animal Breeding & Reproduction
Introduction
Animal breeding ensures a continuous improvement of farm animals, generation

after generation. Different animal traits are measured and the best animals are used
as parent-animals. In this way, breeders provide livestock farmers with a next
generation of animals. Farm animal breeders have an essential contribution to a
healthy and sustainable food supply chain and to provide the European citizens with
a diverse choice of affordable, safe and diverse quality animal foods, and the
European landscape and culture with an attractive liveable countryside, a large
sustainable variety of animal breeds, and tasteful local and typical animal food
products.
Animal breeding consists out of two phases: breeding and reproduction. The animal
breeding and reproduction cycle takes approximately 5 years, depending on the
specie.
Objectives of breeding
Breeding is done for different reasons:
● Production of food products (e.g. dairy, meat, eggs)
● Production of non- food products (e.g. wool, leather)
● Sports
● Companions
● Maintaining rural areas
● Medical applications/research
● Preservation of minor breeds, e.g. Jacob sheep
● Reintroduction programmes, e.g. golden lion tamarins
Sorts of breeding
There are three sorts of breeding:
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● Cross-breeding: individuals of different breeds or lines are used to mate.
● Pure breeding: the same breed or lines are used to mate.
● Inbreeding: two close relatives mate. The closer the relation, the higher the
inbreeding.
Reproduction is a very important trait of an animal; reproductive efficiency is of

economic importance.
Methods of Breeding: Common Methods of Breeding of Cattle, Buffaloes,

Sheep and etc.
Some common methods of breeding of cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs,

horses, donkeys, mules, camels, etc. are described below.
1. Cattle (Bos indicus):
Selection:
Mature cattle having more than 3 years of age should be used for breeding.
Methods of Breeding:
There are two methods of cattle breeding: natural breeding and artificial
insemination.
1. Natural Breeding:
It may be random or controlled.
Heat:
The oestrus (heat period) in the female lasts for 12-24 hours. The average gestation
period for the cow is 280 days.
Methods of Breeding: Common Methods of Breeding of Cattle, Buffaloes,

Sheep and etc.
Some common methods of breeding of cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs,

horses, donkeys, mules, camels, etc. are described below.
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1. Cattle (Bos indicus):
Selection:
Mature cattle having more than 3 years of age should be used for breeding.
Methods of Breeding:
There are two methods of cattle breeding: natural breeding and artificial
insemination.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
1. Natural Breeding:
It may be random or controlled.
Heat:
The oestrus (heat period) in the female lasts for 12-24 hours. The average gestation
period for the cow is 280 days.
2. Artificial Insemination (AI):
It involves the insemination of the semen of superior bulls of exotic or indigenous

breeds into the native cows. The inseminating pipette is carefully inserted into the
cervix through vagina.
The semen should be deposited either deep in the cervix or at the beginning of the
body of the uterus. Semen from desired bull located at distant places can be used.
The spread of certain diseases can be controlled by this method.
Artificial insemination was first introduced in India at Indian Veterinary Research

Institute, Izatnagar, near Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh.
Super Ovulation and Embryo Transplantation:
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Generally one ovum is released from each ovary at the time of ovulation. But by
hormone injection, more ova can be produced from the ovary. After artificial
insemination 4 to 10 embryos are collected at a time. Then each embryo is
transplanted into a surrogate mother “carrier cow”. At very low temperature foetuses
can be preserved for several days.
Breeds of Cattle:
The cattle breeds are classified into three groups.
(i) Milch Breeds:
The cows of these breeds are good milk producing, however, bullocks are of poor
quality.
(ii) Drought Breeds:
The bullocks of these breeds are good for working but cows are poor milk producers.
(iii) General utility Breeds (Dual-purpose Breeds):
The cows of these breeds are good milk producers and the bullocks are good
draught animals. They are intermediate between milch and drought breeds.
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New Breeds:
(1) Karan Swiss:
This breed has been evolved at the National Dairy Research Institute, Kamal in
Haryana, by breeding the Sahiwal cows with the semen of Brown Swiss bulls
imported from U.S.A.
(2) Sunandini:
This breed originated in Kerala by crossing the local non-descript cattle with Jersy,
Brown Swiss and Holestein-Friesian breeds.
(3) Karan Fries:
The breed has got its origin at the National Dairy Research Institute Kamal, out of
crossing between Tharparkar and Holstein Friesian.
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Lactation in sterle cows is induced by stibesterol.
Cattle Diseases:
2. Indian Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis):
Breeds of Indian Buffaloes:
There are seven breeds of buffaloes in India. The best known breeds of Indian
buffaloes are the Murrah, Jaffarabadi, Nili, Bhadawari and Surti.
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Sexual Maturity:
(i) Male. In India, Pakistan and Egypt the buffalo bull is generally not used as stud
before 3 to З 1/2 years of age. (ii) Female. It appears that in general, buffalo heifers
are not bred before they are 2 1/2 – 3 years of age.
Artificial Insemination (A.I.):
In India, it has been claimed that the first buffalo calf in the world bred by means of
A.I. was born in the Allahabad Agricultural Institute on 21st August, 1943.
3. Sheep (Ovis aries):
Sheep is a gregarious, ruminant often homed mammal.
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Some Exotic Breeds of Sheep:
(1) Merinos. It is the most popular fine wool breed.
(2) Rambouillet
(3) Suffolk
(4) Dorset
(5) Corriedale
(6) Southdown
(7) Lincoln and
(8) Leicester.
Breeding of Sheep:
Sheep normally mature at about 2 years old. In India there are three main mating
seasons, viz., March to April, June-July and September-October. The average heat
period is 30 hours. The Sheep, gestation period varies from 142-152 days with an
average of 150 days.
Artificial Insemination (A.I.) in sheep has played an important role in improving sheep
breed within a short period in Russia and in some European Countries.
Diseases of Sheep:
These include haemorrhagic septicaemia, anthrax, foot and mouth disease, sheep
pox, black quarter, rinderpest, diarrhoea, fascioliasis and coccidiosis. The sheep also
suffer from external parasites like ticks, lice and mites.
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4. Goat (Capra capra):
Goat is called the poor man’s cow. The goat is usually hollow-horned and bearded
ruminant mammal. It has strong smelling power. It can readily adopt to almost any
climate.
Exotic Breeds of Goats:
(1) Alpine.
(2) Toggenberg.
(3) Saanen.
(4) Nubian and
(5) Angora.
Breeding of Goats:
For getting good results, goats should be bred at the age from 14 to 18 months. The
duration of oestrus or heat period is usually 24 to 28 hours but it may differ in certain
breeds. The gestation period is from 145-153 days (5 months). Indian goat
commonly kid twice in one year and usually three times in two years.
In does, a peculiar behaviour has been observed where occasionally accept the
male even when they are pregnant. The goat gives birth while lying down. Male kids,
not required for breeding, should be castrated before 10 to 12 weeks old. Under
ordinary conditions, the average life of goat is about 12 years.
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Pashmina wool is obtained from the mountain goat. This animal is found in Ladakh
and Tibet.
Diseases of Goats:
Goats suffer from some contagious diseases (diseases which spread by touch) such
as goat pox, anthrax, pleuropneumonia and foot and mouth disease. Parasitic
infection is also common in goats. Infected goats should be isolated. Vaccination of
healthy animals is essential.
5. Pigs (Sus scrofa):
Pig is also called swine or hog. It is an omnivorous, non-ruminant, gregarious

mammal. The European breeds of domestic swine were derived from the local wild
pig, Sus scrofa, whereas the breeds in the far Eastern parts of the globe were
derived from another wild pig. Sus vittatus. The modern breeds of pig evolved from
different crossings between the two original types. The present day domestic pig,
Sus domesticus is the result of several years of evolution through gradual
domestication.
Breeds of Pig:
There are about 60 recognised breeds of domestic pigs in the world.
Indian Breeds:
Large-White Yorkshire Boar, Large-White Yorkshire Sow, Middle White Yorkshire

Boar, Middle White Yorkshire Sow.
Exotic Breeds:
Berkshire, Large White Yorkshire, Landrace, Middle White Yorkshire, Hampshire,

Tamworth and Wessex.
Wallows:
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Pigs have poor heat-regulating mechanism as they sweat only on the snout,
because they have very few sweat glands.
Boar is fit for service when it is 1 year old. A gill becomes ready for breeding when it
is 9 months old. Generally there are two seasons for breeding pigs. February to
March and August to September. The average length of the oestrus cycle is 21 days.
Duration of heat period is 2-3 days. The gestation period of pig averages about 114
days (3 months, 3 weeks, 3 days). The number of piglets they produce at one birth
may vary from 10 to 12. It is capable of producing two litters per year under good
management conditions.
Diseases of Pigs:
These include swine fever, swine-pox, foot and mouth disease swine plague,
tuberculosis, infectious dysentery. Swine influenza, anthrax and piglets influenza.
Swime parasites also cause some diseases:
(i) Mite (Sarcoptes suis) causes sarcoptic mange— a skin disease,
(ii) Lice— they may be responsible for spread of other infections, irritation,
(iii) Round worms— cause heavy losses every year due to the development of pot
belly and general weakness,
(iv) Trichinella spiralis— a nematode, causes Trichinosis disease. Its symptoms are
muscular pains, low fever, etc.
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Self-Check 3.1-1
Check your mastery in interpretation of plans and details by completing the tasks
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. _________ ensures a continuous improvement of farm animals, generation

after generation.
2. Animal breeding consists out of two phases: ________ and ___________
3. ___________ is a very important trait of an animal; reproductive efficiency is

of economic importance.
4. There are two methods of cattle breeding: __________ and ___________.
5. The best known breeds of Indian buffaloes are the _______, _________,
________, _________ and ___________.
6. ________ is called the poor man’s cow.
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Answer key 3.1-1
Check your answer with the answer key below. if you fail to get it right, refer back to
corresponding resources until you make it perfect.
1. Animal breeding
2. breeding , reproduction
3. Reproduction
4. natural breeding , artificial insemination.
5. Murrah, Jaffarabadi, Nili, Bhadawari and Surti.
6. Goat
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LEARNING OUTCOME # 2 Breed ruminants
CONTENTS:
1. AI kit
2. Storing and Handling Frozen Semen
3. Breeder
4. Reproductive phenomena
ASSESMENT CRITERIA:
o Prepare tools, materials and equipment for breeding operat ions
following breeding schedule and requirements.
o Breeding program for ruminants is followed according to the business
objective
o Reproductive phenomena of ruminants are observed, recorded and
o Ruminants are bred naturally according to designed mating plan.
o Where necessary, small ruminants are inseminated artificially
according to instructions of supervisor.
o Tasks are performed following Animal Welfare Acts.
o Safety measures are practice according to OSHS procedures.
CONDITIONS:

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METHODOLOGIES:
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ASSESSMENT METHODS:
2. Demonstration
4. Third party report
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Learning Outcome # 2 Breed ruminants

AI kit and check yourself by answering the self-
Read Information Sheet 3.2-2 on
Storing and Handling Frozen Refer to Task sheets, it will help you practice
Semen your skills.
Answer Self-Check 3.2-2
(Trainee checks answers against The performance criteria checklist will guide
the answer key) and help you evaluate your work as you are
Breeder
Answer Self-Check 3.2-3 performance criteria checklist. When you are
(Trainee checks answers against ready, present your work to your trainer for
the answer key) final evaluation and recording.
Reproductive phenomena If you have questions and clarification fell free
Answer Self-Check 3.2-4 to ask your trainer.
(Trainee checks answers against
the answer key)
Document No.
AI kit
Introduction
Artificial Insemination (AI) is an Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) used

worldwide to deposit stored semen directly into a cow or heifer’s uterus. It is a tool
for improving reproductive performance and genetic quality of livestock. This
technique is frequently used in the dairy and beef cattle industries as a way to more
rapidly improve desired characteristics through intensive genetic selection. AI has
significant advantages, such as facilitating the use of superior quality sires (without
the expense and risk of ownership) and greatly reducing the risk of introducing
venereal diseases into the herd (Fontes, Oosthuizen, & Cliff Lamb, 2020; Noackes et
al., 2001; Vishwanath, 2003). It is important to emphasize that closely following the
recommended protocol is essential for the process to be successful. The objective of
this article is to offer tips for successful utilization of AI on your operation.
AI Kit and Hygiene
The basic insemination kit should contain a stainless-steel AI gun, straw cutter or
scissors, tweezers, non-spermicidal lubricant, thermometer, and thaw unit (water
bath or wide-mouth thaw thermos). In addition, disposable supplies like split plastic
sheaths, sanitary covers, plastic palpation gloves, and paper towels (Figure 1). The
AI kit must be stored in a dry, dust-free, clean place. It is important to clean the kit
before and after performing AI.
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Liquid Nitrogen Tank Management
A periodic check of the liquid nitrogen levels in the tank is necessary to guarantee
that the straws are completely immersed. Always remember that liquid nitrogen can
cause cold-burn injury to operators, if not handled carefully. The tank should be
stored in a clean, dry, and well-ventilated place. The tank must be protected from
corrosive and wet surfaces, so it is recommended to keep it elevated off of the
ground using cardboard or wooden pallets. Also, it is very important to maintain an
inventory list with complete information of the semen stored inside the tank,
facilitating quick location with limited handling of the straws in the tank.
Semen Handling
It is crucial to handle semen properly once the straw is removed from the liquid
nitrogen tank. You want to keep the canister, cane, and unused straws as close to
the neck of the tank as possible for no more than 5 – 8 seconds, avoiding exposure
to high temperatures, which promotes thermal damage (Figure 2A).
Straw extraction should be done below the lower half of the neck of the storage tank,
where the temperature is sufficiently cold (-120º C (-184º F)) (Hopper, 2015). To
avoid this risk, it is crucial to have efficient handling to minimize the time of exposure
outside of the tank, to maintain frozen semen quality. This is why it is important to
handle the straws with tweezers instead of your fingers to prevent thermal damage
to the semen and also avoid possible injury to the operator (Figure 2B).
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Figure 2. Proper semen handling technique. A. Straw removal near to the neck of the
storage tank. B. Use of tweezers and gloves for operator safety.
Another main issue is the correct semen thawing procedure; thawing needs occur
rapidly and at the correct temperature. According to The National Association of
Animal Breeders is appropriate to use 30 – 35º C (90 – 95º F) for a minimum of 30
seconds. Always use a water bath or a wide-mouth thaw thermos with a
thermometer for accurate temperature monitoring (Figure 3A). It is also a good idea
to use a timer to count 30 – 60 seconds before removing the straw from the thaw
unit.
Once the straw is thawed, semen should be deposited into the uterus within 15
minutes. Lower conception rates can result from semen straws kept in the water bath
too long, or from extended exposure to the environment waiting to be deposited in
the uterus (Duponte, 2007). So, unless you are using experienced AI-technician who
can breed multiple cows within this 15 minute time period, it is recommended to only
thaw one or two straws at a time.
After thawing, the straw should be:
● Dried with a paper towel to remove all water (highly spermicidal agent; Figure
3B).
● Protected from direct sunlight or UV light (sperm cell damage)
● Protected from drastic temperature changes, which causes thermal shock

(decreased motility).
Figure 3. Semen thawing process. A. Water temperature monitoring with time control
for proper thawing. B. Correct straw drying.
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The AI gun should be warmed by stroking it with a clean paper towel, or placing
close to the body before inserting the straw to avoid thermal shock. Also, when
loading the semen gun, it is essential to:
● Make sure the AI gun plug is retracted to allow the insertion of the straw.
● Insert the straw with cotton plug end first.
● Do a perpendicular straight cut (not at an angle) on the sealed side, with a

clean-sharp straw cutter or scissors, to have a good fit with the sanitary
sheath.
● Slide and attach the split plastic sheath and lock it with the AI gun firmly, then
check for a proper seal.
● Protect the sheath with a sanitary sheath to prevent contact between AI

sheath and animal’s vagina, to reduce the risk of uterine bacteria
contamination.
● Keep the loaded AI gun warm and isolated from dirty surfaces until it is used.
Proper Insemination Technique
In cattle, AI is performed using a recto-vaginal technique. It is necessary that the

operator is previously trained in this technique, although it is not difficult, it requires
some skills and training to guarantee good results. Proper semen gun handling and
the ability to deposit the semen in the correct location inside the uterus are vital
(Diskin & Kenny, 2016).
Before starting:
● It is necessary to check that all the supplies are ready to begin the AI
procedure
● The operator should wear clean protective clothing and must have trimmed
short finger nails.
● Pay close attention to the hygiene of the animal’s perineal area to avoid
contamination of the reproductive tract with pathogens.
First, it is required to restrict the animal as carefully and gently as possible before
insemination to minimize stress. Then, the vulva region must be cleaned. Use a
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paper towel to remove feces, to prevent contamination and a possible infection in the
uterus, which must be a sterile environment.
Use one disposable plastic palpation glove per animal with enough non-spermicidal
lubricant to gently enter the anus to reach the rectus. Once your arm is inside, open
the vulval lips while applying pressure on the rectum with the arm, to allow the entry
of the insemination gun. The AI gunt should be inserted at a 30 – 40º angle into the
vulva, to avoid entrance through the urethral opening into the bladder, situated on
the vaginal floor.
To perform the recto-vaginal AI method, it is essential to hold the cervix through the
rectum to direct the insemination gun forward into the vagina until it reaches the
opening of the cervix. Next, it is necessary to dodge the fornix of the vagina and
direct the insemination gun into the cervix by manipulation through the rectal wall.
Once reached, the sanitary cover must be ripped to enter into the cervix, there will
be a characteristic gritty sensation, and the cervix rings must be passed. As a result,
the animal is going to be inseminated with a low and gentle motion into the uterine
body, just 1 – 2 cm from the entrance of internal opening of the cervix (Noakes et al.,
2001).
Semen Placement
Proper placement of semen in the uterine body improves pregnancy rates per
insemination. It has been reported that cervical insemination errors occur in about
20% of attempted uterine body deposits (Diskin & Kenny, 2016). Also, it is essential
not go too deep into one of the uterine horns, because of the high risk of depositing
the semen in the wrong uterine horn for ovulation (Figure 5; Noakes et al., 2001).
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Figure 4: Reproductive tract of the cow. Original photo courtesy of Dr. Cláudia Maria
Bertan Membrive.
Self-Check 3.2-1
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. _____________ is an Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) used

worldwide to deposit stored semen directly into a cow or heifer’s uterus.
2. The basic insemination kit should contain a _________, _____________,

___________, ______________, __________, and __________.
3. _____________ should be done below the lower half of the neck of the
storage tank, where the temperature is sufficiently cold (-120º C (-184º F))
(Hopper, 2015).
4. The ________ should be warmed by stroking it with a clean paper towel, or

placing close to the body before inserting the straw to avoid thermal shock.
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Answer key 3.2-1
1. Artificial Insemination (AI)

2. stainless-steel AI gun, straw cutter or scissors, tweezers, non-spermicidal
lubricant, thermometer, and thaw unit
3. Straw extraction
4. AI gun
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Storing and Handling Frozen Semen
Introduction
Considerable change has occurred within the artificial insemination (AI) industry. The
most obvious change was the transition to the straw as the predominant semen
package. This package system has several advantages over the ampule. More units
can be stored in bulk at the AI organization and in farm semen tanks. The straw
system allows more complete delivery of semen during insemination. Probably most
important, the straw permits more uniform control of the freezing and thawing
process which has led to improved sperm cell recovery. The major disadvantage of
the straw system is vulnerability to mishandling.
In addition to the adoption of the straw there has been an increase in direct sales of
semen to owner-inseminators.
Its estimated that the average farm semen tank contains semen from two to three
breeding organizations. Although the 0.5-ml French straw is the most popular semen
package available today, 0.25-ml straws may be available in some areas. Each
package system has a different surface-to-volume ratio, which requires unique
handling procedures.
Recommendations for handling semen also vary among AI organizations using the
same package. This whole set of circumstances has resulted in confusion for owner-
inseminators and, in some cases, fostered the notion that almost any method of
handling semen is adequate. Whether this attitude comes from indifference,
ignorance, or confusion, the end result may be lowered conception rate.
Semen Tank Management
Technical advances have been made on the design and construction of semen
tanks. Tanks with six- to eight-months liquid nitrogen holding times are available.
The maintenance of very low liquid nitrogen temperatures in the inner chamber is
due to high quality solid insulation material and vacuum in the outer chamber.
Although the newer tanks are better insulated, they are still susceptible to damage
from mis-handling. The inner chamber containing liquid nitrogen is actually
suspended from the outer shell by the neck tube. Abnormal stress on the neck tube
caused by sudden jarring or excessive swinging motion could crack the tube and
result in vacuum loss. Since vacuum is the major insulation component of the tank, a
loss of vacuum causes an increase in temperature within the inner chamber and a
rapid evaporation of nitrogen. Accumulation of frost at the top of the tank indicates a
rapid evaporation of liquid nitrogen.
Document No.
Several field studies have indicated that there is no significant damage to semen
stored in properly managed farm tanks. However, it should be noted that during a
field study in the state of Washington, liquid nitrogen completely evaporated in three
of 60 tanks. This may appear to be a low percentage but it is a significant economic
loss to the individual producer.
To avoid such a tragedy, follow these simple management practices:
1. Avoid excessive movement or abuse of the tank.
2. Routinely monitor nitrogen levels and keep a record of nitrogen loss.

Remember, even new tanks can have defects and fail.
3. Store the semen in an area with good light but out of direct sunlight.
Observe the tank daily. Once a tank fails, nitrogen is lost very rapidly. Plan
to have an alternative semen tank available in case of a failure.
4. Keep the tank elevated above the concrete floor or other wet and poorly
ventilated surfaces. Corrosion of the outer shell will shorten the functional
life of the tank and possibly cause failure.
5. Store only the amount of semen needed for six months.
Handling Semen within the Tank
When extended semen cools during the freezing process, microenvironments are
created within the semen package. Each chemical component of extended semen
freezes or solidifies at a different temperature. Water freezes as temperatures drop
below 32°F, forming ice crystals which remain somewhat unstable at temperatures
above -112°F. This instability may be due to recrystallization of the ice. Also, as
water is converted to ice, the sperm are exposed to the remaining concentrated
solution of salts and other components of extender which freeze at temperatures
considerably below the freezing point of water. Instability of ice and concentrated
solutions are harmful to sperm. Fortunately, incorporating glycerol as a
cryoprotective agent and improving freezing rates have minimized sperm damage.
However, semen must be kept at temperatures well below critical temperatures
where the recrystallization of ice begins to occur.
In the typical farm semen tank, dangerous temperatures exist in the upper half of the
neck tube (see Table 1).
Document No.
Table 1. Temperatures found in the neck tube of a typical farm semen tank
Range in Temperature
Location in Necktube
(Fahrenheit)
The upper half of the neck tube is the critical danger zone
Adapted from Saacke 1978, Proc. Conf. On AI of Beef Cattle
Top +36° to +54°
1 inch from top +5° to -8°
2 inches from top -40° to -51°
Exposure to these temperatures can occur when semen is transferred from tank to
tank or when handling semen within the neck while trying to locate and thaw a
specific unit of semen. Remember, the larger surface-to-volume ratio of the straw
makes it very susceptible to thermal fluctuation.
Thermal injury to sperm is permanent and cannot be corrected by returning semen to

liquid nitrogen. The following semen handling practices are recommended to
minimize thermal damage:
1. Transfer of semen between tanks must be coordinated and rapid. Two

people should be involved, and tanks should be arranged side by side. If
possible, fill the tanks with nitrogen before transfer. Raise canisters only to
a level necessary to locate the appropriate rack of semen.
2. Develop a semen inventory system and mount it on the wall above the
tank. It is best to keep semen from one bull on each rack. Such systems
help avoid unnecessary searching and exposure of semen to dangerously
high temperatures within the neck region.
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3. Prepare to thaw semen by raising the canister into the lower portion of the
neck where the desired rack of semen can be grasped. Lower the canister
further into the neck. Secure the rack as low as possible in the neck to
protect the other straws from thermal damage. If the straw cannot be easily
removed from the plastic goblet, bend the top tab of the rack to a 45° angle
to reduce the chance of bending the straw.
4. Use tweezers to transfer the straw to the thaw bath. Quickly lower the rack
of semen and canister into the tank body.
Thawing Semen
When the. 5 ml French straw was first introduced in this country, there was confusion
about the optimal thawing method. Recommendations varied among AI
organizations, each of which has a specific method for diluting, cooling, packaging,
and freezing semen in straws. The total processing system determines the optimal
rate of thaw. As a result of considerable research, it is generally concluded that
warm water thaw (95°F) results in improved sperm cell recovery compared with other
methods of thawing. Success of warm water thaw is due to the fact that sperm are
exposed to critically dangerous temperatures for only a brief amount of time. The rise
in temperature is rapid enough to minimize sperm damage.
A major criticism and concern for the warm water thaw is the danger of cold shock
caused by mishandling the straw following thawing. Cold shock is the permanent
injury to sperm caused by a sudden decrease in semen temperature after thawing. It
can occur during preparation of the inseminating device or transport to the cow. If
precautions are taken to prevent cold shock, the advantage of warm water thaw will
be realized.
It is important that the temperature of the thaw water be checked immediately before
removing the straw from the tank. Use an accurate, easy-to-read thermometer. The
length of thaw should be at least 40 seconds.
Some organizations recommend the pocket thaw for straws. This method is
successful for semen processed and packaged by their system. However, the pocket
thaw should not be used for semen packaged in straws from other organizations.
The standard 1-ml ampules should be thawed in ice water (41°F) for 10 minutes. The
smaller 0.5-ml ampules can be thawed in warm water for 90 seconds or ice water for
three to five minutes. Semen should be thawed according to the recommendations of
the organization supplying that specific unit of semen.
Inseminating a Group of Synchronized Cattle
Breeding a group of cattle during a short period of time following estrous

synchronization may present problems for the herd manager and AI technician.
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Although artificial insemination of synchronized cows is the final step in a
synchronization-breeding program, it is critical to the success of the entire program.
It is important that special consideration be given to proper semen handling and
insemination technique to ensure optimum conception rate.
1. Personnel
To move the breeding phase of this program along efficiently, assign each
person a job. One individual should be responsible for thawing semen and
preparing the inseminating gun.
This relieves the AI technician of additional tasks, allowing concentration on

proper AI technique. Additional people could move cattle to and from the
breeding chute. Everyone should be thoroughly instructed in his or her
specific jobs prior to the breeding.
2. Physical facilities
Ensure an adequate holding area is available where heifers can be

assembled for treatment, heat detection, and breeding. This area should
have a breeding chute or similar arrangement where animals can be
treated and artificially bred in a safe and efficient manner. The breeding
chute area should be covered to protect semen, supplies, records, and
personnel from adverse weather.
3. Procedures
1. Prepare a list of selected matings if numerous AI sires are to be

used for breeding the synchronized cattle. This list could be used
in selecting which unit of semen is to be thawed and inseminated
for each particular cow. An inventory system describing the
location of semen from each bull within the semen tank is also
desirable.
2. Follow thaw procedures according to the recommendations of the

AI organization supplying the semen. The thaw water must be
maintained at the proper temperature for each dose of semen
thawed. Research from Washington State has shown that 10 to
20 straws can be thawed simultaneously as long as the thaw bath
water remains a constant 95°F and the environmental
temperature is not severely cold. Straws thawed in bulk should be
agitated slightly to keep them from sticking together. Bulk thawing
of semen should only be considered when a large group of
synchronized cattle are to be inseminated.
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3. Do not prepare the insemination device too far in advance of
insemination. Breed the cow as soon as possible after the semen
is properly thawed and the inseminating equipment is assembled.
4. Prepare insemination devices in a warm, clean environment near

the breeding chute, but far enough away to avoid excessive dust
and debris near the cattle. This will minimize the chance of
contaminating the equipment and semen.
4. Other considerations
1. Handle animals gently to avoid unnecessary excitement before,

during, and after breeding. Undue excitement may adversely
affect sperm transport within the female reproductive system
causing a lower conception rate.
2. Use proper insemination techniques. Several qualified

inseminators should be on hand if many cows are to be bred over
a short period of time. Consult your AI representative for advice
and help in this regard.
The success of a synchronization-breeding program depends on prior planning,

teamwork, and attention to detail by everyone involved.
Additional Pointers in Handling Semen
● Keep insemination equipment clean and dry at all times.
● Check the accuracy of your thermometer occasionally.
● Do not attempt to thaw semen at temperatures greater than 95°F.
● Shake the straw as it is removed from the tank to remove any liquid
nitrogen that may be retained in the cotton plug end of the straw.
● Dry each straw of semen thoroughly. A small drop of water can be lethal to
sperm.
● Check the bull identification code on every unit of semen.
● Shake the air bubble from the middle of the straw to the crimped end.
● Cut the tip of the straw squarely and through the air space below the crimp.
An angle cut may prevent the straw from fitting securely into the sheath.
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Check that the straw is firmly seated into the plastic adapter or tip of the
sheath, depending on the type of insemination device you use.
● When assembly of the insemination rod is complete, depress the syringe

gently to remove the air space at the upper end of the straw.
Eliminate the chance of cold shock by:
1. warming the inseminating rod and sheath to body temperature (do not use
water for this purpose);
2. handling the thawed semen and preparing the insemination rod in a warm
environment;
3. wrapping the assembled insemination rod in a clean, dry paper towel and
tucking it into some clothing for transport to the cow.
Inseminate the cow as soon as possible after the semen has been thawed.
Avoid shortcuts when handling semen or inseminating a cow. Pay attention to every
detail.
Refrain from experimentation. The recommendations that have been made are
supported by valid research
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Self-Check 3.2-2
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. The __________ allows more complete delivery of semen during

insemination.
2. ___________ to sperm is permanent and cannot be corrected by returning

semen to liquid nitrogen.
3. ___________ to avoid unnecessary excitement before, during, and after

breeding.
4. The success of a _____________ depends on prior planning, teamwork, and

attention to detail by everyone involved.
5. ___________ the cow as soon as possible after the semen has been thawed.
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Answer key 3.2-2
1. straw system
2. Thermal injury
3. Handle animals gently
4. synchronization-breeding program
5. Inseminate
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Breeder
Introduction
A breeder is a person who selectively breeds carefully selected mates, normally of

the same breed to sexually reproduce offspring with specific, consistently replicable
qualities and characteristics. This might be as a farmer, agriculturalist, or hobbyist,
and can be practiced on a large or small scale, for food, fun, or profit.
About
A breeder can breed purebred pets such as cats or dogs, livestock such as cattle or
horses, and may show their animals professionally in assorted forms of competitions
In these specific instances, the breeder strives to meet standards in each animal set
out by organizations. A breeder may also assist with breeding animals in the zoo. In
other cases, a breeder can be referred to an animal scientist who has the capabilities
of developing more efficient ways to produce the meat and other animal products
humans eat.[1]
Earnings as a breeder vary widely because of the various types of work involved in
the job title. Even in breeding small domestic animals, the earning differ. It mostly
depends on the type of animal being bred and whether or not the breeder has a
reputation of breeding champions. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that
large animal breeders that work as veterinarians earned a median annual income of
$61,029 in 2006.[dubious – discuss] The other individuals employed in the field of animal
science earned $47,800.[1]
Required education
To breed small and domestic animals, no formal training or credentials are required,
though it is recommended they familiarize themselves with the desired and standard
characteristics of the breed they work with. For those who are seeking to breed more
exotic animals, such as those in a zoo, a bachelor's degree in veterinary science is
needed. It is also recommended that an individual also goes onto graduate school
and specializes in zoology. To breed agricultural animals, a 4-year degree in
agricultural science is needed for most entry-level positions.
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Self-Check 3.2-3
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. A breeder is a person who selectively breeds carefully selected mates,

normally of the same breed to sexually reproduce offspring with specific,
consistently replicable qualities and characteristics.
2. A breeder can breed purebred pets such as cats or dogs, livestock such as
cattle or horses, and may show their animals professionally in assorted forms
of competitions In these specific instances,
3. To breed agricultural animals, a 4-year degree in agricultural science is

needed for most entry-level positions.
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Answer key 3.2-3
1. breeder
2. purebred pets
3. agricultural animals
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Reproductive phenomena
Introduction
Understanding the anatomy and physiology of the cow's reproductive system is

fundamental to good cattle management. Basic knowledge in this area will help
producers do a better job of getting cows rebred, especially when using artificial
insemination and estrus synchronization. It will also enable producers to better
understand and control reproductive diseases and calving problems.
Reproductive data
Signs of estrus
The ability to detect heat cycles among your cows and heifers is invaluable if you
want to ensure your herd’s reproductive performance. Failure to detect when cows
are in heat and breeding cows that aren’t in heat is a major contributor to low fertility
and economic loss for producers. Determining the optimum time — estrus — to
artificially inseminate your herd early in the breeding season can reduce your calving
intervals and decrease your semen expense.
Understanding the Estrous Cycle
A cow’s reproductive cycle can be divided into four phases — proestrus, estrus,
metestrus and diestrus. The shortest interval, estrus, marks the 24-hour period when
the cow is the most fertile. These heat periods occur every 21 days.
During estrus, the cow is influenced by increased levels of estrogen, causing her to
display signs that she is in heat. Within the first 24 hours of these initial signs, an egg
is released and ovulation begins. If the egg is not fertilized, the cow will move into
the next phase of its cycle and you’ll have to wait another 21 days. If the cow is
mated during estrus, the chances of fertilization and pregnancy average between 50
and 70 percent, according to Texas A&M Extension.
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By recognizing early signs of your cow’s heat cycle, you can ensure you won’t miss
estrus, increasing your chances of success.
Recognizing signs of heat
There are several behavioral signs of estrus, also called standing heat. The average
heat duration is between 15 and 18 hours but may vary from 8 to 30 hours,
according to Penn State Extension. The signs are the same, but generally more
pronounced in heifers than in cows.
During calving season, look for these signs to identify when members of your herd
will enter estrus:
Standing to be mounted. The most common and accurate sign of estrus is

standing to be mounted by other cows and moving forward with the weight of the
mounting cow. Cows that move away from an attempted mount are not in estrus. A
cow usually stands to be mounted 20 to 55 times during her reproductive cycle,
according to Penn State Extension.
Mounting other cows. The act of mounting other cows may be a sign the cow is in
heat or approaching heat. Although it’s not a primary sign of heat, you should watch
cows exhibiting this behavior closely for standing behavior.
Mucus discharge. Mucus is an indirect result of elevated estrogen levels during

estrus. You may observe long viscous, clear elastic strands of mucus hanging from
the vulva or smeared mucus on the cow’s tail, thighs, flanks or perineal region.
However, mucus sometimes won’t appear externally until a cow is palpated during
insemination.
Swelling and reddening of the vulva. During heat, the vulva swells and becomes
moist and red on the interior. However, these symptoms appear before heat and
remain for a short period after, so alone, they are not a precise indicator of estrus.
Bellowing, restlessness and trailing. Cows in heat are more restless and alert,
standing when their herd mates are laying down resting, trailing behind to try to
mount other cows and bellowing more frequently. Cows behaving this way should be
monitored closely for standing behavior.
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Rubbed tailhead hair and dirty flanks. When cows have been ridden the hair on
their tailed and rump will be fluffed-up, rubbed or matted, and their skin may be
exposed. Additionally, their legs and flanks may be smeared with mud or manure.
Chin resting and back rubbing. Before mounting, a cow will rest or rub its chin on
the rump or back of the cow it wants to mount. If you observe this behavior, both
cows should be monitored for mounting and standing behavior.
Sniffing and licking. Sniffing and licking the genitalia of other cows occurs much
more frequently with cows before and during estrus.
Head raising and lip curling. This activity follows sniffing and occurs more
frequently when the cow being sniffed is in heat and urinates.
Decreased feed intake. During their reproductive cycle, cows spend less time
feeding.
Metestrous bleeding. Some cows and most heifers will have a bloody mucus
discharge one to three days after estrus, signifying the cow has moved into the next
phase of its reproductive cycle, metestrus. If you observe metestrous bleeding, you
should monitor the cow closely for a return to estrus in 18 or 19 days. However, it’s
important to note this symptom is variable and won’t always be observed from one
cow to the next.
Signs of pregnancy
Pregnancy testing is one method of monitoring reproductive efficiency and detecting

any problems early in the breeding cycle.
The key to profitability for all beef breeding enterprises is high reproductive
efficiency. This means achieving:
● 95% calves weaned to cows joined
● an average calving interval of 12 months
● a calving spread of 10 weeks or less
These are all realistic objectives in Victoria. This can be achieved by early detection
of pregnant cows.
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Pregnancy testing for cows
Rectal palpation is the cheapest and most convenient method of pregnancy testing
cattle. Using this method, vets can identify pregnant cows as early as six weeks after
conception. They feel for the calf's head, a pulse in the artery supplying blood to the
uterus, and the shape of the cow's uterus.
Pregnancy testing is normally carried out 8-10 weeks after the end of mating. Cows
need to be restrained in a race — it is not necessary to headbail each one. In well
designed yards and with labour provided to keep cattle moving into the race, up to
60 cows can be pregnancy-tested per hour.
Other methods of pregnancy testing
Portable ultrasonic pregnancy detectors are an alternative to manual manipulation to

detect pregnancy 6-8 weeks after conception. 'Doppler' scanners have an external
probe containing both transmitting and receiving elements, which project a beam of
low-energy sound waves.
The beam is reflected by the uterine artery, umbilical vessel or foetal heart, and
undergoes a change in frequency which is converted to sound or a light display
which allows the operator to determine pregnancy status. A more accurate but more
expensive alternative is the sector linear or 'Real Time' scanner, which has a probe
which is inserted into the rectum, as close to the uterus as possible. Reflected sound
waves are transmitted to a light display, from which an experienced operator can
interpret pregnancy status.
Ultrasound technology is ideal in a research situation, where high accuracy of

determining pregnancy status and age of foetus are required. However, as this
method is slow and expensive when compared to rectal manipulation, it is unlikely to
be adopted on a large scale in a commercial situation.
Benefits of pregnancy testing your cows
Early detection of non-pregnant cows is the main benefit from pregnancy testing, but
there are others.
Estimating calving dates
In many cases, the age of the calf and the likely calving date can be estimated
during rectal palpation. Cows expected to calve early can then be separated from
cows expected to calve late. This can provide a useful basis on which to cull cows if
it is necessary to reduce herd size, perhaps in times of feed shortage. The calving
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spread can also be quickly reduced if late-calving cows are replaced with heifers that
conceived early.
Detecting infertility and other abnormalities in cows
Various abnormalities responsible for infertility in cows can also be identified. The
more common of these include cystic ovaries and uterine infection. The occasional
freemartin heifer and other abnormalities of the reproductive organs may also be
detected during rectal palpation.
Diseases and management problems affecting the whole herd can also be identified
much earlier if cattle are pregnancy tested.
Low pregnancy rates in one particular mob, for example, might indicate problems
with an individual bull. Poor fertility throughout the whole herd might be caused by an
infectious disease, or perhaps inadequate nutrition prior to mating.
After pregnancy testing
Pregnancy testing is of little use as an aid to management unless the information

gained is used to make management decisions.
Non-pregnant cows
Feed availability, current beef prices, and the management system used on the
property must all be considered when deciding the fate of non-pregnant cattle.
By pregnancy testing, you are in a position to make the best possible decision.
In most situations non-pregnant cows are best culled as soon as possible. The cost
of owning and maintaining a beef cow for a year is very high, so it is important that
every cow on the property is fully productive. Even if they have calves at foot, non-
pregnant cows are only partially productive. Mature cows sometimes fail to conceive
after a late calving. Such cows wean the youngest, smallest calves, and are
therefore best culled.
Under certain circumstances it might be better not to cull non-pregnant cows

immediately. If feed is plentiful, and particularly if beef prices are depressed, the best
strategy might be to draft off non-pregnant cows and fatten them for sale at a later
date. Alternatively, the most profitable decision might be to sell them after their
calves are weaned. It is a common practice to 'bang' the tails (that is, remove about
100mm from the switch) of cows to be culled at some time in the future, so that they
can be identified for up to six months.
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The other option is to re-mate non-pregnant cows, particularly young cows, for a
later calving. This strategy may have application on properties that have more than
one calving period each year. On properties with one calving period, small groups of
late calvers create management difficulties.
Where non-pregnant cows are re-mated, good records are needed to ensure that
barren cows are not being kept and moved between mobs calving at different times.
On many properties, cows are not pregnancy tested but are simply culled when they
reach some predetermined age. Quite often cows culled for age at 9, 10 or 11 are
still rearing good calves each year. On the other hand, some of the younger cows
retained in the herd fail to conceive.
Old, pregnant cows are obviously more productive than young 'empty' ones. Culling
cows on the basis of a pregnancy test is much more efficient than simply culling on
age.
Pregnancy diagnosis also has implications for marketing. Cows sold by live weight
will attract a higher price if they have been certified by a vet to be non-pregnant.
Non-pregnant heifers
The two main considerations of whether non-pregnant heifers are given a second
chance to conceive are the breeding value of the heifers and the cost of carrying the
heifers over. When a group of heifers have been reared and mated under similar
conditions, those that fail to conceive are less fertile than the group. It is possible that
these heifers will fail to conceive if kept for a second joining, or if the heifers
conceive, the tendency displayed toward lower fertility may be passed on to heifer
daughters.
For maximum profitability, heifers should usually be brought into production as early
as possible. The cost of feeding and maintaining non-pregnant heifers for an extra
year cannot be justified, except in exceptional seasons where feed is plentiful.
Heifers that fail to conceive at first mating should therefore be culled. The exception
to this is on properties with a split calving, where non-pregnant heifers could be re-
mated with another mob in the same year.
It is desirable to mate heifers for a short period, (6-8 weeks) to ensure a compact
calving. It is also a sound practice to mate more heifers than are needed for
replacements. Heifers can then be pregnancy tested eight weeks after the end of
mating, and only those pregnant need to be kept.
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Alternative to pregnancy testing
You may choose not to pregnancy test on grounds of cost and instead to detect
pregnancy by monitoring oestrus or returns to heat. Once cows conceive, all but
about 5% cease cycling for the duration of the pregnancy.
Oestrus detection, after the end of the mating period, can be a useful alternative to
pregnancy testing, with only slight inaccuracy. Any error could be reduced by
pregnancy testing cows that display oestrus after the end of mating. Bulls or teaser
steers fitted with a chinball harness or tail-painting methods are probably the most
convenient aids to heat detection.
Due to the extra labour required to frequently check cattle for signs of heat, oestrus
detection is unlikely to substantially reduce the cost of identifying non-pregnant cows
over pregnancy testing.
Other alternatives to pregnancy testing are measuring the levels of progesterone in

the blood or milk, but involve extra labour and laboratory costs.
In dairy cows, when the date of insemination is known, determination of the

concentration of progesterone in milk taken 24 days later has been shown to be
84.5% and 97.0% accurate for positive and negative tests respectively. However, the
milk progesterone test is not generally applicable to beef cows as service dates are
frequently not known and milk samples are less readily obtained.
Signs of approaching parturition
Calving (Parturition) is a natural process which normally takes place without help.
Close observation is required in case the cow has difficulties. Cows calving for the
first time (heifers) tend to have more problems than older cows and therefore need
more attention when calving.
The signs Of Calving
You will know that the cow is about to calve or give birth when you see:
● The belly has increased in size, especially on the right flank.
● The udder is filling up and the teats are stiffening.
● The vulva becomes red and swollen with the presence of mucous and blood
colored fluid.
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● The animal is restless
● The water bag appears at the vulva.
Normal Calving
● The water bag appears through the vulva.
● The cow will strain more.
● The head of the calf will appear and this breaks the bag.
● You will then be able to see both of the calf's front feet.
● It takes 4 - 6 hours for the calving to reach this stage.
● In heifers, it might take longer.
Normal calving
● As the chest comes through the vagina the calf starts to breathe.
● It is better to leave the cow alone to give birth naturally.
● However, if you want to help with the calving you can gently pull the calf by its
feet.
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● If the navel cord is still attached to the cow you can cut it with a clean sharp
knife or a pair of scissors, then put tincture of iodine or alcohol on the end of
the navel cord.
● Sometimes the back feet of the calf appear first. You will see that the back
feet come out from the vulva with the soles of the feet showing uppermost.
You should then look (or feel with your hands) for the tail and the hock joints.
Difficulties in calving
Leave the animal to give birth naturally. If difficulties occur, you may find:
● Only the head of the calf has appeared.
● The head and one foot has come out.
● Two front feet showing but no head.
If this happens you should either ask the veterinarian to help.
Helping a cow having difficulties in Calving
● You will need a bar of soap, hot water, a clean rope and clean vegetable oil
such as olive or sunflower oil.
● Wash the area around the vulva and wash your hands well.
● Make sure that your fingernails are cut short and are thoroughly clean. Long
nails can injure the animal.
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● If you have oil put some over your hand and arm, if not, soap your hand and
insert it into the vagina to discover what is wrong.
● You will need to recognize the difference between the front and back legs of
the calf in the womb.
● Touch the fetlock joint and then run your hand up the leg to the next joint.
There will be a knee joint on the front leg and a hock on the back leg.
● Push the calf either to one side or back into the uterus so that you can correct
the situation and move the head and legs into the right place for birth.
● When the calf's head and legs are in the correct position tie a clean rope
around both feet.
● Pull gently on the rope. You may need someone to help you pull.
● Sometimes the water bag will burst but neither the feet nor the head will have
appeared. This is a very difficult position to sort out and if you can you should
immediately ask your veterinarian for help.
Caring for the cow after Calving
● Give the cow clean water to drink immediately after she has calved as she will
be thirsty.
● The water bag (afterbirth) will come out naturally but you can help to remove it
by gently pulling it.
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● The afterbirth should have come away by 24 hours after the birth.
● If the afterbirth remains in the uterus it will cause an infection and you will
need to get your veterinarian to help.
Caring for the newborn calf
● Always handle the calf carefully. Clean the mucous (sticky fluid) from the nose
and mouth and check that the calf is breathing normally. If it is not breathing
you must act immediately by:
o Pump the chest with the palm of your hand.
o Keep the calf's head lower than its back.
o Insert a straw into its nose in an attempt to make it sneeze and start
breathing
● Allow the calf to suckle from its mother as soon as possible so that it takes in
the colostrum, the yellowish milk which is produced immediately after birth.
The colostrum is rich in protein and protects the calf against disease.
● Some people use the colostrum for their food but it is essential to make the
calf strong and healthy and should be left for the calf.
● You must allow the calf to take colostrum for at least four days after its birth.
Calving is a natural process which normally takes place without help. Close
observation is required in case the cow has difficulties. Cows calving for the first time
(heifers) tend to have more problems than older cows and therefore need more
attention when calving.
Document No.
Self-Check 3.2-4
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. A cow’s reproductive cycle can be divided into four phases — ________,
_______, __________ and _________.
2. During __________, the cow is influenced by increased levels of estrogen,

causing her to display signs that she is in heat.
3. ____________ is one method of monitoring reproductive efficiency and

detecting any problems early in the breeding cycle.
4. ____________ is the cheapest and most convenient method of pregnancy

testing cattle.
5. _______________ is a natural process which normally takes place without

help. Close observation is required in case the cow has difficulties.
Document No.
Answer key 3.2-4
1. proestrus, estrus, metestrus , diestrus

2. estrus
3. Pregnancy testing
4. Rectal palpation
5. Calving (Parturition)
Document No.
LEARNING OUTCOME # 3 Carry-out monitoring activities
CONTENTS:
1. Breeding performance
ASSESMENT CRITERIA:
o Breeding performance of ruminants are observed recorded and
o Unproductive animals are treated and disposed according to the set
standard
o Breeding and reproduction data are regularly gathered and kept for
evaluation according to enterprise protocols.
CONDITIONS:

METHODOLOGIES:
Document No.
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
2. Demonstration
Document No.
Learning Outcome # 3- Carry-out monitoring activities

Breeding performance and check yourself by answering the self-

your skills.



Document No.
Breeding performance
Introduction
Reproductive performance. It is calculated as the number of cows that got

pregnant divided by the number of cows that were eligible to get pregnant. It is
a measure of the speed at which cows get pregnant after the voluntary waiting
period.
Reproductive efficiency, or "pregnancy rate," is defined as the proportion of cows

eligible to be bred that become pregnant during an estrous cycle (or approximately
21 days), and which determines the calving to conception interval at the end of the
voluntary waiting period.
Pregnancy rate
Many different measurements have been employed to assess reproductive

performance. Some commonly used measurements include average days open, first
service conception rate, annual services per conception and calving interval.
Unfortunately, these measures can fail to detect changes in performance on a timely
basis. Ultimately, the question of interest to dairy producers is "How many of the
cows eligible to become pregnant actually became pregnant in a given time frame?"
Since the value is in the pregnancy, a measurement is needed to detect the rate that
pregnancies are occurring in eligible cows. Recently, there have appeared articles in
the popular press about using pregnancy rate to assess reproductive performance.
Pregnancy rate can be defined as the percentage of cows eligible to become
pregnant, in a given time frame that actually do become pregnant. A logical time
frame would be 21 days, the typical length of an estrous cycle. The pregnancy rate
calculation allows an assessment to not only determine how well cows are
conceiving but also how quickly they are conceiving. Furthermore, by subdividing the
breeding program into twenty-one day intervals, it can determine the effect of any
recent changes on the breeding program. Pregnancy rate has often been defined as
heat detection rate multiplied by conception rate. In many instances this will give a
reasonable approximation of the actual pregnancy rate. The goal of any program
should be to have 100% of the cows inseminated within 24 days of the voluntary
waiting period. Pregnancy rate is the benchmark that incorporates service rate and
conception rate in a timely fashion and should be the cornerstone of performance
monitoring. DRMS calculates 21 day pregnancy rates and various reports using
pregnancy rate are available with DART report 126. Reproductive performance is a
function of certain management policies and how well these policies are
implemented in the day-to-day management of the herd. It has long been known that
there is an important economic advantage to be gained by efficient reproduction in
dairy herds. The table below list current levels of five reproductive management
benchmarks for Virginia DHI herds consisting of Holstein cows that have a rolling
herd average for milk greater than 22,000 lbs. My goal and a level where I
recommend a management change or intervention is also listed.
Document No.
1
Goa Intervention VA DHI herds
Parameter
l level >22,000 RHA milk
Days Open 130 175 156
Calving interval,
13.3 15 14.4
months
Days to first service 75 100 91
Conception rate, first

45 30 39
service, %
Heat detection rate,

60 40 48
%
Pregnancy Rate >22 12 16

1
DairyMetrics report was generated on November 26, 2002 using
current DHI information for Virginia Holstein herds that have greater
than 22,000 lb rolling herd average for milk (n=156 herds).
Calf Crop
Calf Crop. The number of calves weaned from a given number of cows exposed
to breeding, usually expressed in percent, i.e., number of calves weaned {divided
by} number of cows exposed x 100 = percent calf crop.
Percent Calf Crop or Weaning Percentage
Percent Calf Crop or Weaning Percentage = (Number of Calves Weaned) ÷

(Number of Exposed Females) * 100
The “crop” of a commercial cow-calf producer to be “harvested” and sold is weaned

calves. Therefore, percent calf crop may be more accurately termed the weaning
percentage, as it represents the percentage of exposed females that weaned a calf.
Percent calf crop or weaning percentage is effectively a cumulative summation of all
previously identified and discussed factors that may reduce the number of weaned
calves. Breeding decisions and genetic makeup of the herd affect nutrient
requirements. If the environment is not capable of supporting those nutrient
requirements, cows will likely have reduced body condition and reproductive
performance resulting in reduced pregnancy rates. When cows are thin, they are
more susceptible to disease which may increase in-utero losses, increase stress at
calving, and increase potential losses associated with weak calves.
Document No.
Lambing and Kidding (Parturition)
Lambing and kidding, like calving, are natural processes which normally take place
without help. Observation is required in case there are any difficulties. Sheep and
goats, unlike cattle and buffalo, may frequently have twins (2 young) or triplets (3
young).
Signs of Parturition
You will know when the goat or sheep is about to give birth as:
● The animal keeps away from others.
● The vulva is swollen and the skin is loose.
● The animal becomes restless and does not eat well.
● A discharge from the vulva will start a few days before parturition.
● The sheep will lie down and stretch the neck back to look at the sky (star
gazing) and lick its lips.
● The sheep will strain to push out the lamb.
Document No.
Star Gazing
Normal Parturition
● Animals may give birth while standing or lying down.
● The head and both front legs appear while sometimes both the hind legs will
appear.
● The young mother may have some problems in giving birth.
When and how to help in Parturition
● As with calving the young may be in an abnormal position and the birth is
difficult.
● If you want to help you will need a bar of soap and clean water.
● Scrub your hands and fingernails then wash the area around the vagina.
● Soap your hands well and insert one hand into the vagina.
● When you have found what, the problem is, correct the position of the young
so it can be born.
● Carefully feeling for the leg joints will tell you which way round the young is.
● You can hold the head but do not pull the young by the jawbone as the bone
will break.
● You can use a clean rope tied around a leg above the fetlock joint to pull.
● Pull in a downwards direction as the mother strains.
● If there are twins or triplets in the uterus you will have difficulty sorting out
which legs belong to which one.
● Try to pull out the one nearest the vagina first.
● A newborn animal should try to breathe immediately after it is born, if it does

not breathe you can put a straw into a nostril (nose) to stimulate breathing.
Document No.
● If you hold it by the back legs and swing it gently back and forth, any mucous
blocking the mouth and lungs will be forced out.
When and How To Help In Parturition
Care of the mother and newborn
● Immediately after giving birth the mother should be given fresh clean water.
● Check that she is producing milk from both teats and allow the newborn to
suckle colostrum.
● If the teats of a goat are fat with milk the young may have difficulty in suckling.
● Squeeze a little milk out so the kids can suckle easily.
● If she has produced triplets try to foster one on another mother.
● If the mother had difficulty giving birth check that there are no dead young still
in the uterus.
● If there are, remove them as they will cause an infection which will kill her.
● The afterbirth should come out within 3 hours.
● If it has not appeared after 14 hours you will need to get veterinary help.
● There will be afterbirth for each of the young the mother gave birth to.
Document No.
Self-Check 3.3-1
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. ____________ is defined as the proportion of cows eligible to be bred that

become pregnant during an estrous cycle (or approximately 21 days), and
which determines the calving to conception interval at the end of the voluntary
waiting period.
2. _________ is the number of calves weaned from a given number of cows

exposed to breeding
3. _________ and __________, like calving, are natural processes which

normally take place without help.
4. A newborn animal should try to ___________ immediately after it is born, if it

does not ________ you can put a straw into a nostril (nose) to stimulate
breathing.
Document No.
Answer key 3.3-1
1. "pregnancy rate
2. Calf Crop.
3. Lambing and kidding
4. breathe
Document No.
LEARNING OUTCOME # 4 Feed breeding animals
CONTENTS:
1. Concentrate feeds
2. Mineral supplements
ASSESMENT CRITERIA:
o Basal rations for ruminants at various physiological stage are provided
based on industry standard.
o Feed supplements like concentrates, minerals and vitamins are offered
according to animal dietary requirements
o Grazing management for ruminants are identified and practiced
o Grazing capacity of the pasture is determined based on pasture land
condition.
CONDITIONS:

METHODOLOGIES:
Document No.
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
2. Demonstration
Document No.
Learning Outcome # 4- Feed breeding animals

Concentrate feeds and check yourself by answering the self-
Mineral supplements Refer to Task sheets, it will help you practice
your skills.
Answer Self-Check 3.4-2
(Trainee checks answers against The performance criteria checklist will guide
the answer key) and help you evaluate your work as you are


Document No.
Concentrate feeds
Introduction
We can conveniently classify feeds into three main types: (1) roughages, (2)
concentrates, and (3) mixed feeds. Roughages include pasture forages, hays,
silages, and byproduct feeds that contain a high percentage of fiber.
Concentrate feeds
Concentrates are low-fiber, high-energy feeds when compared to forages and they
can vary considerably in their protein content. Most often they are fed to raise the
energy level of the ration for dairy cattle and to compensate for any other
deficiencies that remain beyond those provided by the forage portion of the ration.
Energy sources for dairy cattle can be broken down into starch, sugar, and fat. They
can be analyzed in individual ingredients, grain mixes and total mixed rations.
However, due to specific analysis procedures, there may be added costs for each
depending on the testing package selected.
Starch is the primary source of energy in dairy rations. The source and processing
method of the starch will determine how it will be digested in the rumen. Cereal
grains like corn provide most of the starch in dairy cattle diets. Of the energy
sources, improper starch feeding, such as type and amount can have the greatest
negative impact on rumen function.
Sugars are readily available to the rumen microorganisms. Simple sugars include
glucose, fructose, and sucrose. To increase the amount of sugar in the ration,
ingredients like liquid molasses or citrus pulp can be fed.
Fats can come from both plant and animal sources. They are very energy dense
compared to carbohydrates and protein. Fatty acid profiles of ingredients are
important as they can have negative effects on fiber digestibility and animal
performance. Unsaturated fat is highly digestible but may reduce fiber digestibility in
the rumen compared to saturated fat that has less impact on fiber digestion. Like
starch, fat digestibility can be affected by source, physical nature, and its chemical
composition. Protected fats are available, and they have been designed to bypass
the rumen eliminating risks to rumen function.
Protein has several components; some can be tested, and others cannot.
Metabolizable protein is mainly used in ration formulation software programs.
Metabolizable protein is defined as the true protein that is digested in the abomasum
(post-ruminally) and its amino acids are absorbed by the small intestine. Amino acids
are the essential components that form proteins and are the required nutrients for
cows. Ingredients like soybean meal and canola meal are very good sources of
amino acids.
Document No.
Even though crude protein is an older approach to ration formulation, it is analyzed
by labs and still has value when comparing feed ingredients to book values or
comparing formulas to the actual mix. However, crude protein only reflects the
nitrogen content of the feed and not how it is used by the animal.
The three-basic groups for concentrate ingredients are cereal grains, protein
sources, and by-product feeds. The feed type and the manner of preparation
influence how the dairy cow uses these ingredients. The objective is finding the
balance of energy, protein, and micronutrients that best compliment the forage
ration.
Cereal Grains
Barley, corn (shelled or ear), milo (sorghum), oats, rye, triticale, and wheat are the
most common cereal grains. The general nutritive characteristics of these grains are
that they are high in net energy, and low in fiber and protein. They are similar in their
level of phosphorus when compared to forages and are low in calcium.
Corn is more commonly fed compared to the other cereal grains. Corn is fed either
as shelled corn or ear corn, which the latter is comprised of 20 to 25 percent cob and
70 to 80 percent grain if partitioned by weight. Due to palatability problems with rye,
triticale, and wheat, limited amounts should be fed in rations for dairy cattle (Table
1).
The energy that cereal grains supply comes in the form of mainly starch with minimal
levels of fats and sugars. The availability and rate of digestion of the starch depends
on the grain source and processing method. The rate of digestion for the following
grains is ranked from slowest to fastest: milo, corn, barley, wheat, and oats.
Protein Sources
Most protein sources come from either plant or animal origin. Common plant protein
sources used in dairy rations are soybean meal and canola meal. Animal protein
sources include blood meal and meat and bone meal (porcine source). The protein
fractions can vary widely depending on the ingredient. Soybeans are the most
common ingredient producers raise on farm. Typically, the beans are roasted
providing a source of undegradable protein and they also contain a high fat content.
These ingredients are high in protein quality and are essential when formulating
concentrate mixtures.
Protein quality refers to the types, amounts, and ratios of peptides (short strings of
amino acids) and amino acids that are in a feedstuff. Therefore, it is recommended
Document No.
to feed various protein sources, so cows receive adequate levels, both ruminally and
post-ruminally, of the essential and limiting amino acids (e.g., lysine and methionine).
Urea is the exception because it is not a protein supplement, but a source of

nitrogen. This nitrogen is converted to ammonia, which is used by the rumen
bacteria for protein synthesis. Urea works well in mixtures with plant proteins if
soluble protein is needed. Compared to plant and animal proteins, urea is often
lower in price.
There are numerous sources of protein supplements available to producers that can
be fed to meet an animal's requirement for metabolizable protein. Limitations on
some of these sources may be for palatability reasons and keeping the protein
fractions within the recommended ranges.
Concentrates for Dairy Cattle
Top of Form
Concentrates are low-fiber, high-energy feeds when compared to forages and they
can vary considerably in their protein content. Most often they are fed to raise the
energy level of the ration for dairy cattle and to compensate for any other
deficiencies that remain beyond those provided by the forage portion of the ration.
Energy sources for dairy cattle can be broken down into starch, sugar, and fat. They
can be analyzed in individual ingredients, grain mixes and total mixed rations.
However, due to specific analysis procedures, there may be added costs for each
depending on the testing package selected.
Document No.
Starch is the primary source of energy in dairy rations. The source and processing
method of the starch will determine how it will be digested in the rumen. Cereal
grains like corn provide most of the starch in dairy cattle diets. Of the energy
sources, improper starch feeding, such as type and amount can have the greatest
negative impact on rumen function.
Sugars are readily available to the rumen microorganisms. Simple sugars include
glucose, fructose, and sucrose. To increase the amount of sugar in the ration,
ingredients like liquid molasses or citrus pulp can be fed.
Fats can come from both plant and animal sources. They are very energy dense
compared to carbohydrates and protein. Fatty acid profiles of ingredients are
important as they can have negative effects on fiber digestibility and animal
performance. Unsaturated fat is highly digestible but may reduce fiber digestibility in
the rumen compared to saturated fat that has less impact on fiber digestion. Like
starch, fat digestibility can be affected by source, physical nature, and its chemical
composition. Protected fats are available, and they have been designed to bypass
the rumen eliminating risks to rumen function.
Protein has several components; some can be tested, and others cannot.
Metabolizable protein is mainly used in ration formulation software programs.
Metabolizable protein is defined as the true protein that is digested in the abomasum
(post-ruminally) and its amino acids are absorbed by the small intestine. Amino acids
are the essential components that form proteins and are the required nutrients for
cows. Ingredients like soybean meal and canola meal are very good sources of
amino acids.
Even though crude protein is an older approach to ration formulation, it is analyzed

by labs and still has value when comparing feed ingredients to book values or
comparing formulas to the actual mix. However, crude protein only reflects the
nitrogen content of the feed and not how it is used by the animal.
Protein can be broken down into several fractions in ration formulation programs:
degradable and undegradable protein and soluble protein. Degradable protein is
digested in the rumen. Soluble protein is very rapidly digested in the rumen.
Undegradable protein is that fraction bypassing the rumen. All these fractions are
important and require the proper balance to keep the rumen microbes functioning
properly. Soluble protein is most routinely analyzed by testing labs. Degradable
protein can be an analyzed value, or it can be an estimate based on NRC (2001)
values This can vary across testing labs.
The other nutrients in concentrates include fiber, minerals, and vitamins. The main
fiber components are neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF).
Document No.
Most byproduct feeds contain substantial fiber levels compared to the cereal grains.
The macro-minerals are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium,
sulfur, and chloride. The micro-minerals are manganese, copper, zinc, iron,
selenium, cobalt, and iodine. All minerals can be analyzed at testing labs. It is
recommended that byproduct feeds be tested for their mineral content as their levels
can vary depending on the source. The fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, and E.
Vitamins are not typically analyzed in grains.
Palatability of grain mixes or commodities is important for attaining the required

levels of feed intake. Proper processing, storage, and attention to particle size are
important for palatability and ruminal degradation of nutrients. The manner of feeding
and the processing method can influence intakes. For example, finely ground corn
incorporated into a TMR may not create intake problems but if fed conventionally
(e.g., top-dressed or fed as a single feed) may limit intake and/or cause digestive
upsets. Pelleted grains that contain a lot of fines may cause problems in robotic
feeders compared to incorporation into a TMR. Feeding management in addition to
nutrient content should be considered when formulating rations.
The three-basic groups for concentrate ingredients are cereal grains, protein
sources, and by-product feeds. The feed type and the manner of preparation
influence how the dairy cow uses these ingredients. The objective is finding the
balance of energy, protein, and micronutrients that best compliment the forage
ration. It is recommended to find the best cost ration versus the least cost ration.
The cheapest ration is not necessarily the best cost ration. Cows prefer consistency
and constantly switching ingredients based solely on price may not be the best
strategy. That is why using income over feed cost to monitor performance is
recommended because it considers both production and feed cost. Also, depending
on the concentrate ingredient fed, there can be substantial nutrient variation. St-
Pierre et. al. (2015) evaluated variation in nutrient composition of common feeds and
mixed diets on commercial dairy farms. The ingredients having the most variation on
farm and where regular testing was recommended was for wet corn gluten feed, wet
brewers' grains, wet distillers' grains, and high-moisture corn. Farms feeding
ingredients like dry corn grain, soybean meal, dry corn gluten feed, canola meal, and
whole cottonseed were not a source of significant variation. Dried distillers' grains
could be a source of variation depending on the plant of origin. Ingredient variation
could affect maintaining the appropriate balance of nutrients if there is a lot of
variability in feedstuffs.
Cereal Grains
Barley, corn (shelled or ear), milo (sorghum), oats, rye, triticale, and wheat are the
most common cereal grains. The general nutritive characteristics of these grains are
Document No.
that they are high in net energy, and low in fiber and protein. They are similar in their
level of phosphorus when compared to forages and are low in calcium.
Corn is more commonly fed compared to the other cereal grains. Corn is fed either
as shelled corn or ear corn, which the latter is comprised of 20 to 25 percent cob and
70 to 80 percent grain if partitioned by weight. Due to palatability problems with rye,
triticale, and wheat, limited amounts should be fed in rations for dairy cattle (Table
1).
The energy that cereal grains supply comes in the form of mainly starch with minimal
levels of fats and sugars. The availability and rate of digestion of the starch depends
on the grain source and processing method. The rate of digestion for the following
grains is ranked from slowest to fastest: milo, corn, barley, wheat, and oats.
The method of processing grains influences the rate and extent of digestion in the
rumen. Starch in finely ground grains is degraded more rapidly by ruminal
microorganisms than coarsely processed grain. Finely ground grains are higher in
digestibility because there is more surface area for the rumen bacteria to attach. The
starch in high-moisture grains ferments more rapidly in the rumen than starch in dry
grain. High-moisture grains should be fed rolled versus whole to optimize starch
utilization by the rumen bacteria. Heating grains, such as steam flaking (24 to 28
pounds/bushel), enhances starch digestion. Steam-flaked grains should be rolled to
a thin flake. The heating process gelatinizes the starch in a manner that increases
fermentability in the rumen. By increasing starch utilization, the lactation
performance of the cow can improve and may reduce feed costs, especially when
grain costs are high.
Protein Sources
Most protein sources come from either plant or animal origin. Common plant protein
sources used in dairy rations are soybean meal and canola meal. Animal protein
sources include blood meal and meat and bone meal (porcine source). The protein
fractions can vary widely depending on the ingredient. Soybeans are the most
common ingredient producers raise on farm. Typically, the beans are roasted
providing a source of undegradable protein and they also contain a high fat content.
These ingredients are high in protein quality and are essential when formulating
concentrate mixtures.
Protein quality refers to the types, amounts, and ratios of peptides (short strings of
amino acids) and amino acids that are in a feedstuff. Therefore, it is recommended
to feed various protein sources, so cows receive adequate levels, both ruminally and
post-ruminally, of the essential and limiting amino acids (e.g., lysine and methionine).
Document No.
Urea is the exception because it is not a protein supplement, but a source of
nitrogen. This nitrogen is converted to ammonia, which is used by the rumen
bacteria for protein synthesis. Urea works well in mixtures with plant proteins if
soluble protein is needed. Compared to plant and animal proteins, urea is often
lower in price.
There are numerous sources of protein supplements available to producers that can
be fed to meet an animal's requirement for metabolizable protein. Limitations on
some of these sources may be for palatability reasons and keeping the protein
fractions within the recommended ranges.
By-Product Feeds
By-product feeds are the secondary materials generated in addition to the principal
product being manufactured for human consumption. The most common by-products
are derived from cereal grains.
The process used to produce the by-product feed will determine how it can be used
in the formulated ration. Some contain high levels of fat, which can make a diet more
energy dense. Others may supply undegradable, degradable, or soluble protein at
various levels. Other commodities may contain relatively high fiber levels and are
used to balance rations for total NDF (e.g, cottonseed hulls, soyhulls). Mineral levels
can vary and should be tested. Some bakery products (e.g., cookie meal, donuts)
may contain high levels of sodium and chloride and these should be included in the
analysis.
Some by-product feeds are available in wet form, such as brewers and distiller's
grains. Higher variability in moisture content may necessitate periodic testing of dry
matter and nutrient content. These products are usually economical if trucking costs
are not prohibitive. When adding by-product feedstuffs into the ration, consistency of
the nutrient composition is key. Due to the high variability of various by-product feed
sources producers may be hesitant to add them into the diet, therefore, laboratory
analysis may be necessary with each delivery of feed to ensure nutrient consistency.
Feeding by-products can decrease the number of human-edible feedstuffs that are
used to feed cattle, which is an important sustainability concern due to the growing
human population. To study this concept, Ertl et al. (2016) investigated the effects of
completely substituting common cereal grains and beans with a mixture of by-
product feeds (wheat bran and sugar beet pulp) in a high forage diet where grass
silage and hay accounted for 75 percent of the dry matter intake. The wheat bran
and sugar beet pulp diet did not have an effect on milk production, milk composition,
feed intake, or total chewing activity. The researchers concluded that wheat bran and
sugar beet pulp could replace some common cereal grains in mid-lactation dairy
Document No.
cows without hindering performance. Even though this high forage level ration is not
typical in the U.S., it does illustrate that utilizing by-product feeds in the ration can
improve sustainability, stretch available forage supplies, or serve as a substitute for
corn or soybean meal.
Bottom of Form
Document No.
Self-Check 3.4-1
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. We can conveniently classify feeds into three main types: (1) ___________,
(2) ____________, and (3) __________.
4. __________ include pasture forages, hays, silages, and byproduct feeds that
contain a high percentage of fiber.
5. __________ is more commonly fed compared to the other cereal grains.
6. _________ quality refers to the types, amounts, and ratios of peptides (short
strings of amino acids) and amino acids that are in a feedstuff.
7. __________ is the exception because it is not a protein supplement, but a

source of nitrogen.
8. _________ is the primary source of energy in dairy rations.
9. __________ are readily available to the rumen microorganisms.
Document No.
Answer key 3.4-1
1. roughages
2. concentrates
3. mixed feeds
4. Roughages
5. Corn
6. Protein
7. Urea
8. Starch
9. Sugars
Document No.
Mineral supplements
Introduction
Beef cattle require a number of minerals for optimal growth and reproduction.
Selecting the correct mineral supplement is important for maintaining healthy
animals, and optimal growth and reproduction. Since high-quality forages and/or
grains can furnish a large portion of the required minerals, producers should select
supplements that will meet animal requirements and avoid excesses that reduce
profits and lead to unnecessary mineral excretion. Minerals not provided by feed can
be easily and inexpensively supplied with a simple mineral supplement. A good
mineral program for brood cows should cost about $10 to $20 per year. This bulletin
provides information on basic mineral nutrition for most forage and feeding programs
in Georgia.
Minerals essential to cattle nutrition are classified as either macrominerals or

microminerals, depending on whether they are found at levels greater than or less
than 100 parts per million (ppm) in the animal’s body.
Macrominerals
The macrominerals beef cattle require include calcium, magnesium, phosphorus,

potassium, sodium, chlorine and sulfur. Macromineral requirements and maximum
tolerable levels for beef cattle are shown in Table 1.
Calcium and Phosphorus
Calcium and phosphorus are the major mineral components of the skeleton. Ninety-
nine percent of total body calcium and 80 percent of total body phosphorus are
stored in the bones. The skeletal stores of calcium and phosphorus are used to meet
short-term dietary inadequacies. Long-term deficiencies of either can cause bones to
weaken and even break.
Calcium and phosphorus also play important roles in other bodily functions. A
decrease in either or both can cause a decrease in weight gain and/or a decrease in
efficiency of gain. During lactation, low amounts of either will reduce milk production.
A superior milking cow requires three times more calcium than a non-lactating cow.
A phosphorus deficiency can delay puberty in heifers and can delay mature beef
cows from returning to heat following parturition. Cattle also need correct amounts of
calcium for the nervous and muscular systems to function properly.
Document No.
Proper utilization of calcium and phosphorus is affected not only by the amount of
each mineral fed, but also by their ratio. The optimum Ca:P ratio is about 1.5:1, with
a range of 1:1 to 4:1 being satisfactory. In some high-concentrate rations, ratios
higher than 2:1 have been successful.
Most grasses are adequate in calcium. Legumes such as alfalfa, peanut, clover and
soybean hay are good sources of calcium, but corn silage and sorghum silage are
poor sources of calcium. In general, most concentrates are relatively poor calcium
sources. One exception is citrus pulp, which is relatively high in calcium
concentration (1.9 percent). Corn, corn by-product feeds and sorghum grain are
particularly low in calcium content, and cattle fed grain or corn silage-based diets
require calcium supplementation.
Most forages are low in phosphorus, particularly late in the growing season. Cattle
are more likely to be phosphorus-deficient during the winter, when they often subsist
on dry forages. Concentrates contain moderate to high concentrations of
phosphorus. Protein supplements such as cottonseed meal and soybean meal
contain moderate concentrations, whereas many by-product feeds such as distillers
grains, corn gluten feed and wheat middlings, have high phosphorus concentrations.
Sodium and Chlorine
Sodium and chlorine (salt) provide for the proper function of the nervous and
muscular systems. They help regulate body pH and the amount of water retained in
the body. A deficiency of these elements causes loss of appetite and inefficient
weight gains or body weight loss. Sodium is commonly deficient in diets, but chlorine
levels are usually adequate. Both minerals are present in soft tissues and fluids and
there is very little storage of these elements, so a constant, daily source of sodium
and chlorine must be provided. Cattle will voluntarily consume more salt when forage
is young and succulent than when it matures. Silage-fed cattle will consume more
salt than those fed hay, and consumption is higher in cattle fed high-roughage diets
than in those on high-concentrate diets. As a rule of thumb, cattle consume 0.005 to
0.010 percent of their body weight as salt daily. For example, a mature cow weighing
1,200 pounds would consume 0.06 to 0.12 pounds (1,200 x 0.00005 = 0.6), or 1.0 to
1.9 ounces of salt daily.
Magnesium
Magnesium is essential for proper enzyme and nervous system function and for
efficient carbohydrate metabolism. A magnesium deficiency is uncommon except for
cows grazing lush-growth fescue or small grain pastures during the late winter and
early spring, which may cause grass tetany, a serious and sometimes fatal metabolic
disorder. A high rate of nitrogen and potassium fertilization contributes to grass
Document No.
tetany. Excess potassium inhibits magnesium absorption in both forage and animals.
Grass tetany usually occurs following an extended period of cold weather combined
with high levels of nitrogen and potassium fertilization. Mature lactating cows are
particularly susceptible to grass tetany.
Grass tetany can usually be prevented by feeding cattle a mineral mixture containing
magnesium oxide. A mineral mixture containing 10 to 14 percent magnesium
consumed at 4 ounces per day should provide adequate magnesium. Adequate salt
intake is also important for preventing grass tetany. Avoid using hard blocks to
supplement salt when cattle are at risk for grass tetany; supply salt in a loose form to
allow for adequate salt consumption. When grass tetany is not a risk, blocks can be
used to supplement minerals, provided trace minerals are elevated to account for
lower intake of block versus loose salt minerals. Animals with grass tetany respond
almost immediately to an intravenous infusion of calcium-magnesium gluconate.
Potassium
Potassium functions in acid-base balance, osmotic pressure and the amount of

water retained in the body. Grasses, particularly early lush spring growth, contains
adequate amounts of potassium for grazing cattle and supplementation is rarely
needed. However, potassium may occasionally be low in stockpiled forages or hay
that was rained on prior to baling because potassium is soluble and will leach from
the forage.
Sulfur
Sulfur is a part of the essential amino acids methionine and cystine, which make up
protein. A sulfur deficiency in beef cattle diets is not likely to occur under normal
feeding conditions. Sulfur is more likely to be in excess, which can interfere with the
metabolism of copper, resulting in a copper deficiency. Also, excess sulfur can
reduce feed intake and cause a brain lesion condition known as
polioencephalomalacia (PEM). Certain by-products such as distillers grains and corn
gluten feed contain higher concentrations of sulfur, which should be taken into
account in ration balancing. Sulfur is often added indirectly to the mineral mix
through sulfate forms of the microminerals.
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Table 1. Macro mineral requirements and maximum tolerable
levels for beef cattle.
Maximum
Lactatin Dry Growing
Mineral Tolerable
g Cows Cows Calves
Level
Calcium, % 0.31 0.18 0.58 —
Magnesium,
0.10 0.12 0.20 0.40
%
Phosphorus
0.21 0.16 0.26 —
,%
Potassium,
0.60 0.60 0.70 3.0
%
Sodium, % 0.07 0.07 0.10 —
Sulfur, % 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.40
NRC, 1996. Adapted from NRC. Nutrient Requirements of

Beef Cattle, Sixth Edition.
Microminerals
Beef cattle require 10 microminerals. Seven of the 10 microminerals have

established requirements, including iron, manganese, copper, zinc, selenium, cobalt
and iodine. The microminerals chromium, molybdenum and nickel do not have an
established requirement and are not normally added to mineral mixes fed to beef
cattle. Only three of the microminerals (copper, zinc and selenium) are likely to be
deficient in grazing beef cattle diets. Micromineral requirements and maximum
tolerable levels for beef cattle are shown in Table 2.
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Cobalt
Cobalt functions as a component of vitamin B-12, which is synthesized in the rumen

by bacteria. The primary deficiency symptom is loss of appetite and poor growth.
Most forages in the Southeast have adequate levels of cobalt; however, it is usually
added in the mineral mix at approximately 10 ppm to ensure no deficiencies. High-
grain diets require more cobalt than forage-based diets, and cobalt should always be
included in the mineral mix when feeding grain-based diets.
Copper
Copper is the most common micromineral deficiency in grazing cattle. Copper is an

important component of many enzyme systems essential for normal growth and
development. Deficiency signs include reduced fertility, depressed immunity and
reduced pigmentation of hair (black hair changes to red). Dietary deficiencies can
occur, but most deficiencies are caused by the consumption of antagonists, which
reduces copper absorption. Copper should be supplemented as copper sulfate,
tribasic copper chloride or an organic complexed form because copper oxide is very
poorly absorbed.
Iodine
Iodine is an essential mineral for function of the thyroid hormones that regulate
energy metabolism. The first sign of iodine deficiency is goiter in newborn calves.
Iodine is rarely deficient in cow herds in the Southeast. Iodine is usually
supplemented as ethylenediamine dihydroidide (EDDI). The maximum legal
supplementation of EDDI is 50 mg per head per day. In some instances, EDDI has
been included in diets to prevent foot rot; however, the amount of EDDI required to
prevent foot rot is much higher than requirements and most likely will not prevent
foot rot when included at the legal maximum.
Iron
Iron is primarily required for the formation of hemoglobin. Deficiency symptoms

include anemia, depressed immunity and decreased weight gains. Iron deficiency is
rarely observed in grazing cattle. Iron oxide is often included in mineral mixtures, but
is unavailable to the animal and serves only as a coloring agent to give the mineral a
dark red color. Iron sulfate is available to the animal and should be used if iron
supplementation is needed.
Manganese
Manganese is required for normal reproduction, and fetal and udder development.
Manganese deficiency is rare and unlikely to be a problem in grazing cattle in
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Georgia. Manganese oxide is the most common form of manganese used in mineral
mixes. Corn-based diets are low in manganese and supplementation is necessary
when feeding these diets.
Selenium
Selenium can be deficient in some areas of Georgia. Selenium deficiency causes

white muscle disease (similar to muscular dystrophy) in newborn calves. Selenium
deficiency can also cause calves to be weak at birth and increase their susceptibility
to calfhood diseases like scours. Increased rates of retained placentas and poor
reproductive performance are often observed in cows with selenium deficiencies.
Selenium is generally added to mineral mixtures in the form of sodium selenite.

Selenium is very toxic and should be used in a premixed form only. The FDA allows
selenium to be used at a level not to exceed 0.3 ppm of the dry matter in the total
diet of beef cattle. In areas where deficiencies occur, use the maximum legal level.
The FDA allows up to 120 ppm to be included in a salt-mineral mixture for free-
choice feeding. Selenium deficiency should not be a problem if adequate amounts of
selenium are consumed in the mineral supplement. However, the concentration of
selenium in the supplement and the labeled intake must not result in a total intake of
more than 3 mg per day. Thus, a mineral labeled for intake of 4 ounces per head per
day cannot exceed 26 ppm selenium.
Zinc
Zinc is marginal to deficient in most Georgia forages. Zinc is a component of many

enzymes and is important for immunity, male reproduction, and skin and hoof health.
Cattle have a limited ability to store zinc and supplementation is always necessary.
Zinc absorption is closely tied to copper absorption, and the zinc to copper ratio
should be kept at approximately 3:1. In addition, high levels of iron can decrease
zinc absorption. Absorption of zinc decreases once the ratio of iron to zinc exceeds
2:1. Some feedlots feed supplemental zinc methionine to improve hoof health and
thus improve daily gains and feed efficiency.
Document No.
Table 2. Micromineral Requirements and Maximum Tolerable
Levels for Beef Cattle.
Growin Maximum
Lactatin Dry
Mineral g Tolerable
g Cows Cows
Calves Level
Chromium — — — 50.0
Cobalt, ppm 0.1 0.1 0.1 10.0
Copper, ppm 10.0 10.0 10.0 100.0
Iodine, ppm 0.50 0.50 0.50 50.0
Iron, ppm 50.0 50.0 50.0 1000.0
Manganese,
20.0 40.0 40.0 1000.0
ppm
Molybdenum,
— — — 5.0
ppm
Nickel — — — 50.0
Selenium,
0.10 0.10 0.10 2.0
ppm
Zinc, ppm 30.0 30.0 30.0 500.0
NRC, 1996. Adapted from NRC. Nutrient Requirements of

Beef Cattle, Sixth Edition.
Vitamins
Vitamins are closely linked to mineral metabolism and absorption. Vitamin A helps
skin and mucous membranes stay healthy. Vitamin A requirements usually are met
by grazing fresh, green, growing grass. Oxidation deteriorates vitamin A during
storage, so diets based on stored feeds should be supplemented with vitamin A.
Supplement diets with vitamin A any time the major portion is stored feeds.
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Vitamin A can be added to a mineral mix in a stabilized form to prevent oxidation.
The minimum amount should be approximately 120,000 International Units (IU) of
vitamin A per pound of mineral. Vitamin A can also be added to the grain mixture to
provide 15,000 to 30,000 IU per head per day, depending on individual
requirements. An alternative method is to inject 1.5 million IU subcutaneously if a
source of dietary citamin A is not available for 60 to 90 days, although unnecessary
injections are discouraged in consideration of National Beef Quality Assurance
guidelines.
Vitamin D aids the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the intestine and their
deposition in the bone matrix. Signs of vitamin D deficiency are similar to a calcium
or phosphorus deficiency. Most cattle exposed to direct sunlight synthesize enough
vitamin D, but cattle in a covered confinement feedlot may need supplemental
vitamin D.
Vitamin E is usually present in the diet in sufficient quantities for all classes of cattle;
however, a selenium deficiency could lead to an apparent deficiency of vitamin E.
Vitamin E can be helpful for short-term periods of stress that may occur when calves
are co-mingled and transported at weaning.
Other essential vitamins are usually present in adequate quantities in the diet or are
synthesized by bacteria in the rumen.
Selecting a Mineral Supplement
The average mineral content of several forages, grains and by-product feeds are
shown in Table 3. The actual mineral content of feeds, especially forages and by-
products, will vary, so all feeds should be tested for actual mineral content. However,
the mineral concentrations can be used as a guide when choosing a mineral
supplement to complement a particular feed ingredient. In addition, an example
mineral mix for lactating cows is provided in Table 4. The calcium to phosphorus
ratio in most mineral mixes should be 2:1 to 4:1. Phosphorus supplementation may
not be needed if forages have been fertilized with poultry litter or when feeding high-
phosphorus feeds such as cottonseed, cottonseed meal, distillers grains or corn
gluten feed. Salt is not stored in the animal’s body and should be made available
continuously. Salt is the only mineral that cattle crave, and salt-deprived cattle will
often eat dirt or wood. A mineral mix should contain 15 to 22 percent salt.
Magnesium should be at least 14 percent in the mineral mix when grass tetany is a
concern. Also, closely examine mineral tags for addition of unnecessary products
such as B-vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, folic acid). These vitamins are normally not
needed by grazing cattle because they are produced by the rumen bacteria and
increase the cost of the supplement.
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The most important points to consider when purchasing minerals are calcium to
phosphorus levels, salt level, bioavailability (particularly copper), level of “trace
minerals” in the supplement, and additives. You can learn a lot about the mineral you
are feeding by studying the mineral tag for a few minutes. In addition, minerals are
often used to deliver products such as ionophores (Rumensin, Bovatec) and
antibiotics (chlortetracycline, GainPro). Carefully read label instructions when using
medicated mineral mixes to ensure adequate intake and to ensure the product is
labeled for the intended use.
Grain-based diets
There are many differences between mineral supplements designed for a forage-
based versus a grain-based diet. Since grains and most by-product feeds except
citrus pulp contain low concentrates of calcium, supplements should contain
approximately 25 percent calcium and be fed at a rate of 4 ounces per day.
Supplemental salt should be provided at 1 to 1.9 ounces per day. The primary
microminerals of most concern are zinc, copper, cobalt and selenium. Trace mineral
salt is usually added at 0.5 percent of the diet to provide most supplemental trace
mineral needs. Selenium may need to be added to maintain a total diet concentration
of 0.1 ppm. Additional phosphorus supplementation is rarely required when feeding
grain-based diets.
Document No.
Table 3. Mineral content of commonly used forages and concentrate feeds.
Calcium Phosphorus Potassium Sulfur Copper, Zinc,

Feedstuff % % % % ppm ppm
Bahiagrass
0.46 0.22 1.45 0.21 8.0 20.0
Pasture
Bermudagras 0.39 0.26 1.3 0.28 9.0 20.0

s Pasture
Bermudagras
0.43 0.20 1.61 0.21 9.0 20.0
s Hay
Fescue
0.51 0.27 2.3 0.19 5.8 18.7
Pasture
Fescue Hay 0.51 0.37 2.3 0.18 6.0 22.0
Corn 0.03 0.31 0.33 0.14 4.8 16.0
Corn Silage 0.25 0.22 1.14 0.12 4.2 17.7
Corn Gluten
0.07 0.95 1.40 0.47 7.0 73.3
Feed
Cottonseed 0.20 1.16 1.65 0.42 16.5 74.0

Meal, 41%
Whole
0.16 0.62 1.22 0.26 7.9 37.7
Cottonseed
Soyhulls 0.53 0.18 1.29 0.11 17.8 48.0
Soybean
0.40 0.71 2.22 0.46 22.4 57.0
Meal, 44%
Molasses 1.00 0.10 4.01 0.47 65.7 21.0
Citrus Pulp 1.88 0.13 0.77 0.08 6.2 15.0
Document No.
NRC, 1996. Adapted from NRC. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, Sixth Edition.
Table 4. Example free-choice mineral specifications for lactating cows.
Mineral 4 Ounce Intake Per Day
Calcium 10 to 15%
Phosphor
4 to 8%
us
Salt 15 to 20%
Magnesi
1%
um1
Sulfur2 0.5%
Copper 0.12% (1200 ppm)
Zinc 0.3% (3000 ppm)
Cobalt 0.001% (10 ppm)
Iodine 0.008% (80 ppm)
Selenium 0.0026% (26 ppm)
1
Magnesium should be increased to at least 10% when grass tetany is a concern
2
Sulfur supplementation is usually not required, however it is often added to mineral
mixes by the use of sulfate forms of other minerals.
Factors Affecting Mineral Intake
Controlling intake at the desired level is very challenging because mineral intake
fluctuates. Monitor mineral intake for several weeks prior to implementing
management practices to alter mineral intake. If mineral intake is too high or low,
move the mineral feeder either closer to or farther away from the water source and
loafing areas. When cattle are over-consuming mineral, salt is often added to reduce
the amount of minerals cattle eat. Salt level has a significant impact on mineral
Document No.
intake and is easily changed to control intake; however, you must account for the
additional salt when determining the correct intake. For example, if a mineral with a
recommended feeding rate of 4 ounces per day is mixed in a 50:50 ratio with plain
white salt, the cattle should consume 8 ounces per day. This would supply the cattle
with the targeted amount of 4 ounces of mineral plus 4 ounces of added salt. When
under-consumption is a problem, try adding dried molasses or change brands to a
more palatable mineral. In addition, keep in mind that calves can consume significant
amounts of mineral and this should be considered before decreasing the feeding
level.
If mineral intake is inadequate, try adding a palatable feedstuff to the mix. Feeds
such as cottonseed meal, soybean meal, dry molasses and distillers grains can
improve mineral intake. Moving the mineral feeder closer to the water source can
improve intake. In addition, changing mineral brands will sometimes provide a
mineral that is more palatable.
Regularly monitor mineral consumption by keeping a record of animal numbers and

feeding amounts to combat potential mineral intake problems.
Mineral Feeders
Mineral feeder placement is a very important part of supplying minerals to the cow
herd. Be sure an adequate number of feeders are available for the stocking rate of
the pasture. A rule of thumb is to provide one mineral feeding station for every 30 to
50 cows. The best areas to place mineral feeders are near water, in shaded loafing
areas and near the best grazing areas. Check feeders at least once a week and
keep a clean, fresh supply of minerals present at all times. A good feeder should
keep minerals dry, be portable and hold up to abuse and corrosion. Open tubs are
not adequate in the Southeast. Because minerals can be corrosive to metals,
feeders made of wood, fiberglass or plastic usually last longer. Permanent mineral
feeders made of concrete also work well, but portability is a problem.
Supplement Form
Feeding minerals free-choice in a loose mix form is most desirable for brood cows.
For cattle on complete diets, minerals are most optimally supplied when mixed in a
TMR. When supplementing in a block form, trace minerals must be higher than what
is contained in a loose mineral mix, as the animal will usually consume only 1 to 2
ounces per day. In addition, some blocks contain only trace mineralized salt, which
will not meet the animal’s requirements for macrominerals such as calcium and
phosphorus. Carefully read the label on a block mineral supplement to make sure
the product contains all needed minerals. Block minerals are sometimes used when
supplementing cattle that have not had access to minerals for a long period of time.
Document No.
In this situation, cattle will greatly over-consume minerals in a loose mix form if given
free-choice access. Blocks can be used for a short period of time to prevent mineral
over-consumption. Do not supply plain white salt and mineral separately since intake
of the mineral will likely be too low because cattle will crave only the salt.
Commercial protein and energy supplements are sometimes fortified with minerals.
Commercial supplements come in the form of dry pelletted feeds, liquid molasses
supplements, hard molasses-based blocks, or hard-pressed grain-based blocks. It is
not necessary to provide a free-choice mineral supplement along with the
commercial protein/energy supplement. Feeding minerals in both the free-choice
mineral and the protein/energy supplement should not negatively affect performance,
but it is an expense that could be saved. It may be necessary to only offer plain white
salt blocks when feeding the commercial protein/energy supplements.
Season
Mineral intake is usually higher when lush forage is available and lower during the
fall or periods of drought. Mineral content and forage digestibility declines with
increasing plant maturity. Mature forages are consumed in lower quantity, further
reducing mineral intake. Rapidly growing, lush forages have a higher availability of
minerals compared with mature forages. In addition, mineral content is higher in
forages grown on soils with greater fertility. Spring grass is usually well fertilized and
highly digestible, which leads to greater intake of mineral from forages and reduced
consumption of supplemental mineral during that time of the year.
Feeding Method
Stocker calves are sometimes fed a complete grain- or silage-based ration mixed on
the farm. Thoroughly mixing minerals in mixed rations is difficult; only a small
quantity of mineral is required and it separates easily from the larger particle sizes of
grain and forages. It may be wiser to use a mineral supplement that has a higher
feeding rate or feed the mineral free-choice or as a top dress.
A trial was conducted to compare feeding a mineral supplement by free-choice

feeding or top-dressing the mineral on the feed each day. The mineral contained an
ionophore (Bovatec®). Results of the trial, in which heifers were fed hay, corn, corn
silage and minerals either in a free-choice feeder or where supplemental minerals
were top-dressed (4 ounces per day) on the feed each day, are shown in Table 5.
Supplementing minerals either free-choice or top-dressing resulted in similar daily
gains. Heifers fed minerals free-choice consumed about 0.5 ounces per head less
than the targeted intake of 4 ounces per day but were within the range required for
the ionophore to be effective. If specific amounts of a particular mineral or feed
additive are required per day, it would be desirable to top-dress or mix the mineral
Document No.
into the feed every day rather than allow free-choice consumption. When feeding
minerals free-choice, closely monitor mineral consumption to make sure intake is
adequate. This is of particular importance when feeding an additive such as an
ionophore or antibiotic.
Table 5. Performance of heifers

provided supplemental minerals
either free-choice or top dressed
onto feed daily.
Free-
Top-
Item choic
dressed
e
Initial wt,
574 579
lbs
Final wt,
736 736
lbs
Total gain,
162 157
lbs
Daily gain,
1.93 1.87
lbs
Mineral
intake, 3.52 4.00
ounces/day
Bioavailability
Consider the bioavailability of the mineral supplements when purchasing minerals.

Bioavailability of sulfates and chlorides is generally greater than bioavailability of
oxides. One exception is magnesium oxide, which is absorbed well enough to be
used in beef cattle minerals. However, avoid mineral supplements that use copper
oxide, which is poorly absorbed. Iron oxide is also poorly absorbed and is generally
Document No.
used to add color to the mineral mix. Because of the forages and feedstuffs in
Georgia, cattle seldom require iron supplementation, so the addition of iron oxide
should not negatively affect cattle performance and may be beneficial since iron can
bind other minerals and prevent their absorption.
Minerals are usually included in supplements in the inorganic form but may also be
combined with an amino acid or protein and fed in the organic form (referred to as
complexes, proteinates or chelates). Minerals that are sometimes fed in the organic
form include copper, zinc, cobalt and manganese with an amino acid or protein. The
relative bioavailability of copper, manganese and zinc from different sources is
higher compared to inorganic sources as outlined in Table 6.
Organic minerals cost more than inorganic minerals; therefore, an increase in

performance must be realized to offset the higher purchase price. The response to
organic minerals has been variable and they are only recommended in certain
situations. Organic minerals have been effective in increasing the reproductive
efficiency of young breeding females under nutritional stress, or reducing morbidity
and mortality of newly weaned calves that are highly susceptible to bovine
respiratory disease. For cows, organic minerals are usually fed from two months
prior to calving through breeding. For calves, organic minerals are generally included
only during the preconditioning period. However, zinc methionine may be fed
continually during the feeding period to decrease lameness.
Table 6. Relative bioavailability of microminerals from different sources1
Organic-
form
Sulfate- Oxide Chloride- (complex,
Mineral form -form Carbonate form chelate)
Copper 100 0 — 105 130
Manganes
100 58 28 — 176
e
159 to
Zinc 100 — 60 40
206
Document No.
1
Availability relative to that of the sulfate form.Adapted from Greene, 1995.
Identifying a Mineral Deficiency
A mineral deficiency in cattle is difficult to diagnose and can silently rob profits from
the herd. Most deficiencies are related to copper, zinc and selenium, but other
mineral deficiencies can occur.
Mineral deficiencies are classified as either primary or secondary deficiencies.

Primary mineral deficiencies occur when cattle consume forages that are deficient in
a particular mineral such as magnesium. Failure to provide a mineral supplement is
the most common cause of primary mineral deficiencies. Primary mineral
deficiencies rarely occur in well-managed herds that receive mineral supplements.
A secondary mineral deficiency occurs when cattle consume mineral antagonists,

which interfere with the normal absorption or metabolism of another mineral. In the
case of copper deficiency, cattle are consuming enough copper to meet
requirements, but some other mineral antagonist such as sulfur binds to the copper
and prevents it from being absorbed and used by the animal. Secondary mineral
deficiencies are the most common type of mineral deficiency. Take the following
steps to ensure that the problem is due to a mineral deficiency.
● First, rule out other possible causes of poor performance such as disease,
plant toxins, or inadequate protein and energy in the diet. The first sign of a
problem in most herds is poor reproductive efficiency. Inadequate body
condition, due to protein or energy deficiency, is the most common cause of
reproductive failure.
● Monitor mineral intake to ensure cattle are eating the recommended amounts.
A recommended intake is usually indicated on the mineral bag.
● Evaluate the trace mineral levels and sources of each trace mineral.
Remember that the bioavailability of sulfates and chlorides is generally
greater than that of oxides.
● Breed can also affect the mineral requirements of the cow herd. Simmental
and Charolais cattle require more copper than Angus cattle. Levels may need
to be increased 25 to 50 percent for these breeds.
Document No.
● If a secondary mineral deficiency is suspected, then a laboratory analysis of
forages must be conducted. In some instances, water should be tested if it is
suspected that it might be high in iron or sulfur.
● Blood samples and liver biopsies may also be used to assess the mineral
status of a cow. Liver samples are a more accurate indicator of mineral status.
These tests are expensive and should be pursued only after the above steps
have been taken.
● Ask for help from county agents, specialists, veterinarians and feed dealers.
No one person knows all the answers and a team approach to solving a
mineral problem is often required.
Copper Deficiency
Copper deficiency is an increasing concern in Georgia and other Southeastern

states. Copper deficiency causes a wide range of problems such as poor hair coat,
brittle bones, reduced weight gains and a weakened immune system. The University
of Tennessee reported a copper deficiency in as many as 99 percent of tall fescue
forage samples, and increased deficiency in the fall rather than spring. Results of
copper concentrations in forages as reported by NRC are presented in Table 7, but
actual concentrations vary due to soil type, fertilization and climate. For best results,
test forages and feed ingredients.
One of the most visible signs of copper deficiency is change in hair color. Cattle with
black hair will develop a reddish or gray tint. Cattle with red hair will become more
bleached. Another common problem associated with copper deficiency is lowered
immunity. The combination of low copper and high sulfur concentrations in pasture
grasses can result in copper being deficient even in the most well managed herds.
Sulfur antagonisms are the most common cause of copper deficiencies in Georgia
forages. Results of the NAHMS forage survey indicated that sulfur concentrations
were marginal to high antagonistic in 79 percent of samples. Iron and molybdenum
showed marginal to highly antagonistic levels in 13 and 18 percent of samples,
respectively. Sulfur is present in all feedstuffs and is incorporated in some mineral
supplements. The most significant sources of sulfur are direct supplementation,
sulfur-containing fertilizers, water and energy/protein supplements.
Ammonium sulfate fertilizers are widely available and their use is on the rise. In the
past, fertilizers contained small amounts of sulfur. However, modern methods of
fertilizer production have eliminated any sulfur contamination. Therefore, sulfur-
containing fertilizers are now being used to supply this important nutrient to pastures.
Document No.
In a University of Florida study, bahiagrass pastures were fertilized with either
ammonium sulfate or ammonium nitrate to provide 60 pounds of nitrogen per acre.
Ammonium sulfate increased forage yield in one of three years but increased plant
sulfur levels to 0.50 percent. Sulfur becomes a problem when the concentration
reaches or exceeds 0.35 percent. Liver copper concentrations in cows grazing
pastures fertilized with ammonium sulfate were considered deficient, but were
adequate in cows that grazed forages not fertilized with ammonium sulfate. In
addition, use of poultry litter as a fertilizer will also elevate forage sulfur levels.
Simply providing more copper in the mineral supplement may not improve copper
status, because as long as sulfur is present in excessive amounts in the forage,
copper absorption will be decreased. If sulfur levels are borderline high (0.35 percent
sulfur), then it can be helpful to increase copper concentrations up to 2,500 ppm. In
the Florida study, even though the cows were copper deficient, no signs of deficiency
or poor performance were noted. Many times, copper deficiencies do not show up
until calves become sick after weaning and shipping. In a separate study, cows
deficient in copper were able to rapidly replenish their liver copper concentrations to
adequate levels when fed a low-sulfur diet.
Certain energy and protein supplements can also contribute significant amounts of
dietary sulfur. Feedstuffs that contain sulfur in antagonistic amounts include corn
gluten feed, corn gluten meal, distillers grains, molasses, soybean meal and
cottonseed meal. Protein supplements are fed in small amounts, so sulfur
concentration is diluted by the remainder of the diet. Molasses-based supplements
are commonly used in winter feeding programs. The University of Florida has
conducted studies to examine the effect of molasses on copper absorption in grazing
heifers. The researchers compared a corn-based supplement to a molasses-based
supplement. Accumulation of copper in the liver increased by 46 percent for heifers
fed the corn-based supplement, but decreased nine percent for heifers fed the
molasses-based supplement. Absorption of other microminerals (zinc, iron,
manganese) was not affected by supplement type.
Most high-sulfur feeds are only consumed during the winter feeding period and
should not significantly affect copper status. Cattle are able to utilize copper stored in
the liver during the grazing season, which should reduce the problem of depletion
during the winter feeding period. Sulfur from pasture and hay is the primary cause of
copper deficiency because they are consumed year-around. The only concern for
winter feeding is when cattle have been on pastures that are high in sulfur or are
being fed hay that has sulfur levels antagonistic to mineral absorption. Consider
feeding low-sulfur feeds during the pre-conditioning period, especially if your cattle
have had health problems in the past when fed high-sulfur feeds.
Document No.
Table 7. Classification of micro elements in forage relative to
their abilities to meet either dietary requirements or cause an
antagonistic problem with copper.
Marginall
Micromineral
Deficient y Adequate MTC1
s
Deficient
Aluminum
— — — 1000
(ppm)
Copper (ppm) <4 4 to 9.9 e"10 100
Manganese
<20 20 to 39.9 e"40 1000
(ppm)
Zinc (ppm) <20 20 to 29.9 e"30 500
Selenium 100 to
<100 200 2000
(ppm) 199.9
Copper:Mo 4.0 to >4.5 to

<4:1 —
ratio 4.5:1 5:1
1
Maximum Tolerable Concentration — Source: NAHMS, 1999
Summary
Mineral and vitamin nutrition is vital to overall herd health and reproductive
efficiency. Calcium, phosphorus and salt are most likely to be the most limiting
macrominerals in cattle diets. Magnesium may be a problem during late winter or
early spring, especially in mature lactating cows. Secondary mineral deficiencies are
an increasing concern because of increasing sulfur concentrations in homegrown
feeds. A clear diagnosis of a mineral deficiency should be established before making
Document No.
drastic changes in a management or mineral program. Vitamins A, D and E are the
only vitamins that may be deficient in beef cattle diets. Controlling daily intake is a
constant challenge, but several management strategies can be used to ensure
proper daily intake of minerals and vitamins.
Document No.
Self-Check 3.4-2
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. __________ and _________ are the major mineral components of the

skeleton.
2. ________ and __________ provide for the proper function of the nervous and
muscular systems.
3. ___________ is essential for proper enzyme and nervous system function

and for efficient carbohydrate metabolism.
4. ___________ functions in acid-base balance, osmotic pressure and the

amount of water retained in the body.
5. ________ is a part of the essential amino acids methionine and cystine, which
make up protein.
Document No.
Answer key 3.4-2
1. Calcium , phosphorus
2. Sodium , chlorine (salt)
3. Magnesium
4. Potassium
5. Sulfur
Document No.
LEARNING OUTCOME # 5 Apply basic health care
CONTENTS:
1. Basic Health Care
ASSESMENT CRITERIA:
o Sick animals are reported to appropriate authority.
o Assistance is provided during implementation of medication n program
in accordance with enterprise standards and instructions of authority.
o Safety practices are observed according to OSHS.
CONDITIONS:

METHODOLOGIES:
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
Document No.
2. Demonstration
Document No.
Learning Outcome # 5 Apply basic health care

Basic Health Care and check yourself by answering the self-

your skills.



Document No.
Basic Health Care
Introduction
Keeping cattle healthy is a top priority for all beef producers. An adequate health
program is one of the most important parts of any beef management plan.
On this page, you can learn more about applying good health management
practices. Discover detailed information on beef cattle health, common cow
diseases, cattle vaccines, and livestock transportation.
Beef Cattle Health Management
A health management program is extremely important for ensuring animal wellbeing

and biosecurity. A solid health care plan can also improve a farm’s efficiency and
profitability by reducing treatment costs and increasing animal performance.
Every beef cattle health program should be centered around three main aspects –
prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Management strategies that producers should
consider include monitoring nitrate intake and feed consumption, minimizing
stress for the herd, and establishing a vaccination schedule. Check out our
suggestion on how to use body scoring as a nutrition and health management tool.
Note that working closely with a veterinarian is critical for ensuring appropriate
nutrition, accurate diagnosis, and suitable treatment.
Beef Cattle Vaccines
During their lifetime, cows develop two types of immunity – active and passive.
Active immunity can develop as a result of an immunization plan or naturally through
disease exposure. Passive immunity is passed from cow to calf in colostrum.
Vaccinating beef cattle can provide great advantages in preventing diseases and
keeping the herd healthy. A complete vaccination plan is key to stimulating the
immune system and helping the cow build the antibodies needed to provide passive
immunity.
When creating a year-round herd health program, remember to consult with a local
veterinarian. Poorly timed or inadequately chosen vaccines can do more harm than
good and add extra stress to an (already sick) animal.
Document No.
Common Beef Cattle Diseases
Beef cows can be affected by various diseases. In general, cattle raised in tight
quarters – as well as animals living in stressful conditions – are more prone to
diseases.
Common cattle health problems are grass tetany, foot rot, back leg, Johne’s disease,
Haemophilus Somnus. Other bovine diseases, such as rabies, tetanus, and ketosis
in cattle, are widespread as well.
Grass tetany is one of the most prevalent conditions in grazing cows and is
characterized by low blood serum levels of magnesium. This is typically a result of
severe magnesium deficiency in pastures and can lead to nervousness, muscle
spasms, convulsions, collapse, and coma.
Other bovine disease types that might affect a beef herd are the bovine respiratory
disease complex (BRDC or ‘shipping fever’), infectious bovine rhinotracheitis
(IBR), bovine leukemia virus (BLV), and bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV).
Though currently not present in the US, Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) is another
viral disease that affects many cloven-hooved species. Most cases worldwide are
identified by the development of clinical disease between 2 and 14 days after the
initial infection.
Access Herd Health Resources
Many conditions and diseases can be prevented through proper cattle management,
nutrition, and vaccination. Learn more about beef cattle health with Penn State
Extension’s extensive collection of articles, webinars, workshops, and online
courses.
Document No.
Self-Check 3.5-1
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. A _____________ is extremely important for ensuring animal wellbeing

and biosecurity.
2. ____________ can develop as a result of an immunization plan or naturally

through disease exposure.
3. ______________ is passed from cow to calf in colostrum
4. ____________ is one of the most prevalent conditions in grazing cows and is

characterized by low blood serum levels of magnesium.
Document No.
Answer key 3.5-1
1. health management program

2. Active immunity
3. Passive immunity
4. Grass tetany
Document No.
LEARNING OUTCOME # 6 Perform post-breeding activities
CONTENTS:
1. Post-breeding activities
ASSESMENT CRITERIA:
o Tools, materials and equipment are cleaned and stored following
procedural manual and 5S principles.
o Proper disposal of wastes are practiced according to DENR
regulations.
o Records are updated and kept following enterprise protocol.
o Work outputs are reported to the authority following enterprise protocol.
CONDITIONS:

METHODOLOGIES:
Document No.
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
2. Demonstration
Document No.
Learning Outcome # 6- Perform post-breeding activities

Post-breeding activities and check yourself by answering the self-

your skills.



Document No.
Post-breeding activities
Introduction
Heifers must be observed frequently, but disturbed as little as possible.
Supervising your heifers during calving
Heifers should be observed at least twice daily, more often if practical. Assistance
can then be given early if needed.
To be born alive, the calf must be delivered within approximately four hours after the
appearance of the water bag. Early assistance can avoid deaths, calving paralysis
and uterine prolapse in heifers.
Heifers should be kept close to cattle yards during calving, so that early assistance
may be given if needed. The labour required for supervision can be kept to a
minimum if the heifers are joined to calve over a short period (6 to 8 weeks). Keeping
the heifers in a small paddock close to the house during calving can also reduce the
time required for frequent observation.
Calving difficulty can be induced by disturbance. Hence, frequent checking must

disturb the heifers as little as possible. Reasonably quiet cattle may be inspected by
slowly riding through the mob on a horse. Binoculars are an option for excitable
cattle.
Giving assistance to heifers during birth
The calf should normally be born within two hours of the appearance of the water
bag. If the calf is not born within three hours of the appearance of the water bag, the
heifer should be examined. If there is any doubt about the time of the appearance of
the water bag, an examination should be carried out immediately.
The decision to give assistance should be based firstly on the position of the calf. If a
hind leg is visible or if only one foreleg is presented, or if there is any other evidence
of malpresentation of the calf, assistance should be given immediately. The calf's
chance of survival is greater if assistance is given early.
If the position of the calf appears normal, with the head resting on the front legs, then
the condition of the heifer should be considered.
A heifer that has ceased straining and appears weak or exhausted should be
assisted immediately. If the heifer is straining vigorously, and the birth appears to be
progressing normally, the heifer should be left alone for approximately one hour. If
Document No.
there has been no real progress after the hour has elapsed, assistance may be
required.
Calling in the vet
A vet should be called if:
● a heifer is found to have difficulty calving
● the birth appears to be breech
● the heifer's condition has become weak.
A vet may be required to correct a difficult calving and to prescribe and administer
any veterinary drugs required to assist with calf and heifer survival during and after
calving.
Post difficult birth
After a difficult birth, young cows in particular often desert their calves. It is wise to
keep the cow and calf confined in a small area after assistance has been given.
They can then be watched and should not be allowed back with the main herd until
the cow has accepted the calf and will allow it to suck. Sometimes it may be
necessary to hold the cow in a crush or race and force her to allow the calf to drink
for the first few days.
Management after calving
Once they have calved successfully young cows are required to produce a good
supply of milk and become pregnant again soon after. To achieve this they must be
well fed from calving until the end of mating.
Milk production
The main factor determining how well calves grow is the amount of milk their
mothers produce. This in turn depends on such things as the age and breed of the
cow, but it is also influenced by feeding management.
Young cows produce less milk than mature cows. Consequently the growth rate of
calves from two year-old or three-year-old cows is normally 10 to 15% less than that
of calves from cows aged five or six.
Nevertheless. young cows can produce good calves if they are well fed after calving.
Feed intake before calving has a relatively small influence on milk yield, but after
Document No.
calving the effect is enormous. Once they start to produce milk, cows of any age
need at least twice as much food energy as they did before calving. If they don't get
this they will lose weight and their milk production will be depressed.
Fertility of cows after calving
Cows must be well fed after calving. Although maximum fertility requires cows to be
gaining weight from calving to the end of mating, it is likely that cows calving in
autumn will lose weight from calving to joining, despite being fed. However,
adequate fertility will be obtained if cows are calved in condition score 3, to join at
condition score 2.5. It is therefore important to ensure that cows calve in good
enough condition to allow for weight loss and yet still ensure adequate condition for
joining.
After they calve, cows have only about 80 days in which to become pregnant if they
are to calve again within 12 months. Whether they achieve this level of fertility
depends on how soon after calving they come on heat again. This is largely
determined by the breed of cow, the amount of milk produced, age, and feeding
management before and after calving.
Milk production places cows of any age under much greater stress than pregnancy
or any other body function. High milk-producing breeds and strains of cattle take
longer to start cycling again after calving than lower milk producers.
Mature cows usually take about 60 days to come on heat again after calving; young
cows may take 90 days or more. The reason is that young cows, particularly those
calving at two years of age, are in a very delicate nutritional situation after calving.
They require nutrients not only for milk production, but also for their own body growth
and development. In contrast to this, the mature cow can, to some extent at least,
'milk off her own back'.
Nutritional management both before and after calving has a great impact on cow
fertility. Cows that are not well-fed during pregnancy take longer to start cycling
again after calving than cows that are well fed. Ideally cows should calve in medium
body condition, preferably in condition score 2.5 to 3.0.
Feeding young cows after calving
For good fertility and milk production, first calvers in particular must be well fed after
calving.
Simply providing an abundance of good quality pasture may be adequate in some

years. Some producers draft off freshly calved young cows each week, and drift
Document No.
them into a better paddock. In an autumn-calving herd, for example, this could be an
'autumn-saved' paddock.
In most districts of Victoria, however, young cows calving in autumn usually require a
high-quality supplement after calving. Early or mid-season cut clover hay, early cut
oaten hay and lucerne hay are suitable, but hay of lower quality is of little use. If
good quality hay is not available, cereal grains or pellets may have to be fed.
Feeding should begin immediately after calving because cattle may take a while to
adjust to the ration .
Worm control
Young cows calving in autumn are particularly vulnerable to severe worm

infestations. The stress of calving may precipitate the release of large numbers of
'inhibited' worm larvae from the walls of the gut. If needed, an effective drench
should be given before calving.
Document No.
Self-Check 3.6-1
below.
FILL IN THE BLANK
1. _________ should be observed at least twice daily, more often if practical.

Assistance can then be given early if needed.
2. __________ difficulty can be induced by disturbance.
3. A ________ may be required to correct a difficult calving and to prescribe and

administer any veterinary drugs required to assist with calf and heifer survival
during and after calving.
4. To achieve this they must be well fed from calving until the end of __________.
5. _______________ both before and after calving has a great impact on cow
fertility.
Document No.
Answer key 3.6-1
1. Heifers
2. Calving
3. vet
4. mating
5. Nutritional management
Document No.

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COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING MATERIAL

QUALIFICATION : ANIMAL PRODUCTION (RUMINANTS) NC II

UNIT OF COMPETENCY : PERFORM BREEDING OF RUMINANTS

MODULE TITLE : PERFORMING BREEDING OF RUMINANTS

ORCHARD VALLEY INC.

The unit of competency, “Perform breeding of ruminants”, is one of the

The module, Performing breeding of ruminants, covers the knowledge,

In this module, you are required to go through a series of learning activities in

● Read information sheet and complete the self-checks.

No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code

1. Maintain housing, farm Maintaining housing, farm AFF621901

2. Provide forage Providing forage AFF621902

3. Perform breeding of Performing breeding of AFF621903

4. Raise dairy animals Raising dairy animals AFF621904

5. Raise meat-type animals Raising meat-type animals AFF621905

UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Perform breeding of ruminants

MODULE TITLE : Performing breeding of ruminants

MODULE DESCRIPTOR : This unit covers the knowledge, skills and

LO2 - Breed ruminants

● Where necessary, small ruminants are inseminated artificially according to

● Safety measures are practice according to OSHS procedures.

LO3 - Carry-out monitoring activities

LO4 - Feed breeding animals

● Grazing capacity of the pasture is determined based on pasture land

LO5 - Apply basic health care

● Assistance is provided during implementation of medication n program in

● Records are updated and kept following enterprise protocol.

● Work outputs are reported to the authority following enterprise protocol.

● Farm and forage area

● Different breeds of ruminants

● Infrastructures-houses, seed, corrals, sheds

● A.I. kit and paraphernalia

● Feeds, concentrates and additives

● Weighing scale (1000 kg. cap.) – for monitoring of animals weight

● Drenching gun/syringe – deworming purposes

● Pressurized pump – for cleaning of areas

● All workers involved in different activities must be fully oriented and

Learning Outcome # 1 - Prepare animal stocks

Refer to Task sheets, it will help you practice

The performance criteria checklist will guide

Evaluate your own performance using the

If you have questions and clarification fell free

Animal breeding ensures a continuous improvement of farm animals, generation

Breeding is done for different reasons:

● Production of food products (e.g. dairy, meat, eggs)

● Production of non- food products (e.g. wool, leather)

● Maintaining rural areas

● Preservation of minor breeds, e.g. Jacob sheep

● Reintroduction programmes, e.g. golden lion tamarins

There are three sorts of breeding:

● Pure breeding: the same breed or lines are used to mate.

Reproduction is a very important trait of an animal; reproductive efficiency is of

Methods of Breeding: Common Methods of Breeding of Cattle, Buffaloes,

Some common methods of breeding of cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs,

1. Cattle (Bos indicus):

It may be random or controlled.

Methods of Breeding: Common Methods of Breeding of Cattle, Buffaloes,

Some common methods of breeding of cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs,

It may be random or controlled.

2. Artificial Insemination (AI):

2. Animal breeding consists out of two phases: and ___

4. There are two methods of cattle breeding: and _.

2. The basic insemination kit should contain a _, _____,