DEP50072

SATELLITE AND RADAR

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
TOPIC 4:
Radar System
 LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of learning session the students able to:
4.1 Remember the principles of radar systems
4.2 Understand types of radar
4.3 Remember type of display in radar system
4.4 Understand the factors that affect radar measurement
4.5 Apply designated formula to solve problems related to
radar system
4.6 Investigate performance of CW radar
4.7 Apply the designated formula to solve problem related
to Pulse radar
4.8 Understand radar system
4.9 Apply the principle of Doppler effect
4.1 REMEMBER THE PRINCIPLES OF RADAR
SYSTEMS

Upon completion of this learning session, the student should

be able to:

1. Describe basic principles of radar

2. List the application of radar
system
3. Describe types of radar
4. Recognize types of radar signal
5. Describe Line of Sight (LOS) range
limitation radar 3
 Radar definition
• Radar is stand for Radio Detection And Ranging."
• Radar is an object detection system that uses
electromagnetic waves to identify the range, altitude,
direction or speed of both moving and fixed objects such as
aircraft, ships, motor vehicles, weather formations and
obstacles (mountain, trees, etc.)
 Basic principles radar
• Operation of radar is very similar to the principle of sound-
wave reflection. If you shout in the direction of a sound-
reflecting object (like a rocky canyon or cave), you will hear
an echo.

• If you know the speed of sound in air, you can then estimate
the distance and general direction of the object. The time
required for a return echo can be roughly converted to
distance if the speed of sound is known.

• Radar uses electromagnetic energy pulses in much the same

way, as shown below.
 Basic principles radar
• The radio-frequency (RF) energy is transmitted to and reflects
from the reflecting object. A small portion of the energy is
reflected and returns to the radar set. This returned energy is
called an ECHO, just as it is in sound terminology.

• Radar sets use the echo to determine the direction and

distance of the reflecting object.
 RADAR FREQUENCY BAND
• Radars operate in the radio frequency band of the energy
spectrum between about 100 MHz (VHF) and 100 GHz (Ka
band or millimeter wave band).
 RADAR FREQUENCY BAND
• Search radars operate at VHF to C band
• Track radars operate in X and Ku bands, and sometimes in K band
• Instrumentation radars and short range radars sometimes operate in
the Ka band.
 Frequency
Primary Application
Band

HF, VHF Primarily used for early warning and over-the-horizon radars
UHF(300 M -1 G) Used for Early warning radars, Wind profilers
L-band(1G -2G) Used for Air Route Surveillance Radars.
Used by first civilian remote sensing American satellite
carrying SAR (SEASAT) and Japanese JERS-1 satellites (L
band SAR) and NASA airborne system.
S-band Used on board the Russian ALMAZ satellite, Magellan
mapped Venus
C-band Commonly used on airborne (CCRS Convair-580 and NASA
AirSAR) and spaceborne systems (including ERS-1 and 2(SAR
& radar altimeter) and RADARSAT.
X-Band Used on airborne systems for military reconnaissance and
terrain mapping

Ka, K, and Ku Used in early airborne radar systems but uncommon today.
bands
Applications of Radar
 TYPES OF RADAR SIGNAL
There are two types of radar signal:

Radar technology is not only used in aviation but is also used

in detecting velocity as speed traps, detect wind speed and
direction, angles and so on.
 Pulse Radar
• Pulsed radar transmits high power, high-frequency pulses toward the target.
Then it waits for the echo of the transmitted signal for sometime before it
transmits a new pulse.
• Direction, distance and sometimes if necessary the height or altitude of the
target can be determined from the measured antenna position and
propagation time of the pulse-signal.
• These classically radars transmit a very short pulse (to get a good range
resolution) with an extremely high pulse-power (to get a good maximum
range). Choice of pulse repetition frequency (PRF) decides the range and
resolution of the radar.

Sends out signals in short but powerful bursts or pulses

 Pulse Radar

• Pulsed radars transmit signal during a very short time duration, or pulse
width τ , typically 0.1 to 10 μs, but sometimes ns or ms.

• During the time between transmitted pulses, typically from 1 μs to 10ms,

the receiver is connected to the antenna, allowing it to receive echoes
that may have been reflected from objects in the environment.

• This “listening” time plus the pulse width represents one pulsed radar
cycle time, normally called the interpulse period (IPP) or pulse repetition
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
interval . The pulsed waveform show below.
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
 Pulse Radar

Unambiguous Range Measurement

• Range is determined by measuring the delay time from
transmission of a pulse to reception of the reflected signal.

• Problems can occur in a pulsed radar when determine the range to

targets if the pulse round-trip travel time, ∆𝑇𝑇 between the radar
and the distant target is greater than the interpulse period, IPP.
2𝑅𝑅
The round-trip time for the radar wave ∆𝑇𝑇 =
𝐶𝐶
 Pulse Radar
• The distance of the target can be calculated from the total
𝑡𝑡
time taken by the pulse to travel to the target and return
∆𝑇𝑇
to its original initial point.
• Assuming “𝑐𝑐” to be the velocity of light in free space, the
distance traversed by pulse is “c𝑡𝑡” meters. Now this is two
times the target distance, hence the distance to the target.
Continuous Wave Radar (CW)

• The signal transmitted in the form of a sine wave

(microwave) with a constant amplitude and constant.

• Echoes produced also in the form of waves sinus but with

changes in frequency. Fixed echo wave amplitude but
smaller.
Continuous Wave Radar (CW)
• CW radars have the disadvantage that they cannot
measure distance, because there are no pulses to time.

• In order to correct for this problem, frequency shifting

methods can be used. In the frequency shifting method, a
signal that constantly changes in frequency around a fixed
reference is used to detect stationary objects.

• When a reflection is received the frequencies can be

examined, and by knowing when in the past that particular
frequency was sent out, a range calculation can be done
similar to using a pulse.
Continuous Wave Radar (CW)

Doppler shift from moving transmitter

Continuous Wave Radar (CW)
• High frequency will be accepted if the target / moving
objects and low-frequency radar approach would be
acceptable if the target / object moving away from the
radar.

• Changes in frequency between the transmitted signal and

the reflected signal is used to determine the speed of the
target.

•Advantage of CW radar is to measure the speed of the

target object. It is commonly used by the policy to measure
the speed of the car and lorry (speed trap).
 Pulse Radar vs CW Radar
Pulse Radar CW Radar

Single antenna Required 2 antenna

Gives Range & Altitude No Range & Alt. Info

Susceptible to Jamming More difficult to Jam but

easily Deceived

Physical Range determined by Amp can be tuned to look for

PW and PRF expected Frequencies
 Line Of Sight
• There are limits to the reach of radar signals. At the
frequencies normally used for radar, radio waves usually travel
in a straight line.
• When radar uses microwave frequencies, line of sight
communication will appear.
• In other words, radar cannot detect target which are beyond
the horizon.
Line Of Sight
• Target not be physically
visible, but they must be
within line of sight radio
distance in order for
detection to occur.
• The waves may be
obstructed by weather or
shadowing, and
interference may come
from other aircraft or
from reflections from
ground objects (Figure 1).
 4.2 understand types of radar

Upon completion of this learning session, the student should

be able to:

1. Visualize the operation of each block in 1:

a. Transmitter.
b. Duplexer.
c. Antenna.
d. Receiver.
2. Describe types of radar:
a. Primary.
b. Secondary.
4. Explain the operation of each block
 Typical Radar System

• Figure 1: Block diagram of typical radar system

 Radar Operation
1. Transmitting antenna sends an electromagnetic
signal.
2. Target reflects some energy back to source.
3. Receiving antenna receives reflected signal
4. Signal is processed and image produced
Block Diagram of Basic Radar System
Block Diagram of Basic Radar System

TRANSMITTER generates electromagnetic energy in the form

of short, powerful pulses.
DUPLEXER allows the same antenna to be used for
transmitting and receiving.
ANTENNA SYSTEM routes the electromagnetic energy from
the transmitter, radiates it in a highly directional beam,
receives any returning echoes, and routes those echoes to the
receiver.
RECEIVER amplifies the weak, electromagnetic pulses
returned from the reflecting object and reproduces them as
video pulses that are sent to the indicator.
INDICATOR produces a visual indication of the echo pulses in
a manner that, at a minimum, furnishes range and bearing
information.
 Exercise 1
What information RADAR can give?

• Target range (distance)

• Target height (altitude)
• Target speed
• Target identity
• Target features (imaging)
• Target size
 Radar Classification

• RADAR SYSTEMS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO SPECIFIC FUNCTION

 Type of Radar
1. Primary RADAR radiates an EM wave and receives the echo
reflected from any objects detecting the presence, distance and
azimuth, but not the identity

2. Secondary Radar relies on a piece of equipment aboard the

aircraft known as a 'transponder'. The transponder is a radio receiver
and transmitter operating on the radar frequency. The target aircraft's
transponder responds to interrogation by the ground station by
transmitting a coded reply signal.
 Primary Radar
• A Primary Radar transmits high-frequency signals toward the targets.
• The transmitted pulses are reflected by the target and then received
by the same radar.
• The reflected energy or the echoes are further processed to extract
target information.
• Only provide range & direction information
 Secondary Radar
• Secondary radar units work with active answer signals.
• In addition to primary radar, this type of radar uses a
transponder on the airborne target/object.
 Secondary Radar
• The secondary radar unit transmits and also receives high-
frequency impulses, the so-called interrogation. This isn't
simply reflected, but received by the target by means of a
transponder which receives and processes. After this the
target answers at another frequency.

• Various kinds of information like, the identity of aircraft,

position of aircraft, etc. are interrogated using the
secondary radar. The type of information required defines
the MODE of the secondary radar.
 Secondary radar
• Information will be sent back in the form of a code to the
radar antenna on Earth.

• To avoid collisions between signals transmitter from the

antenna and transmitter signal from transponder then both
signals are distinguished by using the frequency signal
different.

• Examples of secondary radar use is between military

helicopters and military vessels in which it can communicate
with each other to feedback.
Block diagram of secondary radar
 Example
• Primary radar sets are fitted with an additional
interrogator as secondary radar mostly, to combine the
advantages of both systems.

A monopulse secondary
surveillance radar
antenna (looks like a lattice
fence) mounted on top of an
antenna of a primary radar
(parabolic reflector)
 Differentiate between primary and
Secondary radar

Primary radar Secondary radar

• Using an antenna for • Using more than two antennas
transmitting and at the transmitter and receiver
receiving signals. for transmitting and receiving
signals.
• Using duplex switches as • Using synchronous online as an
switching between the intermediary between the
transmitter and receiver. sender and receiver
• The system is simple and • System more complex and only
easy to control. an expert in the field capable
of handling.
 Differentiate between primary and
Secondary radar

• Targets reflect signals and • Targets act as transponders that

detected by the antenna receive and transmit signals.
and received via the same Signal transmitted by the
antenna. transmitting antenna to be
received by the inner antenna
receiver.
• Only detect the target in
the control area only. •Can detect and communicate with
target up to thousands of
kilometers.
 4.3 REMEMBER TYPE OF DISPLAY IN RADAR
SYSTEM

Upon completion of this learning session, the student should

be able to:

Recognize the following types of display in radar

system:
a. A scan (A scope)
b. Height Positioning Indicator (HPI)
c. Plan Positioning indicator (PPI)

40
 Radar Display
• A radar display is an electronic instrument for visual representation of radar
data. Radar displays can be classified from the standpoint of their functions, the
physical principles of their implementation, type of information displayed, and so
forth.
• From the viewpoint of function, they can be detection displays, measurement
displays, or special displays. From the viewpoint of number of displayed
coordinates, they can be one dimensional (1D), two dimensional (2D), or three
dimensional (3D).
• An example of a 1D display is the range display (A-scope). Most widely used
are 2D displays, represented by the altitude range display (range-height
indicator, or RHI), azimuth elevation display (C-scope), azimuth range display (B-
scope), elevation range display (E-scope), and plan position indicator ( PPI ).
 Types of Radar Display
• The fundamental geometrical quantities involved in radar
displays are the RANGE, AZIMUTH ANGLE (or BEARING),
and ELEVATION ANGLE.
• These displays relate the position of a radar target to the
origin at the antenna. Most radar displays include one or
two of these quantities as coordinates of the CRT face.
• The three most common types of displays, called scopes, are
the A SCOPE, the HEIGHT POSITIONING INDICATOR (HPI) ,
and the PLAN POSITION INDICATOR (PPI) .
 Types of Radar Display

A Scan/scope

Height Positioning
Indicator (HPI)

Plan Positioning
Indicator (PPI)
 The A- scope
• The simplest form of display

• Simply displays the transmitted and received pulses.

• Presents only the range to the target and the relative

strength of the echo. Such a display is normally used in
weapons control radar systems.

• The horizontal sweep on the oscilloscope is calibrated in

yards or miles.
 The A- scope

A control-pulse shown at an A-scope of the

Russian VHF-radar “Spoon Rest”

operation of an A-scope digital signals with an A-scope

 HEIGHT POSITIONING INDICATOR (HPI)

• The RHI is a two-dimensional presentation indicating target

range and height.
• Target echoes are displayed as vertical BLIPS (spots of
increased intensity that indicate a target location).
• The operator determines altitude by adjusting a movable
height line to the point where it bisects the center of the blip.
• Target height is then read directly from an altitude dial or
digital readout. Vertical range markers are also provided to
estimate target range.
HEIGHT POSITIONING INDICATOR (HPI)

Russian height-
finding Radar
View of a RHI-scope with nodding
antenna “Odd
Group”
PLAN POSITIONING INDICATOR (PPI)
• PPI- most used radar display. It is a polar coordinate display of
the area surrounding the radar platform.
• Displays both the range , elevation and azimuth of the target.
• The center of display is assumed to be the location of the radar
unit. Concentric circles indicate the range.
• The azimuth or direction is indicated by the position of the
reflected target on the screen with respect to the vertical radius
line.
• The target show up as lighted blips on the screen
PLAN POSITIONING INDICATOR (PPI)

Good surveilance scan -

good in operational
setting

View of a PPI-screen

Historical PPI-
scope,
manufactured by
Telefunken AG in
1980

Air traffic- Controllers with

PPI-scopes
PLAN POSITIONING INDICATOR (PPI)
 4.4 Understand the factors that affect
radar measurement
Upon completion of this learning session, the student
should be able to:
1. Explain range of object.
2. Discuss the factors that effect echo:
a. Material of the target.
b. Surface area of the target.
c. Types of surface of the target.
d. Distance of the target.
3. Explain the following factor that affect the transmitted
power:
a. Maximum range, R
b. Object reflection coefficient
c. Radar sensitivity 51

d. Atmospheric absorption
 Range Of Object
• Distance from the
radar
• Measured from time
delay between
transmitted pulse
and returned signal
received
 Radar Range Measurement
• The common way to measure range with a radar is to measure
the time delay Between transmission and reception of a pulse as
figure below.

Target

𝑐𝑐τ
• Target range =
2
where c = speed of light
τ = round trip time
Factors that effect echo

1. Material of the target

2. Surface area of the target.

3. Types of surface of the target.

4. Distance of the target.

 Factors that effect echo
• The echo signal from radar are reflected from all object in path.
But the strange of the reflected signal depends on size, shape of
object and the material with which it is make up of.
• The reflected signal is strong from metal, and from large, close
and flat objects. Echoes from different objects are show below
 Factors that effect echo
The amount reflected
depends upon the material of
which the object is made, the
shape of the object and its
size (Fig 6).

• Two identical objects at

different distances from the
radar the one nearer the
radar reflects more energy.

•A metal object will reflect

more energy than an object
of the same size and shape
made of wood or plastic. The
better the conductor the
greater is the reflection.
 Factors that effect echo
• The shape of the object will deter-mine how the energy is
reflected. If the object has a flat side facing the radar transmitter
it will reflect more of the energy back towards the radar than an
object of any other shape.

• Large objects will reflect more energy than small objects of the
same material and shape at the same distance from the
transmitter. The object however must be greater than a certain
minimum size, in terms of wavelength of the radiated energy, to
produce a reasonable reflection of energy.

• Generally targets must have a size greater than about a

quarter of the radar wavelength being used before a detectable
echo is received. Thus for the detection of small objects the
radar wavelength must also be small, i.e. the frequency must be
very high. This is one reason for the use of high frequencies in
radar.
 Surface area of the Target

The Effects on Target Response of Aspect and Surface Texture

 Material of the target

Some Effects of Material on Target Response

 Shape of the target

The Effect of Target Shape on Target Response

 Size of target

• The Effect of Irradiated Area on Echo Strength

• Area A = Area B = Cross-Section of the Radar Beam
 Factors that affect the transmitter
power requirement
MAXIMUM RANGE
• The maximum range that the system can achieve when the
transmitter transmits the greater power (more costly equipment
and more power must be provided)

ANTENNA GAIN
• The antenna gain of the radar is a known value. This is a measure
of the antenna's ability to focus outgoing energy into the directed
beam.
• The power received from a given target is directly related to the
square of the antenna gain, while the antenna is used both for
transmitting and receiving.
Factors that affect the transmitter
power requirement
OBJECT REFLECTION COEFFICIENT
• The reflection coefficient is used when wave propagation in a
medium containing discontinuities is considered.
• A reflection coefficient describes either the amplitude or
the intensity of a reflected wave relative to an incident wave.

RADAR SENSITIVITY
• Changing the radar transmitter’s pulse width changes the radar’s
sensitivity.
• Wider pulses effectively increase the radar’s sensitivity to weak
atmospheric events, and increase the radar’s
ability to enter heavy rain.
4.5 Apply designated formula to solve
problems related to radar system

Upon completion of this learning session, the student

should be able to:

1. Calculate the parameters in target measurement of:

a. Range/distance.
b. time.
c. velocity.
d. height.
e. bearing.
2. Use related formula to calculate CW radar, 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 and 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟
64
 Range of Object
𝑐𝑐τ
• Formula range, 𝑅𝑅 = , R in meter, m (𝑡𝑡 in 𝑠𝑠)
2

• The distance, 𝐷𝐷 in nautical mile to the remote target also can be calculated using
𝑇𝑇
simple expression: 𝐷𝐷 = ……………… 𝑇𝑇 in µ𝑠𝑠
12.36

• 𝐷𝐷 in yard 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 is the common unit of distance measurement. Radio signal travels
𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
328 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 and can be compute as
µ𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝐷 = 164𝑇𝑇 ……………… 𝑇𝑇 in µ𝑠𝑠
• The distances are expressed in kilometers or nautical miles (1 NM = 1.852 km).

R=D
R= cτ/2 : unit meter, T in s
D= T/12.36 : unit nmi , T in µs.
D= 164T : unit yd, T in µs.
 Example 1
1. The target is found at 129.30 μs after transmitting the
signal from the radar. Calculate the distance from the radar to
the target in nautical miles and meter.
(Answer: 19395 meter/ 10.46 nmi)

2. Calculate range delay time to target if transmit pulses are

spaced 400μs apart. And the target range 90km
 Height /altitude or elevation
• The distance or range between the radar
unit and the remote airplane is the
hypotenuse of the right triangle.
Determining Altitude
• The angle of elevation is the angle
Trigonometric formula
Sin θ = altitude/range between the hypotenuse and the base line
e which is a line tangent to the surface of the
Rang
nt
Sla earth at the radar location.
Altitude

Angle of Elevation • The altitude is defined by the angle of

elevation.
Altitude = slant range x sin0 elevation
• The greater angle of elevation, altitude
also greater. By knowing the range and
the angle of elevation, the altitude can be
compute using trigonometric techniques.
 Bearing (azimuth)
• The direction or bearing of
Azimuth Angular Measurement
the target is usually given Relative Bearing = Angle from ship’s heading.
True Bearing = Ship’s Heading + Relative Bearing
in degrees. Recall that true Ship’s Heading
N Angle
north is 0° or 360 °, east is Target Angle

90 °, south 180 ° and west

270 °.
• If the radar unit is located
in a moving vehicle such as
an airplane or ship, the
azimuth or bearing is
given as a relative
bearing with respect to the
forward direction of the
vehicle.
 Bearing (azimuth)
• Straight ahead is o ° or 360 °, directly to the
right is 90°, direct behind is 180 °, and directly
to the left is 270 °.

• The ability of a radar unit to determine the

direction of target is directly dependent with a
highly directional antenna.

• By using an antenna with an extremely narrow

beam width, radar unit will be receive signals
from only a narrow angle. Narrow beam width
antenna get more precisely actual azimuth or
bearing can be determined.
 Bearing (azimuth)
Surihan yang berputar
mengikut jam
00 menunjukkan bering
N
3300 300 sasaran

3000
600 Surih terang disebabkan
oleh denyut pantulan dari
sasaran
2700 W
E 900

2400 1200

Bulatan ditentukur
2100 1500 mengikut jarak dari
S
1800 pusat
 Velocity/speed (CW radar)
Example : Police Radar unit use CW Doppler radar to
measuring the speed
• RADAR speed detectors bounce microwave radiation off of
moving vehicles and detect the reflected waves.
• These waves are shifted in frequency by the Doppler effect,
and the beat frequency between the directed and reflected
waves provides a measure of the vehicle speed.
 Velocity/speed (CW radar)
• Speed can be compute using the following formula:
𝑓𝑓
� 2ν
ν= 𝑑𝑑
2
; 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 =
λ

Where, 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 = frequency difference between transmitted and reflected signal, Hz

λ = wavelength of transmitted signal, m
ν = speed between two objects, m/s

Example 1 :
Calculate the velocity of the vehicle if the frequency difference
between the transmitted signal and received signal is 4700Hz
and use the 15GHz frequency signal for the antenna.
(ans: 47 ms-1)
 Velocity/speed (CW radar)
Example 2 :
The radar shown in Figure below is used to determine the
velocity, V of an approaching vehicle using an 18 GHz
microwave signal. Determine the frequency difference
between the transmitted signal and received signal if the
vehicle is travelling at 140 km/h .

140 x1000m
V = = 38.89m / s
(60 x60)
c 3 x10 8
λ= = 9
= 0.0167 m
f 18 x10
2V
fd =
λ
2(38.89)
fd = = 4657.49 Hz
0.0167
 Velocity/speed (CW radar)
• In CW radar, it is the Doppler radar effect that provides
frequency modulation of the carrier.

• In order for there to be a frequency change, the observed object

must be moving toward or always from the radar unit. If the
target move parallel to the radar unit, there is no relative motion
between two object, and no frequency modulation occur.

• The greatest value of CW radar is its ability to measure the

speed of distant object.
 Radar requirement
TRANSMITTER POWER is the peak power transmitted by
the radar. This is a known value of the radar. It is important
to know because the power returned is directly related to
the transmitted power.

RECEIVER POWER is the power returned to the radar from

a target. This is an unknown value of the radar, but it is one
that is directly calculated. To detect a target, this power
must be greater than the minimum detectable signal of the
receiver.
4.6 Investigate performance of CW radar

.
Upon completion of this learning session, the student should
be able to:

1. Determine transmitted power, Pt and received power,

Pr by referring to radar communication diagram or
scenario

76
Power Transmit & Receive
 Power Transmit & Receive
• The minimum receivable power (Prmin) for a given receiver is
important because the minimum receivable power is one of the
factors which determine the maximum range performance of the
radar. The sensitivity level MDS has got a value of 10 -13 Watts (
-100 dBm) for a typical radar receiver.
• All receivers are designed for a certain sensitivity level based on
requirements. One would not design a receiver with more
sensitivity than required because it limits the receiver bandwidth
and will require the receiver to process signals it is not interested
in.
• In general, while processing signals, the higher the power level at
which the sensitivity is set, the fewer the number of false alarms
which will be processed. Simultaneously, the probability of
detection of a “good” (low-noise) signal will be decreased.
 Power Transmit & Receive

• For many monostatic radar systems, particularly those using

mechanically scanned antennas, the transmit and receive
antennas gains are the same, so in those cases the two gain
terms in are replaced by G2.
 Power Transmit & Receive
• For a bistatic radar, one for which the receive antenna is not
collocated with the transmit antenna, the range between the
transmitter and target, Rt , may be different from the range
between the target and the receiver, Rr .
• In this case, the two different range values must be
independently specified, leading to the bistatic form of the
equation
 Example
A pulsed radar operating at 10 GHz has an antenna with a
gain of 28dB and a total peak power developed by the
radar transmitter of 100kW. If it is defined to detect a
target with a radar cross section of 12m2 at the target
range of 50Km, calculate the power reflected by the target
back toward the radar.
P G G λ2σ 3x108
P = t t r λ= = 0.03m
r
(4π )3 R 4 10 x109
G = 28dB (100k )(630)(630)(0.03) 2 (12)
P =
r
G = 10 log( x ) (4π )3 (50000) 4
x = anti log 2.8
428652000
x = 630 = = 3.46 x10 − 14 @ 0.0346 pW
G = 28dB / 630
1.24 x10 22

c = 3 x108
 Exercises
1. Compute the maximum range of radar which operates at a
frequency of 10 GHz, Transmitter pulse peak power of 600W,
the antenna gain 300, the target area of 20m2 minimum
receivable power of 1 pW. (Answer:5.344km)

2. Consider a radar system having the following specifications:

Transmit and receive gain : 33dB
Receive power : 10-14W
Operating frequency : 2.5GHz
Calculate the peak transmitter power required in pulsed radar
to detect a target of 15m2 radar cross section at a range of
250Km. (answer:96Kw)
 Exercises
Calculate power received Pr, if :

Radar center frequency, f = 9.5 GHz

Transmit power, PT = 100 kW
G = 12,600
Range to target, R = 20 km
Target RCS, σ = 1 m2 (small aircraft or boat)

Answer : Pr= 50 pW

https://www.pasternack.com/t-calculator-radar-range.aspx
 4.7 Apply the designated formula to
solve problem related to Pulse radar
.
Upon completion of this learning session, the student
should be able to:
1. Show the formula related to Pulse Repetition Frequency
(PRF)
2. Show the relationship between peaks power (Ppk) to
average power(Pavg)
3. Calculate:
a. Pulse Repetition Frequency, PRF
b. Peak power, Ppk
c. Average power, Pavg
d. Duty Cycle

84
Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)

• Pulse Width (PW) is length or duration of a pulse

• PFT is time from begining of one pulse to the begining of the next.
• Pulse Repetition Time (PRT = PW + RT)
• Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF = 1/PRT) is frequency at which
consecutive pulses are transmitted .
• PW can determine the radar’s minimum detection range
• PRF can determine the radar’s maximum detection range
Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)

PRT

Resting
Time

Carrier
PW Wave

Figure 5.3:Pulse diagram

Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)
Pulse Repetition Frequency, PRF is the number of pulses transmitted in
one second (PPS).

𝟏𝟏
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 =
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷

• Pulse Width (PW) is Length or duration of a given pulse.

• PW can determine the radar’s minimum range resolution.
• PRT is the time interval between two pulses.
• PRF can determine the radar’s maximum detection range.

𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷
 Duty cycle , Duty Cycle= X100%
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷
 Example

If The PRF Is 250 PPS, What Is The PRT Of The Transmission?

ANSWER: 4000
 Peak Power & Average Power
• Peak power is the maximum power level.
• Power measured over such a period of time (PRT) is referred to as
AVERAGE POWER.

• Pavg = Average Power

Power

• Ppk = Peak Power

• PW = Pulse Width
• PRT = Pulse Repetition
Time

𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷
Time 𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝑷𝑷𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 ×
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷
 Relationship between Peak Power,
Average Power & Duty Cycle
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ×
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

• The duty cycle is a ratio of the time on to the time off of the transmitter.
𝟏𝟏
• Because 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = , the formula may be written as follows:
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷

𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝑷𝑷𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 × 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 × 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷

𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 _ 𝑪𝑪𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚 = 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 × 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷

• The product of pulse width (PW) and pulse-repetition frequency (PRF) is

called the DUTY CYCLE of a radar system. The formula for duty cycle:
 Relationship between Peak Power,
Average Power & Duty Cycle
• The most common formula for average power is
expressed as:

𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝑷𝑷𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 × 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄

• The amount of energy in the waveform is important

because maximum range is directly related to
transmitter output power. The more energy the radar
system transmits, the greater the target detection range
will be.
 Exercise 1
1. An airborne pulsed radar has peak power, 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 10kW and
uses a PRF of 10kHz. What is the required pulse width so that
the average transmitted power is equal to 1.5kW?

2. A Pulse Radar transmits a peak power of 1 MWatt. It has a

PRT equal to 1000µs and the transmitted pulse width is 1µs.
Calculate:
i. Range
ii. Duty Cycle
iii. Average Power
 Solution:

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 Duty cycle
2
= 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
3𝑥𝑥108 𝑋𝑋 1000−6
= 1
2 = 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
= 150𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
1
= 1𝑀𝑀 𝑥𝑥 1µ 𝑥𝑥
1000µ
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑋𝑋 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
= 1000𝑊𝑊
1
= 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 = 1kW
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
1
= 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
1
= 1µ 𝑥𝑥
1000µ
= 0.001
 FORMULA TO REMEMBER

1 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 × 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
pw
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 Pavg = Ppk ×
PRT

𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 × 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

Let’s do a
QUIZ 3
 4.8 Understand radar system

.
UPON COMPLETION OF THIS LEARNING SESSION, THE
STUDENT SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

1. Explain Doppler Effect

2. Elaborate type of interference in radar system
a. Noise – internal and external
b. Clutter – volume, surface, point
c. Jamming

96
 DOPPLER RADAR
• Doppler radar: A radar that can determine the frequency shift
through measurement of the phase change that occurs in
electromagnetic waves during a series of pulses.
• Doppler Shift: A frequency shift that occurs in electromagnetic waves
due to the motion of scatters toward or away from the observer.
 DOPPLER RADAR
• A Doppler radar is a specialized radar that makes use of the
Doppler effect to produce velocity data about objects at a
distance.
• Doppler radar works by sending a microwave signal towards a
desired target and listening for its reflection, then analyzing how
the frequency of the returned signal has been altered by the
object's motion. The frequency variation gives direct and highly
accurate measurements of a target's velocity relative to the radar.
• Doppler radars are used in aviation, sounding satellites,
meteorology, police speed guns, and bistatic radar (surface to air
missile).
 DOPPLER EFFECT
• Doppler effect: Changes of wavelength and frequency of
electromagnetic waves caused by motion of the object.
• To realize Doppler Effect there should be a speed difference
between the source of the electromagnetic wave and the target
of the electromagnetic wave. Doppler Effect is observed and
measured on the target side.
 DOPPLER FREQUENCY
 The Doppler effect causes the received frequency of a source (how it is
perceived when it gets to its destination) to differ from the sent frequency
if there is motion that is increasing or decreasing the distance between the
source and the receiver.

• In radar technology the Doppler

Effect is using for :
 Speed measuring;
 MTI - Moving Target
Indication;
 in air-or space-based
radar systems for precise
determination of lateral
distances.
 RADAR INTERFERENCE
• Interference occurs when two waves move at the same time
through a medium.

• They can interfere constructively, destructively, or produce a

resultant of zero

• Radar systems must overcome unwanted signals in order to

focus only on the actual targets of interest.

• These unwanted signals may originate from internal and

external sources, both passive and active.
 RADAR INTERFERENCE
• The ability of the radar system to overcome these unwanted
signals defines its signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

• SNR is defined as the ratio of a signal power to the noise

power within the desired signal.

• The higher a system's SNR, the better it is in isolating actual

targets from the surrounding noise signals.
RADAR INTERFERENCE

1. Noise

2. Clutter

3. Jamming
 NOISE
 Is random variations
superimposed on the desired
echo signal received in the
radar receiver.
 Noise is most apparent in
regions with low signal level,
such as the weak received
echo-signal in a radar receiver.
The lower the power of the
desired signal, the more
difficult it is to discern it from Background noise at a PPI scope
the noise.
 CLUTTER
• Clutter is a term used to describe any object that may
generate unwanted radar echoes that may interfere with
normal radar operation.
• The output of the undesired echoes tends to clutter the radar
display.
• Such echoes are typically returned from ground, sea, rain,
animals/insects, chaff (small pieces of metal foil) and
atmospheric turbulences.
• Can cause decrease of radar performance
• Clutter can be classified into three main categories, surface
clutter , volume clutter and pointer clutter.
 TYPES OF RADAR CLUTTER
Surface Clutter – Ground or sea returns are typical surface clutter.
Returns from geographical land masses are generally stationary, however, the
effect of wind on trees means that the target can introduce a Doppler Shift to the
radar return. This Doppler shift is an important method of removing unwanted
signals in the signal processing part of a radar system. Clutter returned from the
sea generally also has movement associated with the waves.

Volume Clutter – Weather or chaff are typical volume clutter.

In the air, the most significant problem is weather clutter. This can be produced
from rain or snow and can have a significant Doppler content.

Point Clutter – Birds, windmills and individual tall buildings are typical point
clutter and are not extended in nature. Moving point clutter is sometimes
described as angels. Birds and insects produce clutter, which can be very difficult
to remove because the characteristics are very much like aircraft.
 RADAR JAMMING
• Radar jamming is the intentional emission of radio
frequency signals to interfere with the operation of a
radar by saturating its receiver with noise or false
information.
 JAMMING PRINCIPLE
• A radar jammer may aim simply to swamp the radar receiver to
prevent it from receiving the returns from targets.
• Alternatively, a more sophisticated radar jammer may attempt
to transmit a signal that will cause false targets to be detected
by the radar.
• Jamming can be achieved by two principles:
1. Reflect or re-reflect radar energy back to the radar to produce false
target returns on the operator’s scope.
2. Radiate interfering signals toward an enemy’s radar, blocking the
receiver with highly concentrated energy signals
 NOISE JAMMING
• There are several different
methods of jamming
available, all with their own
strengths and weaknesses.
One of these is active noise
jamming.
• Noise jamming floods the
radar with noise and
therefore decreases the SNR.
A powerful jammer can hide • Example: Figure: noise-modulated
the targets completely. jamming, the jammer in 150° (VHF-
Band radar)
4.9 Apply the principle of Doppler effect

.
Upon completion of this learning session, the student
should be able to:

1. Apply the Doppler effect in explaining the operation

of the following radar system:
a. Weather radar
b. Air Traffic Control (ATC) radar
c. Radar altimeters

110
 WEATHER RADAR
• Weather radar, also called weather
surveillance radar (WSR) and Doppler
weather radar. This radar using the Doppler
effect to determine the location and velocity
of a storm, clouds, precipitation, etc.
• The Doppler weather radar – the faster the
raindrops move towards the radar, the
higher will be the frequency (i.e. pitch) of
the microwave reflected from raindrops.
• The raindrops' approach speed is
determined by the frequency shift, and
provides a good estimation of the winds,
which carry the raindrops.
 WEATHER RADAR

• In Weather radars, the Doppler frequency shift, is caused by the

motion of the cloud and precipitation particles
 WEATHER RADAR OPERATION

 A weather radar detects rain in the

atmosphere by emitting pulses of
microwave and measuring the
reflected signals from the raindrops.

 In general, the more intense the

reflected signals, the higher will be
the rain intensity.

 The distance of the rain is determined

from the time it takes for the
microwave to travel to and from the
rain.
 EXAMPLE OF WEATHER RADAR
AMAZING HI-TECH RADAR UMBRELLA (RADOME)
The expensive radar
equipment is protected
by the sphere shaped
cover.
On the inside it looks
similar to this:
 WEATHER RADAR

• IMAGES ARE SHOWN APPROXIMATELY EVERY HOUR. THE IMAGES ARE COURTESY OF THE
NATIONAL CENTER FOR ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH.
 ATC / RADAR BEACON
• Air Traffic Control (ATC) Radar is a very
important equipment in avoiding
aircraft collisions.

• The international air traffic control system

uses both primary and secondary radar.

• A network of long-range radar systems

called Air Route Surveillance Radar
(ARSR) tracks aircraft as they fly
between airports.

• Airports use medium-range radar systems

called Airport Surveillance Radar to
track aircraft more accurately while they
are near the airport.
 ATC / RADAR BEACON
• The air traffic control radar beacon system (ATCRBS) is a modern system used
in air traffic control (ATC) to enhance surveillance radar monitoring and
separation of air traffic.
• ATCRBS is a secondary surveillance radar system (SSR) developed for use within
the air traffic control system for more precise position reporting of planes. It is
used in conjunction with the primary radar, which is used to determine the
presence of planes in the airspace.
 ATC OPERATION
• ATC radar beacon system utilizes a transponder in the aircraft. The
ground equipment is an interrogating unit, in which the beacon antenna is
mounted so it rotates with the surveillance antenna.
• The interrogating unit transmits a coded pulse sequence that actuates the
aircraft transponder.
• The transponder answers the coded sequence by transmitting a
preselected coded sequence back to the ground equipment, providing a
strong return signal and positive aircraft identification, as well as other
special data.
EXAMPLE : ATC Radar Screen
E

Screenshot from UAC Maastricht controllers’

display showing a number of aircraft assigned
the Mode S conspicuity transponder code
A1000
RADAR ALTIMETER
• A radar altimeter, radio altimeter, low range
radio altimeter (LRRA) or simply RA
measures altitude above the terrain.

• This type of altimeter provides the distance

between the plane and the ground directly
below it.

• Differs from barometric or air data altimeter,

which commonly reference sea level
altitude (altimeter measures altitude above
ground level)

• Operates over a max range of 0 – 5000 ft

• Display shown has a max reading of 2000 ft

HOW AN ALTIMETER WORKS
 RADAR ALTIMETER LAYOUT

Radar altimeter measures the exact height during the landing

procedure of aircraft and is a component of terrain avoidance
warning systems (telling the pilot that the aircraft is flying too low or
that terrain is rising to meet the aircraft).
RADAR ALTIMETER OPERATION

Different targets reflect radio waves in different ways :

1. Smooth targets like lakes, sea, smooth roads and smooth runways
provide specular reflections. Specular reflections are very strong and
are always at right angle. The shape and tip of the antenna beam does
not affect a specular reflection. In the case of a specular reflection it is
relatively simple to measure the altitude of the aircraft above ground.
 RADAR ALTIMETER OPERATION
2. Rough targets like bushes, trees, mountains and unpaved runways
provide diffused reflections. Diffused reflections are rather weak since
the radio signal is scattered in many directions. Tilting the antenna
changes the reflection area. In the case of a diffused reflection, the first
radar return comes from the area just under the aircraft and this is a good
estimate for the aircraft altitude.

• This type of radar frequently used by commercial aircraft for approach and
landing, especially in low-visibility conditions and also automatic landings.
• It also used in military aircraft flying extremely low over ground to avoid
radar detection and targeting by anti-aircraft weapons.
• gives the pilot an indication of the aircrafts absolute altitude above the
surface.
• Determines height by measuring the time delay between transmission and
reflection of downward directed radio waves.
 SUMMARY/RECAP
AT THE END OF THE LEARNING SESSION THE STUDENTS HAS
BEEN TAUGHT ABOUT THE:-

• PRINCIPLES OF RADAR SYSTEM

• TYPES OF RADAR
• BLOCK DIAGRAM OF RADAR SYSTEM
• RADAR DISPLAY
• RADAR MEASUREMENT
• RADAR REQUIREMENT
• TRANSMITTER POWER REQUIREMENT
• RADAR INTERFERENCE
 REFERENCES
1. Radar Fundamentals,
http://www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical/NEETS%20Modules/NEETS-Module-
18-1-1-1-10.htm
2. Radar Range Equation, http://www.copradar.com/rdrrange/

3. Principle of Radar, http://www.newagepublishers.com/samplechapter/001875.pdf

4. Radar Basics, http://www.newagepublishers.com/samplechapter/001875.pdf
5. Radar Fundamental,
http://www.navymars.org/national/training/nmo_courses/nmoc/module18/14190
_ch1.pdf

6. Radar Technology http://www.scribd.com/doc/31099757/radar-systems

7. Radar basic princile, http://www.radartutorial.eu/01.basics/rb05.en.html
8. Radar basics, Renato Croci, http://www.alphalpha.org/radar/intro_e.html

9. Radar Fundamental, http://www.yorku.ca/bartel/4330/w11/script5.pdf