Even today different countries use different terminology as well as different units for the same thing -

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING they even use the same name for different things e.g. an American pint is 4/5 of a British pint!
CE 112 – HYDRAULICS
It’s your responsibility to be familiarized with the Metric System and English System to avoid confusion.
2nd Semester, S.Y 2023 – 2024

1.2 FUNDAMENTAL OF FLUID FLOW

MODULE 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW The previous course discussed fluid mechanics dealing only with fluids at rest in which the only
significant property used is the weight of the fluid. This chapter will deal with fluids in motion which are
1.1 INTRODUCTION based on the following principles: (a) the principle of conservation of mass, (b) the energy principle
(the kinetic and potential energies), and (c) the principle of momentum.
1.1.1 What is Hydraulics?
1.2.1 DISCHARGE OF FLOW RATE, Q
Hydraulics deals with the application of fluid mechanics to engineering devices involving liquids,
Discharge of flow rate is the amount of fluid passing through a section per unit of time. This is
usually water or oil. Hydraulics deals with such problems as the flow of fluids through pipes or in open
expressed as a mass flow rate (ex. Kg/sec), weight flow rate (ex. kN/sec), and volume flow rate or
channels, the design of storage dams, pumps, and water turbines, and with other devices for the flow rate (ex. m³/s, lit/s).
control or use of liquids, such as nozzles, valves, jets, and flow meters. (DIT Gillesana)
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞, 𝑸 = 𝑨𝒗
Hydraulics, a branch of science concerned with the practical applications of fluids, primarily liquids, 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞, 𝑴 = 𝝆𝑸
𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞, 𝑾 = 𝜸𝑸
in motion. It is related to fluid mechanics, which in large part provides its theoretical foundation.
Where:
Hydraulics deals with such matters as the flow of liquids in pipes, rivers, and channels and their
Q = discharge in m³/s or ft³/s
confinement by dams and tanks. Some of its principles apply also to gases, usually in cases in which A = cross-section area of flow in m² or ft²
variations in density are relatively small. Consequently, the scope of hydraulics extends to such 𝑣 = mean velocity of flow in m/s of ft/s
mechanical devices as fans and gas turbines and to pneumatic control systems. (Britannica) 𝜌 = mass density in kg/m³ or slugs/ft³
𝛾 = weight density in N/m³ or lb/ft³
1.1.2 Why are we studying hydraulics on a Civil Engineering course?
1.2.2 Definition of Terms
Hydraulic engineering as a sub-discipline of civil engineering is concerned with the flow and
conveyance of fluids, principally water and sewage. One feature of these systems is the extensive Fluid Flow may be steady or unsteady; uniform or non-uniform; continuous, laminar, or turbulent; one-
use of gravity as the motive force to cause the movement of the fluids. This area of civil engineering is dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional; and rotational or irrational.
intimately related to the design of bridges, dams, channels, canals, and levees, and to both sanitary
and environmental engineering. Steady Flow – This occurs when the discharge Q passing a given cross-section is constant with time. If
the flow Q at the cross-section varies with time, the flow is unsteady.
Hydraulic engineering is the application of the principles of fluid mechanics to problems dealing with
the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement, and use of water. Before
Uniform Flow – This occurs if, with steady flow for a given length, or reach, of a stream, the average
beginning a hydraulic engineering project, one must figure out how much water is involved. The
velocity of flow is the same at every cross-section. This usually occurs when an incompressible fluid
hydraulic engineer is concerned with the transport of sediment by the river, the interaction of the
flows through a stream with uniform cross-section. In streams where the cross-sections and velocity
water with its alluvial boundary, and the occurrence of scour and deposition. "The hydraulic engineer
changes, the flow is said to be non-uniform.
actually develops conceptual designs for the various features which interact with water such as
spillways and outlet works for dams, culverts for highways, canals and related structures for irrigation
Continuous Flow – This occurs when at any time, the discharge Q at every section of the stream is the
projects, and cooling-water facilities for thermal power plants."
same (principle of conservative of mass).

1.1.3 System of Units

As any quantity can be expressed in whatever way you like it is sometimes easy to become confused
as to what exactly or how much is being referred to. This is particularly true in the field of fluid
mechanics. Over the years many ways have been used to express the various quantities involved.

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA

 Continuity Equation

For incompressible fluids:

𝑸 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐 = 𝑨𝟑 𝒗𝟑 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

For compressible fluids:

𝝆𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝝆𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐 = 𝝆𝟑 𝑨𝟑 𝒗𝟑 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒐𝒓 𝜸𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝜸𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐 = 𝜸𝟑 𝑨𝟑 𝒗𝟑 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Laminar Flow – The flow is said to be laminar when the path of individual fluid particles does not cross 1.3 ENERGY AND HEAD
or intersect. The flow is always laminar when the Reynolds number 𝑅𝑒 is less than (approximately)
2,100. The energy possessed by a flowing fluid consists of kinetic and potential energy. Potential energy
may in turn be subdivided into energy due to position or elevation above a given datum, and
Turbulent Flow – The flow is said to be turbulent when the path of individual particles is irregular and energy due to pressure in the fluid. The amount of energy per pound or Newton of fluid is called the
continuously cross each other. Turbulent flow normally occurs when the Reynolds number exceeds head.
2,100, (although the most common situation is when it exceeds 4000).
1.3.1 Kinetic Energy
Laminar flow in circular pipes can be maintained up to values of 𝑅𝑒 as high as 50,000. However, in
such cases this type of flow is inherently unstable, and the least disturbance will transform it instantly The ability of the fluid mass to do work by virtue of its velocity.
into turbulent flow. On the other hand, it is practically impossible for turbulent flow in a straight pipe to
persist at values of 𝑅𝑒 much below 2100, because any turbulence that is set up will be damped out 𝟏 𝟏𝑾 𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬. = 𝑴𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗
by viscous friction. 𝟐 𝟐𝒈
𝑲. 𝑬. 𝒗𝟐
One-Dimensional Flow – This occurs when in an incompressible fluid, the direction and magnitude of 𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 = =
𝑾 𝟐𝒈
the velocity at all points are identical.
For circular pipe of diameter D flowing full:
Two-Dimensional Flow – This occurs when the fluid particles move in planes or parallel planes and the 𝑣 2 (𝑄⁄𝐴)2 𝑄2
streamline patterns are identical in each plane. = =
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔𝐴2
𝑣2 𝑄2
Streamlines – These are imaginary curves drawn through a fluid to indicate the direction of motion in =
2𝑔 2𝑔(𝜋 𝐷 2 )2
various sections of the flow of the fluid system. 4

Stream tubes – These represent elementary portions of a flowing fluid bounded by a group or 𝒗𝟐 𝟖𝑸𝟐
=
streamlines which confine the flow. 𝟐𝒈 𝝅𝟐 𝒈𝑫𝟒

Flow Net – These are drawn to indicate flow patterns in case of two-dimensional flow, or even three- 1.3.2 Elevation Energy (Potential Energy)
dimensional flow.
The energy possessed by the fluid by virtue of its position or elevation with respect to a datum plane.
Example Problems:
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝑾𝒛 = 𝑴𝒈𝒛
1. Water flows through an 80 mm diameter pipe at a velocity of 3.5 m/sec. Find,
a. The volume flow rate in m³/sec. 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 = =𝒛
b. The mass flow rate in kg/sec. 𝑾
c. The weight flow rate in N/sec.
1.3.3 Pressure Energy (Potential Energy)
2. Air at 30°C and 100 kPa flows at 22 N/s through a rectangular duct that measures 150 mm x
300 mm. Compute the average velocity and volume flux. Use gas constant R=29.3/°K°. Consider a closed tank filled with a fluid which has a small opening at the top. Without pressure at
the top, the fluid practically will not flow. In the previous topic in fluid mechanics, the equivalent
3. A 100-mm diameter plunger is being pushed at 60 mm/sec into a tank filled with oil having head (pressure head) for a pressure pf p is 𝑝⁄𝛾. Hence the pressure energy is equivalent to:
sp.gr. of 0.82. If the fluid is incompressible, how may N/s of oil is being forced out at a 30-mm
diameter hole?

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA

 𝒑 Bernoulli’s Principle, in physics, the concept that as the
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝑾
𝜸 speed of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) increases, the
pressure within that fluid decreases. Originally
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒑 formulated in 1738 by Swiss mathematician and physicist
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 = =
𝑾 𝜸 Daniel Bernoulli, it states that the total energy in a
steadily flowing fluid system is a constant along the flow
Where: path. An increase in the fluid’s speed must therefore be
𝑧 = position of the fluid above (+) or below (-) the datum plane. matched by aa decrease in its pressure.
𝑝 = fluid pressure
𝑣 = mean velocity of flow
𝑬𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏 + 𝑬𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒅 − 𝑬𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 = 𝑬𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟐
1.3.4 Total Flow Energy, E
1.4.1 Energy Equation without Head Lost:
The total energy or head in a fluid flow is the sum of the kinetic and the potential energies. It can be
summarized as: If the fluid experiences no head lost in moving from section 1 to section 2 then the total energy at
section 1 must be equal to the total energy at section 2. Neglecting head lost in fluid flow, the values
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 + 𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒆𝒔 that we get are called ideal or theoretical values. With reference to Figure 5-3:

𝒗𝟐 𝒑 𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅, 𝑬 = + +𝒛 𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝒑𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝒑 𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 + + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸
1.3.5 POWER AND EFFICIENCY

Power is the rate at which work is done. For a fluid of unit weight 𝛾 (N/m³) and moving at a rate of Q
(m³/s) with a total energy of E (m), the power in N-m/s (Joule/sec) or watts is:

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑸𝜸𝑬

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚, ŋ = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

Note: 1 Horsepower (hp) = 746 Watts

1 Horsepower (hp) = 550 ft-lb/sec
1 Watt = 1 N-m/s = 1 Joule/sec
1.4.2 Energy Equation with Head Lost:
Example Problems:
Consider head lost, the values that we attain are called actual values. With reference to Figure 5-4:
1. If the velocity of flow in an 80-mm diameter fire hose is 0.65 m/s, what is the velocity in a 25
mm diameter jet issued from a nozzle attached at the end of the pipe. Also compare the
𝑬𝟏 − 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐 = 𝑬𝟐
power available in the jet.
𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝒑 𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝒑𝟐
2. A turbine at 650 hp when the flow of water the flow of water through it is 0.65 m³/s. + + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝑯
Assuming an efficiency of 85%, what is the head acting on the turbine? 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸

3. A standpipe 3m in diameter and 10 m high is filled with water. Calculate the potential
energy of the water if the elevation datum is taken 1 m below the base of the standpipe.

1.4 BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM

Bernoulli’s energy theorem results from the application of the principles of conservation of energy.
This equation may be summarized as follows:

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA

 Example Problems:
1.4.3 Energy Equation with Pump:
1. Water is flowing in an open channel at a depth of 3 m and a velocity of 3.3 m/s. It flows
Pump is used basically to increase the head. (Usually, to raise water from a lower to a higher down a chute into another channel where the depth is 1.3 m., and the velocity is 10 m/s.
elevation). The input power (𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 ) of the pump is electrical energy and its output power (𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 ) is Neglecting friction determines the difference in elevation of the channel floors.
the flow energy.
2. A pipe carrying oil of specific gravity 0.82 changes in size from 100 mm at section 1 and 400
𝑬𝟏 + 𝑯𝑨 − 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐 = 𝑬𝟐 mm at section 2. Section 1 is 3.5 m below section 2 and the pressures are 85 kPa and 60 kPa
respectively. If the discharge is 180 lit/sec, determine the head lost and the direction of flow.
𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝒑 𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝒑𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 + 𝑯𝑨 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐 3. Oil flows from a tank through 150 m of 150 mm diameter pipe and then discharges into air
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸
as shown in the Figure. If the head loss from point 1 to point 2 is 620 mm, determine the
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑷𝒖𝒎𝒑 = 𝑸𝜸𝑯𝑨 pressure needed at point 1 to cause 20 lit/sec of oil to flow.

4. The pump shown draws water from reservoir A at elevation 10 m and lifts it to reservoir B at
elevation 65 m. The loss of head from A to 1 is two times the velocity head in the 200 mm
diameter pipe and the loss of head from 2 to B is ten times the velocity head in the 150 mm
diameter pipe. Determine the rated horsepower of the pump and the pressure heads at 1
and 2 in meters when the discharge is 0.08 m³/sec.

5. Water enters a motor through a 600-mm-diameter pipe under a pressure of 15 kPa. It leaves
through a 900-mm-diamater exhaust pipe with a pressure of 5 kPa. A vertical distance of 3
m separates the centers of the two pipes at the sections where the pressures are measured.
If 500 liters of water pass the motor each second, compute the power supplied to the
1.4.4 Energy Equation with Turbine or Motor: motor.

Turbines or motors extract flow energy to do mechanical work which in turn is converted into 6. A horizontal pipe gradually reduces from 250 mm diameter section to 100 mm diameter
electrical energy for turbines. section. The pressure at the 250 mm section is 110 kPa and at the 100 mm section is 70 kPa. If
the flow rate is 16 liters/sec of water, compute the head lost between the two sections.
𝑬𝟏 − 𝑯𝑬 − 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐 = 𝑬𝟐

𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝒑 𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝒑𝟐 1.5 ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES

+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐 + 𝑯𝑬
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸
1.5.1 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 = 𝑸𝜸𝑯𝑬
Also known as pressure gradient, hydraulic grade line is the graphical representation of the total
potential energy of flow. It is the line that connects the water levels in successive piezometer tubes
𝑝
placed at intervals along the pipe. Its distance from the datum plane is 𝛾 + 𝑧.

Characteristics of HGL
• HGL slopes downward in the direction of flow, but it may rise or fall due to changes in
velocity or pressure.
• For uniform pipe cross-section, HGL is parallel to the EGL.
• For horizontal pipes with uniform diameter, the drop in pressure heads between any two
points is also equal to the head lost between these points.

1.5.2 Energy Grade Line (EGL)

Energy grade line is a graphical representation of the total energy of flow (the sum of kinetic and
𝑣2 𝑝
potential energies). Its distance from the datum plane is + 𝛾 + 𝑧.
2𝑔

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA

 Characteristics of EGL
• EGL always slopes downward in the direction of flow, and it will only rise with the presence
of a pump.
• The drop of the EGL between any two points is the head lost between those points.
• For uniform pipe cross-section, EGL is parallel to the HGL.
𝑣2
• EGL is always above the HGL by an amount equal to the velocity head, .
2𝑔
• Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal.

Example Problems:

1. A pipeline with a pump leads to a nozzle as shown. Find the flow rate when pump develops
a 24 m. head. Assume head lost in the 150mm pipe to be six time its velocity head while the
head lost in the 100mm pipe to be twelve time its velocity head.
a. Compute the flow rate.
b. Sketch the energy grade line and hydraulic grade line, and
c. Find the pressure head at the suction side.

References:
1. Besavilla, V.I. (1996) Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics, 3rd edition.,VIB Publisher
2. Gillesania, Diego Inocencio T.Fluid mechanics and hydraulics, c2003, Leyte
3. Evett, Jack B. & Liu, Cheng. (1989) Schaum’s 2500 Solved Problems in Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Inc.
4. Daugherty, R.L., Franzini, J.B., Finnemore, E.J. (2002) Fluid Mechanics with Engineering
Applications,SI Metric Edition, USA
5. King, H. W., Wisler, C. O., and Woodburn, J. G. Hydraulics, Fifth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

ENGR. MELANIE ROSE P. PASCUA