GE8- Ethics

(Prelim topic) Module 2

LESSON 1: WHY DO YOU NEED TO STUDY ETHICS AND THE IMPORTANCE OF

RULES
A moral experience is any encounter wherein a person understands that the values he or
she believes to be important are either realized or thwarted (Hunt and Carnevale, 2011). This
concept of moral experience, however, asserts that the encounter is not limited to situations
fraught with ethical questions, but that moral experience happens even in mundane everyday
settings wherein you take action based on your moral standards. For instance, when you decide
to give a poor person some money because you feel that it is the right thing to do, it is a moral
experience.
THE NEED TO STUDY ETHICS
The Commission on Higher Education states “Ethics deals with principles of ethical
behavior in modern society at the level of the person, society and in interaction with the
environment and other shared resources.” (CMO 20 series 2013).
Understanding your moral compass to develop better judgment is the aim of studying
Ethics. Upon entering college, students are not blank sheets, devoid of pre-existing beliefs and
values. College students already have developed a set of moral standards by which they use to
understand the world and a moral compass to navigate it (Billett, 2006; Campbell, 2009). This
reality makes it important for students to study, explore, understand, and critically reflect on
their personal value systems. The end goal of studying Ethics is for the student to become a
person who makes sound judgments and is sensitive to the common good.
Relevance of Studying Ethics in Your Chosen Profession

 Ethics ensure a generally agreed standard of work-related behavior that empowers

professionals to foster moral values through their work.
 Ethics gives a sense of justification in one’s judgment and helps ensure that decisions at
work are not made based on purely subjective factors.
Without the study of ethics, the practice of one’s profession will fall prey to vastly
conflicting individual interpretations.
Importance of Rules to Social Beings
Humans, in general, do not live in isolation. Instead, an individual is a member of a
community of people whose common goal is to survive and thrive. As human societies evolved,
they found that human communities have better chances to survive if they work together; and
that working together is more effective when there is a system in place. One of the systems that
humans developed is standards that guide human activities, or, “rules”.
In the simplest sense, a rule is defined as “a statement that tells you what is or is not
allowed in a particular situation”. (Meriam-Webster, 2017)
For example, traffic rules regulate how motorists should behave on the road. Sports rules not
only determine the winner, these also ensure that players play fair and safely. Most human
societies have rules to ensure the safety level of their members. These rules and their system of
implementation allow people to productively function in the community despite the existence
of conflict among its members. In a broad sense, rules are in place to manage harmful
behaviors; It hopes to prevent chaos; and it aims to encourage stability.

LESSON 2: MORAL VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS

Moral Standards
 Is a code of what is right or wrong without reference to specific behaviors or beliefs”
(O’Connor, Lynn,1997).
 It has been observed that this intrinsic code of honor is already in children, and it
continually undergoes revisions as the child matures and is influenced by his or her
surroundings.
 Moral standards deal with matters that the person thinks have serious consequences.
 However, these standards are not hinged on external authority or rules, but based on
good reason and impartial considerations overriding self-interest. Feelings of guilt and
shame are often associated when the person goes against his or her moral standards
(Mandal, 2010; Velasquez, 2012)
Characteristics of Moral Standards
Moral standards have six characteristics that set it apart from non-moral standards (Velasquez,
2012).
1. Moral standards involve behaviors that seriously affect other people’s well-being.
It can either profoundly injure or benefit a person or persons.
For example, lying, stealing, and killing are actions that hurt people. Treating people with
respect and kindness uplifts them.
2. Moral standards take a more important consideration than other standards including
self-interest. For example, because trust is more important to you than revenge you
refuse to expose your friend’s terrible secret even though she offended you.
3. Moral standards do not depend on any external authority but on how the person
perceives the reasonableness of the action.
 For example, you will not copy your classmate’s answers during the exam not because
your teacher will fail you if you do, but because you believe cheating is wrong and
demeaning to you as a student.
4. Moral standards are believed to be universal. Thus, when you truly believe an act is
wrong you also will not agree or consent when other people commit what you consider
a wrongful act. On the other hand, if you believe an action is morally right, then you will
also support other people doing such acts. For example, you believe lying is wrong
therefore you will also not agree when someone is not telling the truth. On the other
hand, you tend to trust the person whom you know as someone true to his or her word.
5. Moral standards are based on objectivity. This means what you consider as right or
wrong does not depend on whether the action advances the interest of a particular
person or group. Still, your action depends on a universal standpoint where everyone’s
interest is counted as equal.
6. Moral standards are associated with vocabulary that depicts emotion or feelings. For
example, when you go against your moral standards you will say you feel guilty,
remorseful, or ashamed. You may describe your behavior as immoral or sinful. If you see
other people going against your moral standards you feel dissatisfied or perhaps
disgusted with that person.
Non-moral standards can be considered as relative standards by which something or
someone is judged as either good or bad. The rules of non-moral standards vary because
these rules depend on the guidelines agreed upon by a particular group.
Moral Standards versus Other Rules in Life
Etiquette, Policy, Law and Commandment
Etiquette is a set of rules on how an individual should responsibly behave in society
(Taylor and Williams, 2017).
Examples of etiquette include table manners such as the proper use of utensils
and the proper manner of eating.
Policy is a clear, simple statement of how an organization plans to handle its services,
actions, or business
Policies are guiding rules to help with decision-making (The University of Sydney,
2002-2017)
When the schools require their students to wear the proper school uniform and school
ID before being allowed inside the campus (or No Uniform, No ID, No Entry rule posted
in your school’s entrance) is an example of a policy.
Law is a rule created and enforced by the government and its agencies to maintain order,
resolve disputes, and protect a person’s liberty and rights (Robertson, 2008; Brickley and
Gottesman, 2017).
Commandment is a rule that is to be strictly observed because it was said to be set by a
divine entity, such as those in the Ten Commandments (Stahl, 2009).
What is the advantage of owning moral standards over merely abiding by moral standards?
For most people, the fundamental moral question is, “What should I do?” or “How
should I act?” Ethics are presumed as moral rules on how a person should act. For example,
“every person is obligated to do the greatest good for the most number of people”. There is also
the philosophy that “everyone is obligated to act in ways that uphold the human dignity for all
people.” Moral principles like these guide the practice of various professions (professional
ethics).
But is that all there is to ethics? Is ethics just about following rules of do’s and don’ts?
This obsession with rules somehow neglects the more important aspect of being a human
person and that is becoming what you should be. In other words, the more important question
for ethics is not “What should I do?” but “What kind of person should I be?”

LESSON 3: MORAL DILEMMA

Dilemma  is “ a situation in which a difficult choice has to be made between two or more
alternatives, especially equally undesirable ones”.
Thus, when you find yourself facing a problem but the solutions available to you will only
create another problem or worse create more problems, then you are in a dilemma.
A moral dilemma is a situation where:
1. There are two or more actions that you can do.
2. There is a moral reason(s) for doing such actions.
3. You cannot do all the possible actions presented to you. You only need to choose
one.
Since there is a moral reason(s) for doing each of the possible course of action that
you can do, it follows that no matter what action you choose you will go against your
sense of what is right or wrong. That somehow. No matter what you do, you are
doing something morally wrong, but at the same time, you are also doing something
right.
Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
1) Personal moral dilemma is when your decision in a situation where there is moral
conflict is the cause of either your own; that of another person; or a group of people’s
potential harm.
2) Organizational dilemma is when a member or member of the organization is in a
situation
where there is a moral conflict, and the decision will potentially harm either some
members of the group or the entire organization (syn. company, cooperative,
association) itself.
For example, a garment factory is not hitting its target profit. If the company keeps on
missing its target, the factory will also not achieve its five-year expansion plan which will
severely affect the factory’s future financial standing. One plan to solve the factory’s
imminent financial crisis was to cut losses by laying off some of its employees. The CEO
and the members of the board now need to decide. Should they lay off the people who
work for them to save the factory? Or keep the people working and just find other
means to hopefully increase profit and prevent their financial crisis in the future?
3) Structural moral dilemma is when a person or group of persons who hold high-level
positions in society faces a morally conflicting situation wherein the entire social system
is affected. An example of this level of dilemma would be the controversy in the Social
Security System in 2016. The SSS members have been asking for a two-thousand pesos
SSS pension increase. Several lawmakers supported the call because they saw that it
would benefit the senior citizen members. On the other hand, the SSS executives
opposed it saying the institution could not sustain such an amount in the long run, and
the SSS will go bankrupt in 2024. Being the President of the Philippines, the final
decision was in the hands of then-President Benigno Aquino III. In the end, President
Aquino vetoed the bill passed by Congress to hike the SSS pension because he believed
“the stability of the entire SSS benefit system will be seriously compromised in favor of
two million pensioners and their dependents” (CNN Philippines, 2017).

LESSON 4: FREEDOM
Why Only Human Beings Can Be Ethical
• There have been some claims that morality is not unique to human beings. For example,
Dame Jane Morris Goodall DBE, a British primatologist, ethologist, anthropologist, and
UN Messenger of Peace reported that sometimes chimpanzees show a truly selfless
concern for the well-being of others (Goodall, 1990).
• However, other thinkers such as Immanuel Kant, Rene Descartes, Thomas Aquinas, Peter
Carruthers and various religious theories believe that only human beings can be ethical
(Wilson, 2017)
• According to St. Thomas Aquinas, the fundamental difference between animal ethics
and human ethics is that animals behave instinctively while human behavior is rational
(BBC 2014).

Instinctive behavior is a hard-wired, inborn, characteristic response to specific

environmental stimuli; an example is the altruistic behavior of social animals (Spink,
 2010). However, researchers found that animal’s intent of self-sacrifice is more on
ensuring reproductive success (kin selection) rather than out of true selfless motive
(Encyclopedia Britannica, 2009).
• An example of this would be the suicide attacks of worker honeybees in defense of their
colony against intruders.

Rational behavior is a decision-making process where the person acts in ways

that best achieve his or her needs following his or her set preferences, priorities and
principles (Information Resources Management Association, 2015). Rational behavior is
tied to moral standards. Additionally, the human person in his or her decision-making
process is free to decide what to do and free to act on his or her decisions. Thus, only
human beings can be ethical because only humans have the capacity for free moral
judgment.
The Foundation of Morality
C.S Lewis  A novelist, poet, academic, medievalist, literary critic, essayist, lay theologian,
broadcaster, lecturer and Christian apologist used an interesting metaphor to explain morality.
He likened morality to a fleet of ships. According to Lewis, though each ship must sail well on its
own, each must also coordinate with the other ships at all times to stay in information and avoid
collisions. Finally the fleet must have a destination or purpose for the journey (Lewis, 2012)
because if the ship was just aimlessly sailing then it has failed its ultimate purpose, --that of
getting from one point to the next.
This a very helpful way to think about morality about self, to others, and your ultimate end.
However, there is one crucial difference between a ship and a person (aside, of course, from the
obvious)—a ship is under the command of a ship captain. However, a person is someone free to
decide his or her course.
Why is freedom crucial in your ability to make moral decisions?
 The personal aspect of morality is about developing virtue so that thinking morally,
performing moral acts, and choosing to do what is good becomes a habit.
 The Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2016) explains that virtue is your thought or
behavior guided by, and displays, high moral standards.
 Virtues are habits developed through learning and practice. Once you have it, your
virtues become your characteristics. Moreover, a virtuous person characteristically acts
in ways consistent with his or her moral principles. Thus, a virtuous person goes beyond
moral behavior. A virtous person not only does what is right but his or her behavior also
becomes a standard for everyone to follow.
An efficiently run ship is like a virtuous person: both have internalized the practices that
make them weather storms. However, a ship is under the control of a captain while a
virtuous person is free to cultivate his or her values. At the same time he or she is also
 free to abandon it. Although cultural traditions and social institutions can guide virtues,
they cannot be coerced. Freedom then, is the foundation or moral acts. For a person to
be virtuous, he or she must also be free.
It is important to note that even in following rules freedom is essential. Rules help
people live together in relative harmony. It makes a person recognize that apart from
personal rights, other people’s rights are equally important. If people are allowed to
dominate others, then people become mere tools and means to an end. Not only does
this fail to respect a person’s dignity, it also stifles the development and progress of the
human potential. Only when a person is free to recognize that he or she has rights; that
other people equally have rights; and both need to be respected will the person be able
to pursue projects, be creative, and reach his or her full potential for the benefit- not just
of the self-but also of others.
There is a question of the ultimate end. Why are you here? What is your purpose?
-The human person’s end is always a debatable topic because it often goes hand in hand
with specific religious views. The debate does not negate the fact that freedom remains
essential to one’s view of his/her ultimate purpose.
-To paraphrase Lord Acton- an English Catholic historian, politician, and writer- the
human person’s freedom is so precious that God will not take over and take control of
the person’s life, even when that person badly misuses his or her freedom (1967).
Whatever influences the person’s view of his/her ultimate purpose, one aspect is clear a
free person can understand his/her ultimate end. Enlightenment cannot be forced.
The Human Person as a Free Being
In philosophy, a human being is more than its biological components. The human being
is a person endowed with characteristics that are material, spiritual, rational, and free.
A human person is a being (the Aristotelian idea of being connotes actuality; existence;
an actual condition or circumstance) with inborn properties that he or she uses to direct
his or her development toward self-fulfillment. One of the inborn properties of the
human person is freedom.
Philosophical Insights on Freedom
Freedom is a Gift
According to Gabriel Marcel, freedom is the ability to act significantly. Free acts
are significant because they help to make us who we are as human beings. Freedom is
not merely the ability to make arbitrary choices because we are not free if everything
that we can choose to do is insignificant in the first place. Freedom is the ability to make
significant choices and, according to Marcel, it is a gift given to us by God. (Hernandez,
2009).
Freedom is Complementary to Reason
One of Aristotle’s ethical doctrines asserted that freedom and reason are
complementary. In Aristotle’s view, the human person as a moral agent must exercise
practical rationality to determine how to pursue his or her ultimate end (telos). Self-
direction, rather than bare spontaneity, is the crucial characteristic of the free person.
Aristotle considered freedom and reason as necessary faculties for consciously making
sense of things (events, occurrences, phenomena, situations). (Walsh, 1997).

Freedom is Absolute
Existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre’s concept of freedom is not the
freedom to do something or anything. In Sartre’s view, the human person is “absolutely
free”. Freedom sets the human person apart from other creatures. You might say “But
what about animal freedom? Animals-unless caged- are also free. Animals just roam
around, eat when they need to, and sleep where they want. Animals are not tied down
with responsibilities like humans.” Yes, animals indeed are- unless caged- free. Animals
also have a notion of freedom. When they are caged, animals will try to escape from
their cages. This kind of freedom is called freedom from restrictions. It is a primitive kind
of freedom. It is freedom for mere survival.
Humans, on the other hand, have a higher kind of freedom. The freedom of the
human person is beyond freedom from restrictions. A person in jail is still free. He is free
to think, to change, and to become a better person. A prisoner is free to redefine
himself. As human persons, we are free to make choices. We are free to decide. And we
are free to use this freedom to attain goals higher than satisfying basic needs.

Freedom Demands Responsibility

Jean-Paul Sartre said” You are free” because he believed a person always has a
choice. Thus, according to Sartre, you must choose. His idea was that freedom is the
capacity to choose, that even not choosing is a choice (Gallinero, 2014). It is important
to note, however, that he also added the concept of responsibility to freedom. According
to Sartre, even though individuals must make their own choices because they are free,
these choices (though freely made) also have consequences. These consequences to
freedom are something that the person must endure. Therefore, it can be said that in
Sartre’s concept, responsibility follows freedom (Gallinero, 2014).
Chinese Philosopher Lao Tzu also discussed freedom and responsibility. Lao Tzu
advocated that a person can and should choose to act, but his or her actions should be
that which would result in harmony. Lao Tzu’s idea was that in any society, the exercise
of one’s freedom is not absolute. The person is free to do anything; but it is not without
consequence of ones’s action (Gallinero, 2014). Responsibility, as a moral quality serves
as a voluntary check and balance of one’s freedom. Without proper balance limitless
freedom is as dangerous as an extremely controlling social group. Great social injustices
have resulted from such radical mindsets.
 ACTIVITY
1. Consider this situation:
A) Ramon, a Grade 5 honor student at an all-boys Grade school allows Jose, a large
burly boy seated next to him, to peek at his math quarterly exam. Unfortunately, the
teacher sees this and immediately gives both boys a failing mark for the quarter
exam. Ramon feels that great injustice has been committed; and that Jose should
have been punished more severely than him.
1. Why does Ramon feel this way about the teacher’s punishment?
2. Why did Ramon allow Jose to copy?
3. How should we handle a moral dilemma?
B) Your daughter is suffering from a debilitating disease that has put her in constant
pain and agony. Finally, one day, she decides that she really wants to die. However,
her condition is such that she cannot die on her own. She is begging and pleading
with you to help her commit suicide. This would, of course, be illegal. What would
you do?
C) As a student, did you encounter some dilemmas in your school? What did you do?
Cite examples of these dilemmas encountered.
• 2. What will happen to us if there is unlimited freedom or the absence of freedom in our
society? Is freedom absolute? Defend your answer.

 3. True freedom is dependent upon truth, and based on John’s gospel “You will know the
truth, and the truth will set you free”. What does it mean? Cite examples of this gospel.