UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECNOLOGY

LAHORE
(NAROWAL CAMPUS)

LAB MANUAL
FLUID MECHANICS

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR.NAZIM WAHEED
SUBMITTED BY:
MUHAMMAD UMAR
REG.NO:
2020-ME-513
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
LAB LAYOUT
 LAB LAYOUT
1. Hydraulic bench

Table 01:
2. Losses in pipe system
3. Losses in piping element

Table 02:
4. Pipe friction apparatus
5. Bernoulli’s principle

Table 03:
6. Hydraulic ram
7. Orifice discharge
8. Osborne Reynold apparatus
9. Impact of jet apparatus

Table 04:
10.Hydrostatic pressure apparatus
11.Flow visualization apparatus
12.Flow over weirs
13.Floating bodies
Side apparatus:
14.Setting velocity
15.Pumps

Table 05:
16.Pumps in series / parallel
17.Centrifugal pump

Table 06:
18.Axial flow impulse turbine
19.Turbine base unit
Side apparatus:
20.Propeller turbine
21.Impulse action turbine

Table 07:
22.Wind tunnel

Table 08:
23.Axial fan demo

Table 09:
24.Centrifugal compressor
25.Centrifugal fan demo
 Descriptions:

Losses in pipe system:

Pressure drop is to viscous
effects represent an ir-reversible
preesure loss. Pressure drop is
directly proportional to the
viscosity of the fluid and ΔP
would be zero if there were no
friction. The pressure losses
must be taken into account when
desigining piping system. Once
the preesure loss is known, the requires pumping power “to
overcome the pressure loss” is determined from:
Wpump,L = νρghL
Losses in pipe elements/Bends:
When a fluid is flow through a pipe
then preesure losses or head losses
occur in pipes due the friction
factor in piping elements.
According to Hagen-poiseullie
flow “For special field flow rate,
the pressure drop and thus required
pupming power is proportional to
the length of pipe and viscosity of
fluid, but it is inversily
proportional to the fourth power of
radius (or diameter) of pipe.” By using this apparatus, we
discuss the different effect of piping element on fluid flow.
Pipe friction for laminar/turbulent flow:
When a fluid is flow through a pipe then
losses are occurs in pipe due to friction in
pipe. The friction effect is negligible for
laminer flow but would be significant
for turbulent flow. By using this
apparatus we can determine the effect of
friction on laminer and turbulent flow.

Bernoulli’s principle:
The Bernoulli equation is an
approximate relation between pressure,
velocity, and elevation, and is valid in
regions of steady, incompressible flow
where net frictional forces are
negligible. Where velocity is increased
pressure will be decreased but total
pressure of fluid remains constant.
According to Bernoulli’s principle:
“The sum of the kinetic, potential, and
flow energies of a fluid particle is
constant along a streamline during steady flow when the
compressibility and frictional effects are negligible.” We use this
apparatus to demonstrate the Bernoulli’s principle by determining the
pressure at venturi nozzle.

Orifice discharge:
Orifice discharge is a model for
calculating how quickly a fluid will
come out of a punctured vessel or pipe.
Usually, pressure will be different at
inlet and outlet of the valve or any
vessel depending about the conditions
of fluid and piping element. We use
this apparatus to determine the outlet pressure of fluid though a vessel
or a pipe.

Osborne Reynold apparatus:

Reynold’s number is defined as the ratio of inertial
forces to viscous foreces. If reynold’s number are
large than fluid will be turbulent but if it will small
than fluid will be laminer. For laminer fluid, the
reynold number will be less than or equal to 2300.
This apparatus is used to display the laminer and
turbulent flow. In this apparatus we observe the
transition of flow from laminer to turbulent flow.

Centrifugal pump:
A centrifugal pump is a mechanical
device designed to move a fluid by
means of the transfer of rotational
energy from one or more driven
rotors, called impellers. Fluid
enters the rapidly rotating impeller
along its axis and is cast out by
centrifugal force along its
circumference through the impeller's vane tips. By using this
apparatus we can study the characteristics of centrifugal pump and we
can determine the inlet and outlet preesure of fluid and flow rate of
fluid.

Hydrostatic pressure:
hydrostatic pressure is the pressure
exerted by the fluid when it is at rest.
This is due to the gravitatinal force
acting on the fluid depending upon the
area of that fluid. Hdorstatic pressure is
very important in shipbuildings and
other designs. That’why we use this apparatus to determine the
hydrostatic pressure of fluid.

Demo setting velocity:

The settling velocity increases as the diameter
and density of the propping agent increase and
as the density and viscosity of the fracturing
fluid decrease. It conatain two transparent
cylinders and therefore the diameter, density and
diiferent fluid setting velocity of fluid are
compared. We also use stopwatch to determine
the sedimentation time. That’s why we use this
apparatus to determine different setting velocity
of fluids.

Flow visualization:
The most common way to visualize a
flow field is to depict the "paths" that
fluid elements will follow at any point in
time. These paths are called streamlines
(for a steady flow field) or pathlines (for
an unsteady flow field). In this
experiment, the streamlines are visualize
by adding a little ink. The streamlines
can be clearly observed through the glass
plate during flow around and flow through.

Impulse action turbine (base unit):

It is basically serve as the base unit for
different pumps and turbines in which we
place the turbine that we want to study on it.
It consist of water tank and centrifugal pump
with variable speed via frquency convertor. The base unit is fitted
with sensors for pressure and flow rate.

Pumps in parallel/series:
Pumps can either be connected
in seies or parallel depending
upon the system requirements.
In series operation the heads are
added together and in parallel
operation, the flow rates of the
pumps are added. The series
and parallel combination of
pump working similar to the
working of electric resistance in series and parallel combination. The
experimental unit contains two identical centrifugal pumps and an
intake tank with overflow. Pressures at inlet and outlet of the two
pumps are displayed on manometers.

Centrifugal pump:
A centrifugal pump is a
mechanical device designed
to move a fluid by means of
the transfer of rotational
energy from one or more
driven rotors, called
impellers. The apparatus
includes a self-priming
centrifugal pump, a ball
valve on the outlet side and manometers on the inlet and outlet side.
Pressures on the inlet and outlet side are displayed on two
manometers.
Floating bodies:
A floating body is stable if, when it is
displaced, it returns to equilibrium. A
floating body is unstable if, when it is
displaced, it moves to a new equilibrium.
This apparatus can be used to study the
stability of a floating body and to determine
the metacentre graphically and the buoyancy
of the floating body can also be determined.
The experiment is conducted in a tank filled
with water. A transparent body with a
rectangular frame cross-section is used as the
floating body.
 LAB SESSION # 01 (b)
Experiment no. 01:
“Study of Hydraulic Bench.”
Apparatus:
Hydraulic bench
Theory:
Hydraulic bench is a very useful apparatus in hydraulics and
fluid mechanics. It is usually known as the base module for
experiments in fluid mechanics. It is used:
 As water supply for experimental units for fluid mechanics
 To determine the volumetric flow rate measurement for large
and small flow rate.

 Parts illustration:

Hydraulic Bench
 1. Flow control valve
2. Overflow
3. Storage tank with submersible pump
4. Gate valve for empyting the measuring tank
5. Measuring tank level indicator
6. Measuring tank
(at large volumetric flow rate : 60L)
(at small volumetric flow rate : 10L)
 Volumetric flow rate:
In fluid mechaics, the volumetic flow rate is the
“volume of the fluid which passes per unit time.” To determine the
flow rate of any fluid using hydraulic bench, take the stopwatch to
estabilish time (t) require for raising the level in the volumetric tank
of hydralic bench from 20L to 30L. Now close the outlet vlave and
read the actual volume at the remote sight gauge.
The volume flow rate can be determine by:
ΔV
v̇=
Δt

Procedure:
 Fill the storage tank with water according to requirement.
 Open the flow control valve and turn on the pump.
 In case of any apparatus placed on it, the water flow from that
apparatus to measuring tank bur in case of no apparatus places
on it, the water flow from storage tank to measuring tank.
 To determine the volumetric flow rate close the gate valve.
 The water flow from measuring tank to measuring tank level
indicator.
 The height of water in measuring tank level indicator give us the
volume of water.
 By using stopwatch calculate the time for that volume.
 Now divide the volume to their time to determine the volumetric
flow rate.
Comments:
 Hydraulic bench is also known as the base module for fluid
experiments.
 Its main function is to determine the volume flow rate of fluid.
 Volumetric flow rate can be determined through measuring tank
level indicator by closing the outlet valve.
 LAB SESSION # 02
Experiment no. 02:
“To investigate the validity of the Bernoulli’s equation when applied
to steady flow of water in a tapered duct.”
Apparatus:
Hydraulic bench
Bernoulli’s principle apparatus
stopwatch
Theory:

 Bernoulli’s principle:
The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation
between pressure, velocity, and elevation, and is valid in regions of
steady, incompressible flow where net frictional forces are negligible.
In Bernoulli equation the viscous effects are negligibly small
compared to inertial, gravitational, and pressure effects. The
bernoulli’s equation for steady and incompressible flow is given as:
Steady, incompressible flow : P/ ρ + V2/2 + gz = constant
According to the bernoulli’s principle:
“The sum of the kinetic, potential, and flow energies of a fluid
particle is constant along a streamline during steady flow when the
compressibility and frictional effects are negligible.”
The Bernoulli equation for unsteady, compressible flow
is:
∫ dp ∫ δV
Unsteady, compressible flow: ρ + δt
* ds + V2/2 + gz = Constant

In a steady flow, the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid

along a streamline is the same at all points on that streamline. Thus an
increase in the speed of the fluid – implying an increase in its kinetic
energy (dynamic pressure) – occurs with a simultaneous decrease in
(the sum of) its potential energy (including the static pressure) and
internal energy.
The static pressure (it does not incorporate any dynamic
effects); it represents the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid.
This is the same as the pressure used in thermodynamics and property
tables.
The dynamic pressure; it represents the pressure rise
when the fluid in motion is brought to a stop isentropically.
The hydrostatic pressure, which is not pressure in a real
sense since its value depends on the reference level selected; it
accounts for the elevation effects, i.e., of fluid weight on pressure.
The sum of the static, dynamic, and hydrostatic pressures
is called the total pressure. Therefore, the Bernoulli equation states
that the total pressure along a streamline is constant.

 Pressure distribution on Venturi nozzle:

The pressure distribution at any point across a nozzle can
be given as:
hdyn. = htotal – hstat.
This equation is fullfilled at every point in a venturi
nozzle. Furthurmore it becomes clear that there is a slight overall
pressure loss ( htotal) in a venturi nozzle.

 Velocity profile in the venturi nozzle:

At constant flow rate, the starting vlaue for calculating the
theoretical velocity is found as:

Wcal = v̇ /¿A1
Where the measured velocity calculating practically can be
found as :
wmeas. =√ 2 g h dynamic
 Parts illustration:

Bernoulli's principle

1. Diagram
2. Tube manometers (static pressure)
3. Water supply
4. Valve
5. Venturi nozzle
6. Water outlet
7. Vlave for water outlet
8. Pitot tube
9. Single tube manometer (total preesure)
 measuring the pressure in venturi nozzle

1. Tube manometers for displaying the static pressure

2. Venturi nozzle with measuring points
3. Pitot tube for measuring the total preesure, axially movable

Procedure:
 Place the apparatus on hydraulic bench and make sure that the
outlet tube is place above the measuring tank for water flow.
 Place the apparatus on plane horizontal surface for accurate
readings.
 Now connect the apparatus inlet with bench valve and open the
both the inlet valve.
 Now turn on the pump so that water flow through the pipes and
venturi duct.
 Open the air bleed screw slightly to allow air to enter the top of
the manometers (you may need to adjust both valves to achieve
this), and re-tighten the screw when the manometer levels reach
a convenient height.
 Take readings of manometers h1 to h6 when the water level in
the manometers is steady. The total pressure readings can be
obtained from the tube connected sepeartely.
 Now determine the flow rate by closing the gate valve of bench.
 Perform this experiments three times to determine the vlaue of
velocity and flow rate.
 Observation and calculations:
Area of tube at different section is given as:
A1 = 338.6 mm2
A2 = 233.5 mm2
A3 = 84.6 mm2
A4 = 170.2 mm2
A5 = 255.2 mm2
A6 = 338.6 mm2
g = 9.81m/s2

Claculated velocity = Wcal = v̇ /¿A1

Measured velocity = wmeas. =√ 2 g h dynamic
hdyn. = htotal – hstat.

Reading 01:

h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 Time(t) Volume(v) flow

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (sec) (liter) rate(Q or
V̇ ¿(L/s)

hstat.

htotal

hdynamic

wmeas.

wcal.
 Reading 02:

h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 Time(t) Volume(v) flow

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (sec) (liter) rate(Q or
V̇ ¿(L/s)

hstat.

htotal

hdynamic

wmeas.

wcal.

Reading 03:

h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 Time(t) Volume(v) flow

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (sec) (liter) rate(Q or
V̇ ¿(L/s)

hstat.

htotal

hdynamic

wmeas.

wcal.
Graph:
Reading 01:

Comments:
 In venturi tube, where area is small velocity will be large and
thus pressure also decrease but in Bernoulli’s equation total
presure remains constant throughout the tube.
 The sum of static pressure and dynamic pressure is equal to the
total pressure.
 The movement of pitot tube in venturi tube cannot effect the
total presure.
 Make sure that the hydraulic bench and Bernoulli’s principle
apparatus is placed on smooth horizontal surface in order to
decrease error.
 LAB SESSION # 03
Experiment no. 03:
“To investigate the reaction forces produced by change in momentum
of a fluid flow.”

Apparatus:
 Hydraulic bench
 Impact of jet apparatus
 Stopwatch
 Different shapes (flat, hemi-spherical, conical)
 Nozzle (diameter 5mm or 8mm)

Theory:
 Change in momentum:
The force exerted by a jet of fluid on a flat or curve surface
can be resolved by applying the momentum equation. According to
the newton 2nd law of motion: “force on moving body is equal to the
rate of change of momentum.” The momentum force is determined by
measuring the forces produced by a jet of water acting on solid flat,
hemi-spherical and curved/conical surfaces, which deflect the jet at
different angles.

 Velocity of fluid:
Velocity of flowing fluid can be determined by knowing the
flow rate and cross-sectional area of nozzle. By formula:
Velocity of flowing fluid = v = Q/A

 Force acting on fluid by deflector (Fx):

The force acting by the deflecting body on fluid can be
determined by applying the newton 2 nd law of motion. According to
newton 2nd law of motion:
F = ma
 dv
F = m( dt )
m
ρ=
v
, m = ρv

By putting values:
dv
F = ρv ( dt )
v
F = ρ ( dt ¿dv

Where,
v
Volume flow rate = Q = dt

So, by putting values,

F = ρ Qdv
Fx = ρQv ( for flat surface) θ = 90°
Fx =2 ρ Qv (for hemi-spherical) θ = 180°
Fx = ρ Qv(1-cosθ) (for conical surface) θ = 45°

 Impact of jet:
This apparatus is used to study
the effect of forces acting by the fluid on
stationary or moving object. This is used to
study that how a turbine (pelton wheel)
work and to study jet deflection on
produces a forces on turbine vans. The
fluid flow in upward direction and exert
forces on flate or curved surface, on the
other hand wieght is added on the weight
pan to reduce the effect of forces on that IMPACT OF WATER JET
surface.
 Parts illustration:

PARTS ILLUSTRATION OF IMPACT OF JET APPARATUS

1. Weight
2. Deflector
3. Nozzle
4. Water supply
5. Water drain
6. Tank
7. Lever apparatus
 Measurement of the jet forces via the weight-loaded scale

1. Lever apparatus
2. Deflector water jet
3. deflector with conical surface; F1 jet force, F2
weight force.

Procedure:
 Place the hydraulic bench on smooth horizontal surface and then
place the impact of jet apparatus on it.
 Impact of jet apparatus consist of the transparent cylinder and
have top plate on it.
 Remove the plate from the cylinder and note the diameter of
nozzle.
  Now place the object (flat, hemi-spherical, conical) with shaft
and place it in transparent cylinder and place back the top plate
on cylinder.
 Connect the inlet of apparatus with hydraulic bench.
 Make sure that the pointer is at mean position until no force
fluid is applied.
 After applying the force fluid notice the change in position of
pointer and place the weight-on-weight pan according to it so
that pointer comes back to their original position.
 Note down that mass require to overcome the force fluid.
 Now determine the volumetric flow rate by closing the outlet
valve of hydraulic bench.
 Repeat this experiment three times by increasing the fluid flow
and placing weight on weight pan.
 Note down the reading for weight and also determine the flow
rate at different force fluid flow.

Observation and calculations:

Nozzle diameter = __________

Fth = m.g
2
Q
v 0=
A A = π d4

v1 = √ v 20 −2 gs s = mass
 Fx = ρ Qv1 ( for flat surface) θ = 90°

Fx =2 ρ Qv1 (for hemi-spherical) θ = 180°

Fx = ρ Qv1 (1-cosθ) (for conical surface) θ = 45°

% error = (Fth - Fx / Fth) * 100

Object shape = _____________

Mass, m Force, Volume Time Flow Speed Speed Force Error %

(g) Fx (N) V (L) T (sec) rate Q v0 v1 Fth
(m3/s)

Object shape = _____________

Mass, m Force, Volume Time Flow Speed Speed Force Error %

(g) Fx (N) V (L) T (sec) rate Q v0 v1 Fth
(m3/s)
 Object shape = _____________

Mass, m Force, Volume Time Flow Speed Speed Force Error %

(g) Fx (N) V (L) T (sec) rate Q v0 v1 Fth
(m3/s)

Comments:
 The forces acting on fluid by deflector (Fx) is maximum for
hemi-spherical surface.
 The conical shape experiences less forces due to its needle
(pointy) shape face.
 If the deflectors were closer to the nozzle than there is no effect
on result (result will remain the same).
  The theoretical force is always greater than experimental
determined force.

LAB SESSION # 04
Experiment no. 04:
“To observe laminer, transitional, and turbulent pipe flow.”
Apparatus:
 Hydraulic bench
  Osborne Reynolds Apparatus
 Stopwatch
 Ink

Theory:
 Laminar flow:
Flow in a pipe reveals that the fluid flow is streamlined at low
velocities. The flow regime in this case is said to be laminar, characterized by
smooth streamlines and highly ordered motion.

 Turbulent
flow:
Laminar Flow
Flow in a pipe
reveals that the fluid flow is turns chaotic as the velocity is increased above a
critical value. and this is known as turbulent flow, where it is characterized by
velocity fluctuations and highly disordered motion.

 Transitional
flow:
Turbulent Flow
The transition
from laminar to turbulent flow does not occur suddenly; rather, it occurs over
some region in which the flow fluctuates between laminar and turbulent flows
before it becomes fully turbulent.

Transitional Flow
  Reynolds number:
Osborne Reynolds discovered that the flow regime depends
mainly on the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in the fluid. This ratio is
called the Reynolds number and is expressed for internal flow in a circular pipe
as:
inertial forces
Re = viscous forces
ρv avg D
Re = v

Vavg = average flow velocity (m/s)

D = characteristic length of the geometry (diameter in this case, in m)
 At large Reynolds numbers, the inertial forces, which are proportional to
the fluid density and the square of the fluid velocity, are large relative to
the viscous forces, and thus the viscous forces cannot prevent the random
and rapid fluctuations of the fluid.
 At small or moderate Reynolds numbers, however, the viscous forces are
large enough to suppress these fluctuations and to keep the fluid “in line.”
Thus, the flow is turbulent in the first case and laminar in the second.
 The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is called the
critical Reynolds number.
 Under most practical conditions, the flow in a circular pipe is laminar for
Re ≤ 2300, turbulent for Re ≥ 4000, and transitional in between
 Osborne Reynolds apparatus:

Reynold’s number is defined as the ratio of inertial

forces to viscous foreces. If reynold’s number are large than fluid
will be turbulent but if it will small than fluid will be laminer. For
laminer fluid, the reynold number will be less than or equal to 2300.
This apparatus is used to display the laminer and turbulent flow. In
this apparatus we observe the transition of flow from laminer to
turbulent flow.
 Parts illustration: Osborne Reynold
Apparatus
 Osborne e Reynold Apparatus parts illustration

1. Tank for ink with inlet pipe

2. Overflow
3. Water supply
4. Water Drain
5. pipe section with valve
6. water tank with glass beeds

Flow States

Procedure:
 Place the Reynold apparatus on hydraulic bench also make sure
that the base section is horizontal and vibration free.
 The inlet pipe of Reynold apparatus is connected with hydraulic
bench in order to flow the water through the Reynold apparatus.
 Start the pump, slightly open the apparatus flow control valve
and the bench valve, and allow the head tank to fill with water.
 Place the blue ink in the tank with inlet pipe so that it can flow
with water in order to observe the nature of flow in tube.
 Place a small bucket in the measuring tank of hydraulic bench in
which water from tube fall.
 By knowing the volume of water in bucket and time require to
fill that bucket, we can find the volume flow rate.
 We can control the speed of water in tube by tightening or
losing the outlet valve of tube.
  After determining the flow rate, we can determine the velocity
of fluid/water in tube.
 By knowing the fluid velocity, we can easily determine the
Reynold number of any fluid.
 Repeat this experiment for several times for different velocities
of fluid/water and determine the flow state of fluid/water.

Observation and Calculations:

Pipe diameter = ___________
viscosity = _______________
Area of pipe = ____________
flow rate = Q = V / t
flow velocity = w = Q/A
w×d
Reynold number = Re = ν

Volume Time Flow Velocity Reynold’s Flow

rate number type
L sec m3/s m/s - -

Comments:
 Ink is use with inlet pipe in order to see the flow of water through pipe
clearly. It also helps us to know whether the flow is laminar, turbulent or
transitional.
 If we use the numbers of pipe sections then the flow rate must be
increased.
  The overflow should be kept at specific distance i.e., not too much above
from the inlet pipe and not too much below from the inlet pipe.
 Flow will be laminar at low velocity but will be turbulent at certainly
high velocity.

LAB SESSION # 05
Experiment no. 05:
“To determine the coefficient of velocity and discharge with outflow under the
constant head.”
Apparatus:
 Hydraulic bench
 Orifice and jet apparatus
 Stopwatch
 Different objects (channel, orifice, cone, rounded-edged)

Theory:

 Orifice and jet apparatus:

An opening, in a vessel, through which the liquid flows out is
known as orifice. Orifice is defined as the small opening on side or bottom of a
tank through which any kind of fluid is flowing. The opening can be of circular,
triangular or rectangular in cross section and they are named on the basis of
shape accordingly. Orifices are mainly used for measuring the rate of fluid flow.

Orifice at side of vessel wall Orifice at bottom of vessel wall

 Orifice discharge is a model for calculating
how quickly a fluid will come out of a punctured vessel
or pipe. Usually, pressure will be different at inlet and
outlet of the valve or any vessel depending about the
conditions of fluid and piping element. We use this
apparatus to determine the outlet pressure of fluid
though a vessel or a pipe. Orifice and jet apparatus

 Static head:
Static head is the sum of the difference in elevations of the liquid
levels and surface pressures in both tanks. Static head measures the total vertical
distance that a pump raises water.

 Total head:
The total head will be the sum of static head and dynamic head.
htotal = hstatic + hdynamic

 Flow rate:
The volumetric flow rate is the volume of fluid which passes per unit
time; usually it is represented by the symbol Q.
v
Q= t

 Contraction coefficient:
The ratio of the area, measured at the vena contracta of a jet of liquid
issuing from an opening, to the area of the opening.
α= d2jet / d2inlet
 Vena contracta:
Vena contracta is the point in a fluid stream where the diameter of the
stream is the least, and fluid velocity is at its maximum, such as in the case of a
stream issuing out of a nozzle (orifice).
  Velocity coefficient:
It is the square root of ratio of htotal and hstatic.

φ=¿
√ htotal
hstat

 Discharge coefficient:
The product of contraction coefficient and velocity coefficient is
known as discharge coefficient.
μ=¿ α .φ

 Applications:
If the geometric properties of the orifice and the inherent properties of
the fluid are known, the orifice can be used to measure flow rates. Flow
measurement by an orifice is based on the application of Bernoulli’s equation,
which states that a relationship exists between the pressure of the fluid and its
velocity. accurate results, the coefficient of velocity (C v) and the coefficient of
discharge (Cd) should be calculated for an orifice.
Orifices have many applications in engineering practice besides the
metering of fluid flow in pipes and reservoirs. Flow entering a culvert or storm
drain inlet may act as orifice flow; the bottom outlet of a dam is another
example. The coefficients of velocity and discharge are necessary to accurately
predict flow rates from orifices.
Flow meter is used to measure the flow rate of fluids in their single
state (i.e., gaseous state or liquid state). It can also be used to measure the flow
rate of fluids in a mixed state (both gaseous and liquid states) such as, wet
steam, or natural gas with water.
  Parts illustration:

orifice and Jet apparatus | parts illustration

 Orifice and Jet apparatus / parts illustration

1. Inlet strainer
2. Water connection
3. Overflow
4. Twin tube manometers
5. Pitot tube
6. Water jet
7. Measuring device for jet diameter
  Measuring the pressure
1. Total pressure in the free jet
2. Static pressure in the tank
3. Pitot tube; dh loss due to conversion of pressure into velocity

Measuring the pressure

Interchangeable inserts to study different inlet and outlet contours

 Interchangeable inserts to study different inlet and outlet contours

1. Tank
2. Insert with cylindrical hole
3. Insert with conical outlet
4. Insert with orifice plate at the inlet
5. Insert with conical inlet
6. Insert with rounded inlet
 Procedure:
 Place the hydraulic bench on smooth horizontal surface.
 Now place the orifice and jet apparatus on hydraulic bench and connect
its inlet pipe with hydraulic bench pipe.
 Start the pump so that water flow through the inlet of orifice into its
transparent cylinder.
 Make sure that the pitot tube is in center of water jet
 Jet diameter can be determined by measuring device like screw gauge in
the front of pitot tube.
 Determine the total pressure in free jet and static pressure in tank through
the manometric tubes.
 There will be some loss due to conversation of pressure into velocity
represented by dh.
 At the bottom of cylinder there are Interchangeable inserts to study
different inlet and outlet contours.
 Place the different objects like cylindrical hole, conical outlet, orifice
plate at inlet, conical inlet and rounded inlet.
 Determine the coefficient of contraction, velocity and discharge for
different objects.
 Also determine the flow rate for that object.
 Repeat the experiment 2 to 3 times in order to get accurate readings.
Observation and calculations:
velocity of jet = wjet = √ 2 ghtotal
calculated velocity = wth = √ 2 ghstatic
Contraction coefficient (α ¿ = d2jet / d2inlet

Velocity coefficient (φ ¿ = φ=¿

√ htotal
hstat

Discharge coefficient ( μ ¿ = α .φ
g = 9.81 m/s2
Table:

Static head (mm)

Total head(mm)

Jet
diameter(mm)
Inlet
diameter(mm)
Flow rate (Q)
Velocity of jet
(wjet)
Calculated
velocity (wth)
Contraction
coefficient (α ¿
Velocity
coefficient (φ ¿
Discharge
coefficient ( μ ¿
Comments:
 Flow rate and static pressure can be depending upon the diameter of
object used.
 Contraction coefficient can be determined on the point of vena contracta.
It depends upon the diameter of jet and inlet diameter of vena contracta.
 Pitot tube can be placed in center of outlet of object placed in order to get
accuracy in hstat.
 Discharge coefficient is the product of contraction coefficient and
velocity coefficient.
 Steady flow can be used for this experiment.
 LAB SESSION # 06
Experiment no. 06:
“To investigate the head loss due to the friction in the flow of water through a
pipe.”
Apparatus:
 Hydraulic bench
 losses in pipe system apparatus
 Stopwatch

Theory:
o Losses in pipe system:
During the fluid flow through the pipe, there are different
losses produce in pipes due to frictional effect and pressure
difference. These losses include pressure drop and head losses.
Pressure drop is directly proportional to the power
requirements of the pump to maintain the flow. Pressure drop is
proportional to the viscosity of fluid and would be zero if there were
no friction.
In the analysis of piping system, pressure losses are
commonly expressed in term of the equivalent fluid column height,
called the head loss (hL).
The head loss represents the “additional height that the
fluid needs to be raised by the pump in order to overcome the
frictional losses in pipe.” Head loss is caused by the viscosity and is
directly related to the wall shear stress.
2
L V
hL = f D 2g

Where f is known as Darcy Weisbach friction factor and is

calculated as:
64
f= ℜ

Which shows that the friction factor is only depends upon the
Reynold number and is independent of the surface roughness.
Head loss is potential energy that is converted to kinetic
energy. Head losses are due to the frictional resistance of the piping
system (pipe, valves, fittings, entrance, and exit losses). Unlike
velocity head, friction head cannot be ignored in system calculations.
Major and Minor losses in pipes:
 Major head loss - head loss or pressure loss - due to friction in
pipes and ducts.
 Minor head loss - head loss or pressure loss - due to components
as valves, bends, tees and the like in the pipe or duct system.
In piping system, the total head loss will be the some of
major and minor head loss of pipes.
hL,total = hL,major + hL,minor
Head loss is potential energy that is converted to kinetic
energy. Head losses are due to the frictional resistance of the piping
system (pipe, valves, fittings, entrance, and exit losses). Unlike
velocity head, friction head cannot be ignored in system calculations.
 Pressure and head loss in horizontal pipe

Parts illustration:

Losses in Pipe System | parts illustration

1. Tube manometers
 2. Various pipe sections
3. Pipe section for interchangeable shut off / measuring objects
4. Annular chamber
5. Ball valve

Procedure:
 Place the hydraulic bench on smooth horizontal surface.
 Now place the losses in pipe system apparatus on hydraulic bench and
connect its inlet pipe with hydraulic bench pipe.
 Start the pump so that water flow through the inlet of piping apparatus
into its different pipes.
 Now open the valve slightly so that water flow through the pipe.
 Determine the value of head losses in manometers tube by closing the air-
bleed valves.
 Now determine the flow rate for water flow through pipe.
 After that open the valve slightly large than previous one and note all the
same readings again.
 Perform this experiment three to four times to get accurate readings of
head loss in manometer tubes and flow rate.

Observation and calculations:

Room temperature = 25℃
 Kinematic viscosity = v = 0.894m2/s x 10-6
Length of pipe = 800mm
Diameter of pipe = 15mm
Area of pipe = 1.76 x 10-4 m2

Table:

Head Head Hydraulic Time Volu Flow Velocity Reynold Friction Log Log Log Log
loss gradient me rate number factor i w f RE
h1 h2 h1-h2 hL/L T V(L) Q= w= Re= f=
(sec) v/t Q/A wd/v 2gdhL/w2L

Comments:
 The head loss occur in pipe is depends upon the flow velocity,
pipe diameter and length of pipe.
 Head loss due to friction result increase in increase in fluid’s
internal energy.
 The total energy of fluid remains conserved as a consequence of
the law of conservation of energy.
  The total head loss will be the sum of major and minor head loss
of piping system.

LAB SESSION # 07
Experiment no. 07:
“To demonstrat the operating characteristics of single centrifugal pump.”
Apparatus:
 Hydraulic bench
 centrifugal pump apparatus
 Stopwatch

Theory:

 Pumps:
The purpose of a pump is to add energy to a fluid, resulting in an
increase in fluid pressure, not necessarily an increase of fluid speed across the
pump.
The net head produced by the pump is given as:
 2 2
P V P V
H = ( ρg + + z) out - ( ρg + + z) in
2g 2g

Net head H is equal to the difference between EGLout and EGLin

H = EGLout - EGLin
EGL = energy grade line
Consider the special case of incompressible flow through a pump in
which the inlet and outlet diameters are identical, and there is no change in
elevation.
P out −P¿
Special case with Dout = Din and zout = zin; H =
ρg

In pump terminology, the external power supplied to the pump is

called the brake horsepower, which we abbreviate as bhp.
bhp = Wshaft = ω Tshaft

 Centrifugal pump:
Centrifugal pumps are turbomachines that are used for conveying
fluids. A centrifugal pump is a mechanical device designed to move a fluid by
means of the transfer of rotational energy from one or more driven rotors, called
impellers. Fluid enters the rapidly rotating impeller along its axis and is cast out
by centrifugal force along its circumference through the impeller's vane tips.
There are two types of centrifugal pumps:
o Radial
o Axial

Centrifugal Pump
 Centrifugal pumps move fluid by using centrifugal force to
generate velocity of the liquid. Fluid enters the pump through the suction
nozzle, into the eye of the impeller. The impeller vanes catch the fluid and
rotate it, both tangentially and radially until it exits the pump on the discharge
side.
A centrifugal pump converts driver energy to kinetic energy in a
liquid by accelerating the fluid to the outer rim of an impeller. The amount of
energy given to the liquid corresponds to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of
the impeller. Centrifugal pumps are the suitable tools for lifting water, due to its
small size, high speed, high pressure and cheap price.
A plot of the total head-discharge for a pipe system is called a
system curve. The steady operating point of a piping system is established at the
volume flow rate where Hrequired = Havailable.

Operating point: Hrequired = Havailable

 Parts illustration:

Parts illustration | centrifugal pump apparatus

 1. Display and control
2. Centrifugal pump
3. Motor
4. Ball valve for adjusting the head
5. Outlet side manometer
6. Inlet side manometer

Pump characteristics curve at different pressure head

Procedure:
 Place the hydraulic bench on smooth horizontal surface.
 Now place the centrifugal pump apparatus on hydraulic bench and
connect its inlet pipe with hydraulic bench pipe.
 Start the pump so that water flow through the inlet of pump into its
different pipes.
 Start the pump, and increase the speed until the pump is operating at 1000
rpm.
 Check the values of inlet and discharge pressure through pressure gauges.
 Now record the value of input power shown in display and control panel
in watts.
 Now open the valve slowly so that water can flow through it.
 Keep on increasing the flow rate by opening the valve slowly until it
opens fully.
 For each control valve position, measure the flow rate by either collecting
a suitable volume of water.
 Increase the speed of pump up to 2800 rpm.
  Note down the reading for different rpm and opening of valve.

Observation and calculations:

Distance between pressure gauge = y = 0.18m
P ds −P¿ 2 2
Cds−C ¿
H= +y+
gρ 2g

Cds = Cin
So,
P ds−P¿
H= +y
gρ
P hyd
ηP = P ed −ηm

where,
ηm = 0.92
Phyd = Q × H × g × ρ
Table:
Speed = n = _________
Pin Pds volum time Flow head Ped Phyd %η
e rate
bar bar liter sec m3/s m W W %

Speed = n = _________
Pin Pds volum time Flow head Ped Phyd %η
e rate
bar bar liter sec m3/s m W W %
Speed = n = _________
Pin Pds volum time Flow head Ped Phyd %η
e rate
bar bar liter sec m3/s m W W %

Graph:

Characteristics Curve of single pump

16

14

12

10

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

1000 rpm H 2000rpm H 2800rpm H

Character curve of single pump

Comments:
 For a given pump geometry and operating speed, the velocities of the
liquid vary with the flow rate.
 Efficiency, power requirements, and suction capability also vary with
flow rate.
 The operating point of pump will occur where total head required is equal
to the total head available.
 The efficiency of given centrifugal pump is 10-15%.

LAB SESSION # 08
Experiment no. 08:
“To demonstrat the operating characteristics of two centrifugal pump running in
series installation.”
Apparatus:
 Hydraulic bench
 Two centrifugal pump connected in series
 Stopwatch

Theory:

 Pumps:
 The purpose of a pump is to add energy to a fluid, resulting in an
increase in fluid pressure, not necessarily an increase of fluid speed across the
pump.
The net head produced by the pump is given as:
2 2
P V P V
H = ( ρg + + z) out - ( ρg + + z) in
2g 2g

Net head H is equal to the difference between EGLout and EGLin

H = EGLout - EGLin
EGL = energy grade line
Consider the special case of incompressible flow through a pump in
which the inlet and outlet diameters are identical, and there is no change in
elevation.
P out −P¿
Special case with Dout = Din and zout = zin; H =
ρg

In pump terminology, the external power supplied to the pump is

called the brake horsepower, which we abbreviate as bhp.
bhp = Wshaft = ω Tshaft

 Centrifugal pump:
Centrifugal pumps are turbomachines that are used for conveying
fluids. A centrifugal pump is a mechanical device designed to move a fluid by
means of the transfer of rotational energy from one or more driven rotors, called
impellers. Fluid enters the rapidly rotating impeller along its axis and is cast out
by centrifugal force along its circumference through the impeller's vane tips.
There are two types of centrifugal pumps:
o Radial
o Axial
 Centrifugal Pump

Centrifugal pumps move fluid by using centrifugal force to

generate velocity of the liquid. Fluid enters the pump through the suction
nozzle, into the eye of the impeller. The impeller vanes catch the fluid and
rotate it, both tangentially and radially until it exits the pump on the discharge
side.
A centrifugal pump converts driver energy to kinetic energy in a
liquid by accelerating the fluid to the outer rim of an impeller. The amount of
energy given to the liquid corresponds to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of
the impeller. Centrifugal pumps are the suitable tools for lifting water, due to its
small size, high speed, high pressure and cheap price.
A plot of the total head-discharge for a pipe system is called a
system curve. The steady operating point of a piping system is established at the
volume flow rate where Hrequired = Havailable.

Operating point: Hrequired = Havailable

 Pumps in series:
Similar pumps in series may create problems because the volume
flow rate through each pump must be the same, but the overall pressure rise is
equal to the pressure rise of one pump plus that of the other. If the pumps have
widely different performance curves, the smaller pump may be forced to operate
beyond its free delivery flow rate, whereupon it acts like a head loss, reducing
the total volume flow rate.
 When operated in series, the combined net head is simply the sum of
the net heads of each pump (at a given volume flow rate):
n

Hcombine = ∑ H i
i=1

Consider the three pumps are connected in series. In this example,

pump 3 is the strongest and pump 1 is the weakest. The shutoff head of the three
pumps combined in series is equal to the sum of the shutoff head of each
individual pump. For low values of volume flow rate, the net head of the three
pumps in series is equal to h 1, h2, h3. Beyond the free delivery of pump 1, pump
1 should be shut off and bypassed. Otherwise, it would be running beyond its
maximum designed operating point, and the pump or its motor could be
damaged.
Furthermore, the net head across this pump would be negative as
previously discussed, contributing to a net loss in the system. With pump 1
bypassed, the combined net head becomes H 2, H3. Similarly, beyond the free
delivery of pump 2, that pump should also be shut off and bypassed, and the
combined net head is then equal to H 3. In this case, the combined free delivery
is the same as that of pump 3 alone, assuming that the other two pumps are
bypassed.

 Pump performance curve for three dissimilar pumps in series Parts

illustration:
 Series and parallel configuration of pump | Parts illustration

1. Tank
2. Overflow
3. Water connection
4. Ball valve
5. Pump
6. Pump switch
7. Drain
8. Manometer

Procedure:
  Place the hydraulic bench on smooth horizontal surface.
 Now place the centrifugal pump apparatus on hydraulic bench and
connect its inlet pipe with hydraulic bench pipe.
 Start the pump so that water flow through the inlet of pump into its
different pipes.
 Start the pump, and increase the speed until the pump is operating at 1000
rpm.
 Check the values of inlet and discharge pressure of pump 1 and pump 2
through pressure gauges.
 Now record the value of input power shown in display and control panel
in watts. Assumed that both the pumps have same power input.
 Now open the valve slowly so that water can flow through it.
 Keep on increasing the flow rate by opening the valve slowly until it
opens fully.
 For each control valve position, measure the flow rate by either collecting
a suitable volume of water.
 Increase the speed of pump up to 2800 rpm.
 Note down the reading for different rpm and opening of valve.

Observation and calculations:

Distance between pressure gauge = y = 0.18m
P ds−P¿ 2
C −C
2
H= + y + ds ¿
gρ 2g

Cds = Cin
So,
P ds −P¿
H= +y
gρ
P hyd
ηP = P ed −ηm

where,
ηm = 0.92
Phyd = Q × H × g × ρ
Table:
 Sr.No. P1 P2 Ptotal Poutlet Discharge
× 10-6 Pa × 10-6 Pa × 10-6 Pa × 10-6 Pa m3/s

Graph:

Characteristics with series configuration of pump

0.4

0.2

0
2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1

P1 P2

Characteristics with series configuration of pump

Comments:
 For a given pump geometry and operating speed, the velocities of the
liquid vary with the flow rate.
 Efficiency, power requirements, and suction capability also vary with
flow rate.
 The operating point of pump will occur where total head required is equal
to the total head available.
 The discharge and outlet pressure have inverse relation. The rate of
discharge decrease with increase of outlet pressure.
 The total volume flow rate remains constant in series combination of
pump
 LAB SESSION # 09
Experiment no. 09:
“To demonstrat the operating characteristics of two centrifugal pump running in
parallel installation.”
Apparatus:
 Hydraulic bench
 Two centrifugal pump connected in parallel
 Stopwatch

Theory:

 Pumps:
The purpose of a pump is to add energy to a fluid, resulting in an
increase in fluid pressure, not necessarily an increase of fluid speed across the
pump.
The net head produced by the pump is given as:
2 2
P V P V
H = ( ρg + + z) out - ( ρg + + z) in
2g 2g

Net head H is equal to the difference between EGLout and EGLin

H = EGLout - EGLin
EGL = energy grade line
Consider the special case of incompressible flow through a pump in
which the inlet and outlet diameters are identical, and there is no change in
elevation.
P out −P¿
Special case with Dout = Din and zout = zin; H =
ρg

In pump terminology, the external power supplied to the pump is

called the brake horsepower, which we abbreviate as bhp.
bhp = Wshaft = ω Tshaft
  Centrifugal pump:
Centrifugal pumps are turbomachines that are used for conveying
fluids. A centrifugal pump is a mechanical device designed to move a fluid by
means of the transfer of rotational energy from one or more driven rotors, called
impellers. Fluid enters the rapidly rotating impeller along its axis and is cast out
by centrifugal force along its circumference through the impeller's vane tips.
There are two types of centrifugal pumps:
o Radial
o Axial

Centrifugal Pump

Centrifugal pumps move fluid by using centrifugal force to

generate velocity of the liquid. Fluid enters the pump through the suction
nozzle, into the eye of the impeller. The impeller vanes catch the fluid and
rotate it, both tangentially and radially until it exits the pump on the discharge
side.
A centrifugal pump converts driver energy to kinetic energy in a
liquid by accelerating the fluid to the outer rim of an impeller. The amount of
energy given to the liquid corresponds to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of
the impeller. Centrifugal pumps are the suitable tools for lifting water, due to its
small size, high speed, high pressure and cheap price.
A plot of the total head-discharge for a pipe system is called a
system curve. The steady operating point of a piping system is established at the
volume flow rate where Hrequired = Havailable.

Operating point: Hrequired = Havailable

  Pumps in parallel:
When two or more identical (or similar) pumps are operated in
parallel, their individual volume flow rates (rather than net heads) are summed,
n

combine capacity for n pumps in parallel: v̇ combine = ∑ v̇ i

i=1

Consider the three pumps are arranged in parallel. The free

delivery of the three combined pumps is equal to the sum of the free delivery of
each individual pump. For low values of net head, the capacity of the three
pumps in parallel is equal to v1, v2, v3. Above the shutoff head of pump 1, pump
1 should be shut off and its branch should be blocked (with a valve). Otherwise,
it would be running beyond its maximum designed operating point, and the
pump or its motor could be damaged. With pump 1 shut off and blocked, the
combined capacity becomes v2, v3.
Similarly, above the shutoff head of pump 2, that pump should
also be shut off and blocked. The combined capacity is then equal to V 3 alone.
In this case, the combined shutoff head is the same as that of pump 3 alone,
assuming that the other two pumps are shut off and their branches are blocked.

Pump performance curve for three pumps in parallel

 Parts illustration:

Series and parallel configuration of pump | Parts illustration

1. Tank
2. Overflow
3. Water connection
4. Ball valve
5. Pump
6. Pump switch
7. Drain
8. Manometer
Procedure:
 Place the hydraulic bench on smooth horizontal surface.
 Now place the centrifugal pump apparatus on hydraulic bench and
connect its inlet pipe with hydraulic bench pipe.
 Start the pump so that water flow through the inlet of pump into its
different pipes.
 Start the pump, and increase the speed until the pump is operating at 1000
rpm.
 Check the values of inlet and discharge pressure of pump 1 and pump 2
through pressure gauges.
 Now record the value of input power shown in display and control panel
in watts. Assumed that both the pumps have same power input.
 Now open the valve slowly so that water can flow through it.
 Keep on increasing the flow rate by opening the valve slowly until it
opens fully.
 For each control valve position, measure the flow rate by either collecting
a suitable volume of water.
 Increase the speed of pump up to 2800 rpm.
 Note down the reading for different rpm and opening of valve.

Observation and calculations:

Distance between pressure gauge = y = 0.18m
P ds−P¿ 2
C −C
2
H= + y + ds ¿
gρ 2g

Cds = Cin
So,
P ds −P¿
H= +y
gρ
P hyd
ηP = P ed −ηm

where,
ηm = 0.92
Phyd = Q × H × g × ρ
Table:
Sr.No. P1 P2 Ptotal Volume Time Discharge
-6 -6 -6
× 10 pa × 10 pa × 10 pa Liter Sec M3/s

Graph:

Characteristics with parallel configuration of pump

12

10

0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

P1 P2

Characteristics with parallel configuration of pump

Comments:
 For a given pump geometry and operating speed, the velocities of the
liquid vary with the flow rate.
 Efficiency, power requirements, and suction capability also vary with
flow rate.
 The operating point of pump will occur where total head required is equal
to the total head available.
 The discharge and outlet pressure have inverse relation. The rate of
discharge decrease with increase of outlet pressure.
 The total head remains constant in parallel combination of pumps.
 LAB SESSION # 10
Experiment no. 10:
“To obtain the characteristics curves for a rection turbine operating at a range of
fluid flow rates.”
Apparatus:
 Reaction turbine apparatus
 control valve
 computer
 FM6X software

Theory:

 Turbines:
The purpose of a turbine is to extract energy from a fluid, resulting
in a decrease of fluid pressure, not necessarily a decrease of fluid speed across
the turbine.
Whereas the rotating part of a pump is called the impeller, the
rotating part of a hydro turbine is called the runner. When the working fluid is
water, the turbomachines are called hydraulic turbines or hydro turbines.
When the working fluid is air, and energy is extracted from the wind, the
machine is properly called a wind turbine. The turbomachines that convert
energy from the steam into mechanical energy of a rotating shaft are called
steam turbines. A more generic name for turbines that employ a compressible
gas as the working fluid is gas turbine.
 A turbine extracts energy from a fluid

 Reaction turbine:
The main type of energy-producing hydro turbine is the reaction
turbine, which consists of fixed guide vanes called stay vanes, adjustable guide
vanes called wicket gates, and rotating blades called runner blades. Flow enters
tangentially at high pressure, is turned toward the runner by the stay vanes as it
moves along the spiral casing or volute, and then passes through the wicket
gates with a large tangential velocity component.

Reaction turbine
 Top and side view of reaction turbine

There are two main types of reaction turbine:

 Francis:
The Francis turbine is somewhat similar in geometry to a centrifugal
or mixed flow pump, but with the flow in the opposite direction. Note,
however, that a typical pump running backward would not be a very
efficient turbine.

Francis radial flow, reaction turbine

 Kaplan:
 The Kaplan turbine is somewhat like an axial-flow fan running
backward. If you have ever seen a window fan start spinning in the wrong
direction when wind blows hard into the window, you can visualize the basic
operating principle of a Kaplan turbine.

Propeller mixed flow, reaction turbine

 Ideal power production in turbine:

The maximum amount of power that could be generated per turbine
would be:
Wideal = ρ g v̇ Hgross

 Parts illustration:

Reaction Turbine | Parts illustration

1. Transparent housing
 2. Rotor
3. Water supply
4. Eddy current brake
5. Adjustment of the eddy current brake

Reaction Turbine | Parts illustration

1. Rotor
2. Water inlet via hub
3. Water outlet via tangential nozzle
Procedure:
 Place the reaction turbine apparatus on horizontal smooth surface and
connect it with control valve.
 Connect the control valve with computer.
 Now load the FM6X software on computer.
 Then run the FM6X reaction turbine program.
 Now click on the “view diagram” icon.
 In order to start the pump, turn the “0” into “1” and increase slowly the
speed of pump.
 To get readings at different points, click on the “go” icon.
 Brake power is zero at start. You can increase it by increasing their value
from software.
 To see the graph, click on the “view graph” icon.
 Save all the readings and graphs.
 Now perform the same experiment at different values and get readings.
Comments:
 Efficiency of pump increase with decrease in speed of pump.
 Pump power decrease gradually with pump speed.
 The inlet pressure is maximum for maximum flow rate. It decreases
gradually with decreasing the flow rate.
 The pump reaches its maximum efficiency for zero brake power and
turbine efficiency.
 It is the only turbine to get maximum power output from a low available
water head and high velocity other than cross-flow turbine which not that
efficient.
 LAB SESSION # 11
Experiment no. 11:
“To obtain the characteristics curves for a pelton turbine operating at a range of
fluid flow rates.”
Apparatus:
 pelton turbine apparatus
 control valve
 computer
 FM6X software

Theory:

 Turbines:
 The purpose of a turbine is to extract energy from a fluid, resulting
in a decrease of fluid pressure, not necessarily a decrease of fluid speed across
the turbine.
Whereas the rotating part of a pump is called the impeller, the
rotating part of a hydro turbine is called the runner. When the working fluid is
water, the turbomachines are called hydraulic turbines or hydro turbines.
When the working fluid is air, and energy is extracted from the wind, the
machine is properly called a wind turbine. The turbomachines that convert
energy from the steam into mechanical energy of a rotating shaft are called
steam turbines. A more generic name for turbines that employ a compressible
gas as the working fluid is gas turbine.

A turbine extracts energy from a fluid

 Impulse turbines:
In an impulse turbine, the fluid is sent through a nozzle so that most of
its available mechanical energy is converted into kinetic energy. The high-speed
jet then impinges on bucket-shaped vanes that transfer energy to the turbine
shaft. The modern and most efficient type of impulse turbine is Pelton wheel
turbine.
 Pelton wheel turbine:
The buckets of a Pelton wheel are designed so as to split the flow in
half, and turn the flow nearly 180° around (with respect to a frame of reference
moving with the bucket). According to legend, Pelton modeled the splitter ridge
shape after the nostrils of a cow’s nose. A portion of the outermost part of each
bucket is cut out so that the majority of the jet can pass through the bucket that
is not aligned with the jet to reach the most aligned bucket. In this way, the
maximum amount of momentum from the jet is utilized.
 Pelton turbine apparatus

Schematic diagram of a Pelton-type impulse turbine

 Parts illustration:
 Pelton Turbine | Parts illustration

1. Adjustment of the needle nozzle

2. Water supply
3. Needle nozzle
4. Pelton wheel
5. Transparent housing
6. Eddy current brake
7. Adjustment of the eddy current brake
 Principle operation of Pelton Wheel

1. Needle nozzle
2. Adjustable nozzle needle
3. Pelton wheel
4. Deflected water jet
5. Impinged blade
Procedure:
 Place the Pelton turbine apparatus on horizontal smooth surface and
connect it with control valve.
 Connect the control valve with computer.
 Now load the FM6X software on computer.
 Then run the FM6X pelton turbine program.
 Now click on the “view diagram” icon.
 In order to start the pump, turn the “0” into “1” and increase slowly the
speed of pump.
 To get readings at different points, click on the “go” icon.
 Brake power is zero at start. You can increase it by increasing their value
from software.
 To see the graph, click on the “view graph” icon.
 Save all the readings and graphs.
 Now perform the same experiment at different values and get readings.
Comments:
 Efficiency of pump increase with decrease in speed of pump.
 Pump power decrease gradually with decrease in pump speed.
 The inlet pressure is maximum for maximum flow rate. It decreases
gradually with decreasing the flow rate.
 The pump reaches its maximum efficiency for zero brake power and
turbine efficiency.
 Maximum torque will generate for maximum speed of pump.
 LAB SESSION # 12
Experiment no. 12:
“To obtain the fan characteristics curves for an axial fan operating at constant
speed.”
Apparatus:
 Axial fan demonstration unit
 Interface device
 computer
 FM41 software

Theory:

 Pumps:
The purpose of a pump is to add energy to a fluid, resulting in an
increase in fluid pressure, not necessarily an increase of fluid speed across the
pump.

 Fans:
Fluid machines that move liquids are called pumps, but there are
several other names for machines that move gases. A fan is a gas pump with
relatively low pressure rise and high flow rate. Examples include ceiling fans,
house fans, and propellers.

 Axial fans:
Axial flow fans, as the name indicate draws the air and blows
forward, which moves in the axis of the fan. There would be no centrifugal
effect on the airflow generated. Guides or stator vanes serve to smoothen/
straighten the airflow and improve efficiency. In general, an axial-flow fan is
suitable for a larger flow rate with a relatively small pressure gain and a
centrifugal fan for comparatively smaller flow rate and a large pressure rise.
They are used to supply fresh air, to suck air from return air trenches, to suck air
from rotary filters, to exhaust air out etc. Depending on the purpose and the
quantity of air handled the size and materials of the fan are decided.
 Axial fan experiments

Axial fans are used to transport gases. The medium to be

transported is drawn in axially to the drive shaft of the axial fan by the rotation
of the rotor. The medium flows through the rotor and is discharged axially
behind the rotor.
 Pressure variation in axial fan

 Parts illustration:

Axial Fan apparatus | Parts illustration

 2. Measuring point for temperature
3. Intake nozzle and intake pipe
4. Measuring point for pressure
5. Flow straightener
6. Measuring point for pressure
7. Delivery pipe
8. Throttle valve
9. Axial fan

Procedure:
 Place the Axial fan apparatus on horizontal smooth surface and connect it
with interface device.
 Connect the interface device with computer.
 Now load the FM41 software on computer.
 Then run the FM61 Axial fan program.
 Now click on the “view diagram” icon.
 In order to start the fan, turn the “0” into “1” and increase slowly the
speed of fan.
 To get readings at different points, click on the “go” icon.
 To see the graph, click on the “view graph” icon.
 Save all the readings and graphs.
 Now perform the same experiment at different values and get readings.
Comments:
 The experiment is performed at atmospheric pressure and at room
temperature.
 The value of discharge coefficient is constant.
 Mechanical power increase with increasing the orifice differential
pressure.
 With increasing the speed of fan, its predicted power output must
increase.
 Outlet velocity increase with increasing the orifice differential pressure.