Lecture Notes

General Science

Definitions of Science

An organized body of knowledge gathered over a long period of time to explain the world
we live in.
Knowledge or a system covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially
as obtained and tested through scientific method.

Scientific Method

1. Identifying the problem (Questioning)

2. Gathering Preliminary data
3. Formulating a hypothesis*
4. Testing of the hypothesis
5. Analysis and Interpretation of data
6. Drawing of Conclusion

Independent Variable – variable changed by the experimenter

Dependent Variable – variable that responds to the variable that is changed in the experiment.

Experimental group – groups that receive treatment.

Control group – opposite of Experimental.

hypothesis – it is what we think the answer to the question is and it should stated in terms
of the variables defined.

Laws and Theories

*Scientific law – a description of a natural occurrence that has been observed many times.

*Scientific theory – a reasonable explanation of a scientific law. It is derived from a hypothesis

that has been supported by repeated testing.

*Model – helps visualize occurrences and objects that cannot be observed directly.

Note: Scientific laws and theories cannot be proven absolutely. They are maintained as all
observations support them.

Measurements

In science, the metric system is used in all measurements for its convenience and
simplicity.
The International System of Units (SI) uses the seven base quantities and units given
below:

Physical Quantity Unit Name (symbol)

Mass Kilogram, kg

Length Meter, m

Time Second, s

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 Amount of Substance Mole, mol

Temperature Kelvin, K

Electric current Ampere, A

Luminous intensity Candela, cd

A. Reading Metric Measurements

No. of significant digits = no. of certain digits + one certain digit (0 or 5)

Example 1: The diagram below is a metric ruler used to measure the length of a pencil. How long
is the pencil?

8 cm 9 10

The smallest fraction of a centimeter in the metric ruler is 0.1 cm. This corresponds to the
last certain digit in any measurement. The pointer reads 9.0 cm. One uncertain digit should be
added. In this case it is 0.

Answer: Length of pencil = 9.00 cm

B. Converting Metric Units

Conversion of metric units is easily performed,

Mega 106
Decimal
3 point
Kilo 10
moves to
the left
Deka 102

Hector 101 Decimal

point
Base unit 100 moves to
the right
Deci 10-1

Centi 10-2

Milli 10-3

Micro 10-6

Example 2: How many grams are there in 37.d centigrams?

To convert 37.5 cg to grams, count the number of steps from centi to base unit. Since it
moves upward, the movement of the decimal point is to the left.
Answer: 0.375 g

Major Regions of the Earth

1. Lithosphere – the solid part and the largest portion of the earth

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 2. Hydrosphere – the liquid part. It covers about 71% of the earth’s surface
3. Atmosphere – the gaseous portion that envelops the earth
4. Biosphere – the region where living things are found.
Rocks and Minerals

Everywhere you look, you find rocks of different shapes and sizes. What is important to
remember about rocks is the way they were formed. The varying conditions for the rock formation
influence the characteristics that each rock develops,

Igneous rocks – formed from hardened magma and lava.

e.g. Rhyolite, Granite, Basalt, etc.

Sedimentary rocks – form from deposited fragments or particles of other rocks that have
been weathered and eroded.
e.g. limestone, conglomerate, dolomite, shale

Metamorphic rocks – rocks that have undergone changes due to heat and pressure
e.g. marble (from limestone), slate (from shale)

* Rocks are made up of minerals which are either elements or compounds.

Weathering is a term for all processes which combine to cause the disintegration and chemical
alteration of rocks at or near earth surface.

Erosion includes all the process of loosening, removal, and transportation which tend to wear
away the earth’s surface.

Lithification is the conversion of unconsolidated sediment into solid rock.

Weather and Climate

Meteorology – the study of the earth’s atmosphere, weather and climate

Weather – the daily condition of the earth’s atmosphere

Climate – general conditions of temperature and precipitation in a large area over a long period
of time.

Gases found in the atmosphere:

a. Nitrogen – about 78%

- nitrogen in air reacts with chemicals to produce nitrates, which are used by living
things for the manufacture of proteins
- is returned to the atmosphere by the process of decay
b. Oxygen – 21%
-used for respiration

-for combustion processes

c. Other gases – (water vapor, CO2, O3)

Layers in the atmosphere

1. Troposphere – layer where life exists

- where different weather conditions prevail
- has lowest temperature
2. Stratosphere – contains ozone that serves as a protective shield against UV rays.
- where jetstream is found
3. Mesosphere – layer where meteoroids that enter the earth’s atmosphere are burned.
4. Ionosphere – contains ions that are used for radio communications
5. Exosphere – orbit space for artificial satellites.
The uneven temperature and pressure in the atmosphere result in the movement of air
called winds.
Monsoons are examples of winds that result from the differences in the absorption and
reflection of thermal energy by different materials of Earth.

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Ecology

1. Ecology – the study of how living things interact with their environment.
2. Ecological Factors
a. biotic – all living factors in the environment
b. abiotic – nonliving factors that are essential to living organisms
3. Population – a group of the same species living together
4. Community – all the different populations living together
5. Ecosystem – community of different living things interacting with one another and with
their nonliving environment
6. Biomes – a large area whose ecological communities are determined by its climate.
Solar System

The probable origin of our solar system, specifically the sun, is similar to that of other stars.
The age of a star is related to its temperature and its color. Bluish and white stars are the
hottest and youngest stars. The least hot and the oldest star are the reddish stars.

Nebular theory – states that the solar system originated from a rotating gas and dust cloud
composed of hydrogen, helium and some heavier elements.

Ptolemaic Theory – The earth is stationary; each planet and the sun revolved around the
earth.

Copernican Theory – This theory considers the sun as the center of the solar system. The
earth and other planets revolve around the sun in a circular orbit.

Planets

- Mercury- Rocky, cratered surface; extremely thin atmosphere

- Venus-Thick cloud cover; green house effect
- Earth-liquid water, life
- Mars-polar ice caps, pink sky, dominant volcanoes
- Jupiter-Great red spots, thin ring; huge magnetosphere
- Saturn-many rings and ringlets, Titan only moon with substantial atmosphere
- Uranus-Rotates on side; worldwide ocean of superheated water
- Neptune- Unusual satellite rotation, 4 rings, great dark spot.
Asteroids - are objects that orbit the sun like planets. However they are smaller than the planets
and so they are sometimes called minor planet.

Meteoroids – are objects smaller than the asteroids that revolve around the sun.

Comet - is a mass of frozen materials such as water, methane and ammonia along with the bits
of rock and dust.

Solar eclipse – when the sun, the moon and the earth are in straight line. During solar eclipse,
the sun can’t be seen from earth because the moon covers it.

Lunar eclipse – same as solar but in this case the sun covers the moon.

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 Biology
Biology – the branch of science that deals with the study of living systems and life processes.

A. Cells

This is probably the most basic term that you would need to know. All living systems are
composed of cells. They are the basic unit of structure and fuction in living things. Following is
an illustration and concept map of a cell and the different structures contained in it.

Cell wall/cell membrane

mitochondrion
Except for the
chloroplast

Cell
nucleus ribosome

Except for the Endoplasmic reticulum

Golgi apparatus
cytoplasm
lysosome

protoplasm centriole

Microtubules and
microfilaments

Organelles are structures with specific functions found within living cells.

 Nucleus – This organelle is arguably the most important structure in the cell because it
serves as the control center in which individual functions of the other organelles are
coordinated.
 Cell wall/cell membrane – the cell wall in plant cells and in some monerans and protests
provides rigidity for support to the cells and a characteristic shape for functionality and
structure. The cell membrane on the other hand is selectively permeable.
 Mitochondrion – this organelle is also called as “powerhouse of the cell”. It serves as the
site where ATPs are abundantly synthesized.
 Chloroplast – this serves as the site of photosynthesis among plants and photosynthetic
algae.
 Ribosome – this serves as the site of protein synthesis.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum – These organelles serve as channels or passageways through
which materials are transported to the different parts of the cell.
 Centriole – this serves for cytokinetic purposes and is very common among dividing cells
 Lysosome – the structure is also called “suicidal bag” as it releases digestive juices
 Golgi apparatus – this serves for selection and packaging of cellular materials.

Differences between plant and animal cells

Structure Plants Animals

1. cell wall Present Absent

2. chloroplast Present Absent

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 3. centriole Absent Present

4. lysosome Absent Present

5. vacuole One/large Many/small

How did the concept of the cell come about?

The Cell Theory serves as the basis on which everything that we know about the cell is
anchored. There are three elements to this theory;

1. All living things are made up of cells.

2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living systems.

3. All cells come from preexisting cells.

Like any biological structure, the cell is composed of biomolecules that are intricately combined
to enable the cell to perform its metabolic functions.

a. Carbohydrates – immediate source of energy

- elemental composition: C, H, O
- building blocks: monosaccahrides
- e.g. sucrose (table sugar), maltose, amylase
b. Fats/Lipids – these molecules serve as another source of energy after carbohydrates
- elemental composition: C, H, O
- building blocks: fatty acids and a glycerol backbone
- e.g. waxes, oils, and cholesterol
c. Proteins – these molecules serve as sources of building materials.
- elemental composition: C, H, O, N, S
- building blocks: amino acids
- e.g. amylase, actin and myosin
d. Nucleic Acids – these molecules include the RNA’s and the DNA’s
- elemental composition: C, H, O, N, P
- building blocks: nucleotides

Cells according to complexity

Prokaryotic cells – have no membrane-bound nucleus and organelles; typical of
bacteria and blue-green algae
Eukaryotic cells – have membrane-bound nucleus and organelles; typical of protests,
fungi, plants, and animals.

Cell Transport

Passive Transport – does not require the expenditure of energy; moves particles through the
concentration gradient.

Active transport – requires the expenditure of energy; moves particles against the concentration
gradient.

Diffusion - this refers to the process in which molecules of solvent move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.

Osmosis – this refers to the diffusion of particles or molecules across selectively permeable
membrane.

Cell Reproduction

This refers to the process by which cells divide to produce daughter cells. It involves either
mitosis if somatic or body cells are involves or meiosis if germ or sex cells are involved.

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Mitosis - refers to the division of the somatic cells

- also referred to as equational dvision because the ploidy number of the daughter cells is
equal to the ploidy number of the dividing cell.
Meiosis - refers to the division of germ cells

- also referred to as reductional division because the ploidy number of the daughter cells
is only half that of the parent cell

B. Botany

Plants are autotrophic organisms capable of synthesizing their own food for growth and
maintenance through the process of photosynthesis. Their cells are eukaryotic (i.e. with a distinct
nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles) like fungal and animal cells, but are distinguished
by the presence of cellulosic cell walls, plastids and large vacuoles. Plant cells may also contain
non-living inclusions called ergastic substances that are products of the cell’s metabolism, like
crystals and starch.

Major plant cell types:

Three major plant cell types, parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma, make up the
different tissues of the plant. Although they assume various shapes, they are most easily
distinguished by general features and location in plant body.

o Parenchyma cells are usually large, thin-walled and are extremely variable in shape.
o Collenchyma cells have primary cell walls that are thickened irregularly by cellulose and
pectin materials.
o Sclerenchyma cells have a comparatively thick primary cell wall bearing heavy depositions
of lignified secondary substance laid down in a laminated pattern.

Tissues are aggregate of cells with similar structure and function. Some of the cells in the
tissue may even undergo further cell modification and change in function. Thus it is difficult to
classify plant tissues on the basis of a single criterion like function, origin or structure.

o Meristematic tissues are composed of immature cells and regions of active cell division.
They provide for growth and are found in the root tip.
o Permanent tissues
a. Epidermis –composed of tiny openings principally on the underside of the leaves that
regulate the exchange of water and gases called stomates.
b. Periderm – constitute the corky outer bark of trees.
c. Vascular tissues – composed of xylem and phloem; xylem functions for the transport
of water and minerals upward from the roots while phloem functions for the transport
of food materials.
Different Plant Parts

Root

It is typically underground organ of the plant axis that functions principally for anchorage
and absorption of water and minerals from the soil. The first formed root is the primary root. It
develops from the radicle of the seed embryo. Some root arises from other plant organs like stems
and leaves hence are described as adventitious. There are two general types of root system, the
fibrous which is found in monocotyledons, and the taproot, characteristic of dicotyledons.

Stem

The stem is readily recognized by the presence of nodes. Leaves are born on these nodes.
The intervening area between the two nodes is an internode.

Leaf

It is a flattened, green, lateral appendage that carries out the functions of photosynthesis
and transpiration. Chlorophyll gives the leaf its green color.

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Flower

It is a modified branch representing the reproductive structure of an angiosperm. It is

generally divided into four parts: the green sepals, brightly colored petals, the male structure
stamen, and the female structure known as pistil (carpel). Each of these has a collective term,
respectively, the calyx, corolla, andorecium and gymnoecium.

Fruit

The fruit is the ripened ovary with functions to protect and disperse the seeds. It is the
product of the entire pistil and other floral parts that may be associated with it. Two processes
precede fruit development; pollination or the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma and
fertilization or the fusion of a sperm nucleus and an egg cell.

Photosynthesis and Transpiration

Photosynthesis and transpiration are physiological processes occurring in leaves.

Photosynthesis involves the trapping of the radiant energy and its conversion into chemical
energy. It takes place in the chloroplast of the leaves. Transpiration is the loss of water in vapor
form through the stomates, minute openings distributed on the surface of leaves. A stoma has a
pair of epidermal cells called guard cells. Water moving into the guard cells cause latter to be
turgid thereby opening the stomal pore. When the water moves out of the guard cells, these
become flaccid and the stomal pore closes.

The numerous stomates of a leaf serve as entry point for a carbon dioxide
(photosynthesis) and the exit for water vapor (transpiration). If transpiration proceeds at a rate
much faster that that of the roots could absorb water from the soil, the plant tissues suffer from
water deficit, causes plant to wilt.

General Equation:

Photosynthesis: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O12 + 6 O2

Respiration

C6H12O12 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

- it is a complex process by which energy in the form of ATP is released from food molecules
ingested by organisms.

Plant Taxonomy

It is the science of classification, nomenclature and identification of plats. It is the most

basic and a unifying field of botany.

Classification is the arrangement of plants into categories that have similar characteristics.
These categories called taxa are arranged into hierarchy to form a classification system. The
smallest taxonomic unit is the species. Similar species form a genus and elated genera, a family.
The most inclusive category, the kingdom comprises all plants.

Nomenclature is the orderly assignment of names to taxa or categories in accordance with

the rules of International code of botanical nomenclature. A plant’s scientific name is a binomial,
that is, it is composed of a generic name (genus) and a specific epithet. The name of the person
who proposed the binomial completes the scientific name (Oryza sativa L.)

C. Genetics

Genetics is the study of heredity and variation. Heredity is the transmission of traits from
generation to generation while variation deals with genetic differences between organisms. The
process mainly involved in heredity and variation is cell division.

The cells in all organisms grow and reproduce by cell division. A unicellular bacterium,
after doubling in size, can reproduce by dividing into two cells. In multicellular organisms like man,
increase in size is attained by dividing its constituent cells.

Gene Segregation and Interaction

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Dominant Allele - alternative trait that is expressed in the phenotype.

Recessive Allele – alternative trait whose expression is marked in the phenotype.

Law of Dominance – state that only dominant alleles are expressed in the phenotype and that
recessive alleles are masked among hybrids but are manifested among pure breeds.

Law of Co-dominance – states that two equally dominant alleles are equally expressed in the
phenotype and that no blending is achieved.

Law of Incomplete Dominance – states that among multi-allelic traits, two dominant alleles that
are not dominant enough to mask the expression of one another, are incompletely expressed in
the phenotype, hence a blended trait is achieved.

Mendel’s law may be separated into two rules: first, the law of Independent Segregation of Alleles
and second, the Law of Independent Assortment.

*Law of Independent Segregation states that the alleles in a gene pair separate cleanly from
each other during meiosis.

*Law of Independent Assortment states that the alleles of the different genes separate cleanly
from each other and randomly combining during meiosis.

These laws can be illustrated using monohybrid and dihybrid cross:

a. Monohybrid Cross

One of the pairs of alternative characters in sweet peas studied by Mendel waqs round vs
wrinkled seed. These distinctive characters or traits are called phenotype while the gene or
genetic content coding for these traits is the genotype. In example below, both parents are
homozygous so that the round (P1) and wrinkled (P2) parents have the RR and rr genotypes,
respectively. The gametes produced after meiosis by P1 is R and by P2 is r so the progeny of the
first filial generation (F1) have heterozygous (Rr) genotypes. Since R is dominant over r, then
the F1’s have round phenotype. This is an example of complete dominance. R masks the
expression of r. This is the dominant allele. The allele that is masked ( r ) is the recessive.

Female Parent (P1) Male Parent (P2)

Phenotype: Round Wrinkled

Genotype RR rr

Gametes R r

Fertilization

F1 genotype: Rr

Phenotype; Round

To demonstrate that the F1’s are heterozygous, a testcross can be conducted wherein the
F1 plants are crossed to the homozygous recessive parents (rr). The recessive parent contributes
the gametes ( r ) while the other parent contributes R and r. Testcross results in 1 Rr (round): 1 rr
(wrinkled) or 1:1 segregation ratio.

Rr x rr

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 Gametes r

R Rr (round)

r rr (wrinkled)

Genotypic Ratio: 1Rr : 1rr

Phenotypic Ratio: 1round : 1 wrinkled

b. Dihybrid Cross

The members of gene pairs located on different homologous chromosome segregate

independently of each other during meiosis.

Mendel studied two phenotypes, texture and color of seeds with two alternative traits;
round and yellow seeds vs. wrinkled and green seeds. He crossed pure breeding round, yellow
seeded plants with pure breeding wrinkled, green seeded plants. The F1 progenies were all yellow
round seeded plants. The F2’s gave 315 round, yellow: 101 wrinkled yellow; 108 round, green
and 32 wrinkled, green plants. Approximately 9:3:3:1.

The method used in getting the genotypic ratio among F2 progeny is called Punnett
Square or Checkerboard method.

Molecular Basis of Heredity

The first part dealt with the physical basis of heredity – the chromosomes. Chromosomes
are the carriers of the multitude of genes. Genes or hereditary units, on the other hand, are
actually fragments or portions of the deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.

A chromosome is made up of one very long DNA packaged with histones to fit inside a
minute nucleus of the cell. Eukaryotic cells with several chromosomes would, therefore, contain
more than one molecule of DNA. Prokaryotic cells and viruses generally possess one long
molecule of DNA either naked or associated with proteins but not as organized as compared to
eukaryotic chromosomes. The DNA has been tagged as the genetic material of all organisms with
the exception of some viruses with ribonucleic acid or RNA as their genetic material.

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

DNA as the genetic material is capable of transmitting biological information from a parent
cell to its daughter cells and, in a broader perspective, from one generation to another. The
information stored in its base sequence is copied accurately by replication. Replication is a
process of faithfully copying a DNA to produce two DNA molecules identical to the parent DNA.
These DNA molecules are then passed on to the daughter cells via the chromosomes during cell
division.

The information stored in the DNA when expressed will result to a particular trait of an
individual. The trait is expressed through the action of proteins either directly or indirectly.

The central dogma of molecular biology consists of three general processes namely:
replication (DNA synthesis), transcription (RNA synthesis) and translation (protein synthesis).
The transfer of information from cell to cell or from generation to generation is achieved by
replication. On the other hand, the transfers of information from the DNA to the proteins involve
two processes: transcription and translation. Generally, all organisms follow this mode of transfer
except for some viruses that undergo reverse transcription.

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 Transcription
Translation

DNA RNA PROTEIN

Reverse

Transcription
Mutation – changes in the genetic materials that are essentially heritable.

a. Deletion – refers to a segment of base pairs in the DNA that is spliced off.

b. Substitution – refers to a segment of the base pairs in the DNA that is replaced by a different
series of base pairs.

C. Translocation – refers to segments of base pairs that are differently positioned.

d. insertion – refers to base pairs that are added to segment of DNA.

Evolution – this process refers to the gradual change in populations through time.

D. Animal Development (30 minutes)

Animal Cells, Tissues and Tissue Organization

Animal tissues are generally classified into four categories: Epithelium, Connective Tissue,
Muscle and Nerve. These animal tissues make up all the organ systems of the body.

o Epithelium, in its simplest form, is composed of a single continuous layer of cells of the
same type covering an external or internal surface.

o Connective Tissue, has the widest range encompassing the vascular tissue(blood and
lymph), CT proper, cartilage and bone.
o Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells organized in long units of structures called
muscle fibers or muscle cells. The two general categories of muscle, smooth and striated.
Striated or skeletal muscle functions for voluntary control while smooth muscle functions
for involuntary contractions.
o The nerve cells or neurons comprising the nervous tissue each possess a cell body which
contains the nucleus and the surrounding cytoplasm. The process come in contact with
other nerve cells, or with other effector cells through a point of contact called synapse.
Animal Development

Animal development is a series of events that is controlled by the genetic information in

the nucleus and factors in the cytoplasm. It starts with fertilization and ends into the arrangement
of cells which gives the embryo its distinct form. Features which are unique to organism such as
the shape of the face, location and number of limbs and arrangement of brain parts are molded
by cell movements in response to the action of genes in the nucleus and molecules in the
cytoplasm.

Stages of Development

a. Gametogenesis

Each species has its own chromosome number. Somatic cells of humans have 23 pars of
chromosomes (22 pair somatic and one pair sex; one chromosome of each pair is originally
derived from the father and the other from the mother. The chromosomal pair comes in contact
with each other and exchange segments during meiosis. This phenomenon provides
combinations of parental traits hence there is more viability in the characters of the offspring.

Gametogenesis changes the diploid cells into haploid sperms and ova. Cells undergo
meiosis, a sequence of two divisions during which the chromosomes divide only once. The

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resulting cells have only half the number of the chromosomes of the parent cells. This process
prevents doubling of the chromosomes during fertilization.

The male germ cells, initially round and large, are changed into slender and flagellated
cells. The cytoplasm is practically lost and mature cells develop a head, neck and tail. The female
germ cells gradually increase in size as a result of growth.

b. Fertilization

The ovum and the sperm unite thus restoring the diploid chromosome number of the
species. In humans, each gamete has 23 chromosomes (haploid). Upon fertilization the zygote
acquires 46 chromosomes. At this stage of development, the genetic sex of the individual is
established.

c. Cleavage

The unicellular zygote undergoes cleavage characterized by active mitoses. It is not a

period of growth but a time in which the zygote is divided into a large number of small cells, the
blastomeres. Each blastomere nucleus has the same DNA since these are derived from the same
cell, the zygote. Cleavage ends with the formation of the multicellular organism.

d. Blastula

The mass of blastomeres forms a hollow fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel. In frogs, cells
below the blastocoel are large; these are the macromeres.

In humans, at this embryonic stage, the 32-cell cell blastocyst burrows into the uterus. The
blastocyst has two distinct cell types; an inner cell mass and an outer shell, the trophoblast. The
former will become the embryo, the latter will give rise to the extra-embryonic membranes termed
amnion and chorion.

e. Gastrula

Gastrulation, a stage of extensive cell movements, rearranges the embryonic cells. Cells
are translocated to the different areas thus acquiring new neighbors and new positions. The
neighbor cells may act as inducers in the formation of structures. The different cell movements
establish the third germ layer, the mesoderm.

At the end of gastrulation, the embryo has three primary germ layers: an outer ectoderm,
an inner endoderm and middle mesoderm. At this stage tissues have become committed to form
one type of organ- a brain or stomach.

The ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis of the skin, sense organs and the nervous
system. The endoderm gives rise to the organs of the respiratory and digestive systems. The
mesoderm gives rise to the organs of the circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and
reproductive systems, connective tissues and linings of body cavities.

f. Neurula

Toward the end of gastrulation, the ectoderm along the dorsal surface elongates to form
a layer of columnar cells, the neural plate. This region thickens and moves upwards forming the
neural fold which then fuse to form a hollow tube, the neural tube. Closing of the neural tube starts
at the head region and continues posteriorly. This piece of tissue gives rise to skin pigments,
nerves and the adrenal medulla.

g. Organ formation

The ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm formed in the gastrulation are the source
materials for the development of organs. At this stage the component cells are still undifferentiated
and do not show any adult feature. These masses are further subdivided into groups of cells until
the organ acquires its unique characteristics and specific location.

h. Brain Formation

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 The earliest form of the brain is the nueral tube. At this stage, the brain shows three
regions- prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and the rhombencephalon (hind
brain). Later, the prosencephalon divides into telencephalon and diencephalons. The
mesencephalon remains undivided.

In frogs, the brain is a straight tube and remains in that condition in adult. In humans, the
embryonic brain undergoes bending and twisting. Hence in adult, the hindbrain is adjacent to the
forebrain and the eyes become anterior to the nose.

i. Limb Formation

Limbs start as buds at the embryonic sides, which later develop as paddle-like extremities.
Later, circular constrictions appear dividing the limb into three main segments. Fingers and toes
develop when cells at the most distal end die. The upper limb rotates 90º sideward so that the
thumbs move sideward. The lower limb rotates 90º towards the center, placing the big toe at the
center.

E. Ecosystem and Ecology

The branch of biology that pertains specifically to the relationship of an organism with that
of its environment is known as ecology. Ecology is a body of knowledge that covers the economy
of nature. It involves the study of overall relationship of an organism to its inorganic/organic
environment, that is, the physical world; and its relation and interaction with other organisms, both
plants and animals alike.

The basic functional unit and the most important concept in ecology is the ecosystem, as
it includes both plants and animals and the physical environment, each of which influencing the
other. Ecosystem or ecological system may refer to biotic assemblage of plants, animals,
microbes interacting among them and with that of the physico-chemical environment.

Components of the Ecosystem and Trophic Levels

The ecosystem has two basic components – the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
components. The biotic component is further subdivided into two units, namely, the autotrophs
(self nourishing/self feeding) and the heterotrophs (other feeding).

The autotrophs are usually chlorophyll-bearing organisms, that are able to harness solar
energy. In the presence of water and carbon dioxide, they convert this energy into (chemically-
stored energy) known as adenosine triphosphate or ATP. They assume the role as producers in
an ecosystem. Plants are the typical producers. However, in aquatic systems, algal communities
or phytoplanktons may be the producers.

Heterotrophs, on the other hand, are those that depend on the producers as food. They
are generally classified as consumers, although those that secure food directly from the producers
are better known as herbivores or primary consumers. A secondary consumer or carnivore, on
the other hand, derives its nourishment indirectly from the producers by devouring the herbivore.
In some ecosystems, tertiary consumers exist. Other heterotrophs include also the decomposers
where organic matter is reduced to simpler substances. Structurally therefore, the ecosystem can
composite the following, that is, the abiotic factors; the producers; the macroconsumer; and the
decomposers.

The abiotic component, on the other hand covers climatic, edaphic (soil) and topographic
factors.

Climate includes light, temperature, precipitation and wind. Light influences the biotic
components in many ways, as in photosynthesis, flowering seed dormancy, leaf senescence,
nesting, migration and hibernation. Light quality penetrating with increasing water depths also
determines the type of producers (i.e. green algae in shallow water and red algae at greater
depths). Temperature affects living organisms by influencing their metabolic processes. It can
determine the type of vegetation in different ecosystems depending on its availability.

Water as the universal solvent plays an important role in the ecosystem as it serves as a
medium for biochemical processes. It can determine the type of vegetation in terrestrial

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ecosystems depending on its availability. In aquatic ecosystems, however, what plays important
roles are salinity, ph, temperature and dissolved oxygen.

The atmosphere is a major reservoir of nutrients important to life. Nutrient cycling in the
atmosphere is further facilitated by wind. The latter also accelerates evapo-transcription rate
causing damage to plant structures. However, it plays an important role in facilitating seed
dispersal and in the distribution of plants and animals.

Biome - is a geographical unit uniformly affected by a common prevailing climate havin a similar
flora and fauna.

Terrestrial biomes the world over include:

 Tropical rainforests – which have the highest species diversity

 Coniferous forests – which harbors the pine-trees
 Deserts – characterized by very low species diversity
 Grasslands – also variously called savannahs, steppes and scrubs
 Taigas and
 Tundras-characterized by permafrosts
Aquatic biomes on the other hand include:

 Marshlands
 Lakes
 Seas and oceans and
 Estuaries
Five Kingdoms

 Monera – prokaryotic; unicellular; includes the bacteria and the cyanobacteria.

 Protista – eukaryotic; unicellular/colonial; includes the flagellates, the ciliates, the
sarcodines and the algal systems.
 Fungi – eukaryotic; unicellular (yeasts) and multicellular (molds and mushrooms).
 Plantae – eukaryotic; multicellular;
 Animalia – eukaryotic; multicellular; includes the invertebrates and vertebrates.
Ecological Relationships

a. Mutualism – “give and take” relationship

b. Commensalisms- a relationship where the commensal is benefited and the host is neither
benefited nor harmed
c. Parasitism – a relationship where the parasite is benefited and the host is harmed
d. Competition – neither organism in this relationship is benefited
e. Predation – a relation where the predator is benefited and the prey is harmed
Food Chain

Three components of a Food Chains

a. Producers – occupies the 1st trophic level; composed of plants and photosynthetic algae
b. Consumer
- herbivore – occupies the 2nd trophic level; 1º consumer
- carnivore – occupies the 3rd trophic level; 2º consumer
- omnivore – occupies either the 2nd or 3rd trophic levels.
c. Decomposer – the last component of a food chain

Energy Transfer - energy is transferred from one trophic level to another following the 10 % rule.

Food Web - it is a feeding relationship that is illustrative of a series of interlinking food chains.

Ecological Laws

Two ecological laws can demonstrate this relationship between organisms and their
environment. These include Liebig’s Law of Minimum and Shellford’s Law of Tolerance.

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  Liebig’s Law of Minimum states that “growth and survival of an organism is
dependent primarily on the nutrients that are least available. “A plant will grow and
develop well where a particular nutrient critical for growth and survival is found to
be inadequate or not available at all in that particular area. Take note that
magnesium is an important component for the production of chlorophyll, being the
central atom of pigment.
 Shellford’s Law of Tolerance states that “the existence of the organism is within
the definable range of conditions.” This means that “ organisms then can live within
a range between too much and too little”. Thus an organism have an optimum
range of conditions (peak) curve and an intolerance zone, where number of
organisms is at its lowest or zero.

MODULE

1. Which is not considered as adaptive mechanism of living things?

a. Modification of body parts to suit the environment.
b. Presence of specialized structures like thorns and fins.
c. Possession of camouflage features like color, pattern or shape.
d. Reproduction for the preservation of a certain species.

2. Biologists are at present involved in gene manipulation by altering the genes in nuclei. Which
aims seem to be the most important of such manipulation?
a. to cure ancient genetic diseases like cancer
b. to prolong life
c. to create new types of agricultural plants and animals
d. to make significant changes in man himself

3. Which chemical substance produced by the body regulates and coordinates the functions and
activities of bodily organ?
a. gene b. Deoxyribonucleic acid c. hormone d. enzyme

4. Which endocrine abnormality is characterized by dwarfness, low intelligence and sex

immaturity?
a. myxedema b. cretinism c. tetany d. acromegaly

5. What is the present connotation of symbiosis?

a. a give and take relationship of organism
b. any type of relationship between two dissimilar organisms living together
c. a one- sided relationship between two species
d. neutral relationship that exist between two organisms

6. Living things are classified either as aerobic or anaerobic as they grow or metabolize in the
presence or absence of:
a. carbon dioxide
b. nitrogen
c. water
d. oxygen

7. What is the structural difference between plants and animals?

a. Plant cells have plastids but animal cells do not.
b. Plant cells have a stiff cell wall of cellulose but animal cells do not.
c. Animal cells have centriole but the cells of higher plants do not.
d. Plant cells have only a thin membrane but animals do not.

8. Only living things can respond to stimuli, to physical and chemical changes in their
environment. Such a characteristic is called:
a. metabolism
b. irritability
c. movement
d. specific organization

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9. The preservation of specie is made possible through:
a. reproduction
b. adaptation
c. metabolism
d. growth

10. Which process involves in the movement of dissolved molecules (solute) through a
differentially permeable membrane?
a. diffusion
b. osmosis
c. Brownian movement
d. dialysis

11. Which refers to the earth’s entire zone of air, land and water which occupied by living
things?
a. biosphere b. biome c. bioassay d. biomass

12. Which body organ is responsible for the removal of waste from the blood and body fluids?
a. liver
b. pancreas
c. kidney
d. large intestine

13. What is meant by excretion?

a. Elimination of waste and undigested food from the anus.
b. Removal from the cells and blood streams of substances which are no further use in the
body.
c. Release from the cell of some substance that is utilized elsewhere in some bodily process.
d. Absorption of soluble food by the body cells.

14. The clotting of the blood is essentially the function of:

a. red blood cells b. white corpuscles
c. plasma d. hemoglobin

15. All living things have a tendency to maintain uniformity or stability in their internal
environment called:
a. anabolism b. metabolism c. epigenesist d. homeostasis

16. What is an ecosystem?

a. A basic unit that shows interaction between living things and their environment.
b. A recognizable unit which shows plant and animal distribution as influenced primarily by
climate.
c. A fundamental unit that shows various types of relationship among organism.
d. A distinct unit that shows how physical factor can affect other abiotic components in the
environment.

17. Which plant structure transports organic nutrients both up and down the stem and roots?
a. xylem b. vascular bundle c. parenchyma d. phloem

18. Under what condition does a living organism live best or has the greatest chance of
survival?
a. maximal b. minimal c. optimum d. standard

19. Which traps light energy from the sun for use in the photosynthesis?
a. carbon dioxide
b. water
c. chlorophyll
d. oxygen

20. Smoking cigarettes:

a. causes ulcer

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b. decreases the vital capacity of the stomach
c. leads to emphysema and lung cancer
d. leads to abnormal life

21. Blood cells and plasma factors are important:

a. immune defense b. invaders c. external defenses d. internal
defenses
22. A spinal nerve is:

a.motor nerve
b. sensory nerve
c. neuron
d. mixed nerve

23. The anterior pituitary stimulates the:

a. motor coordination b. consciousness c. sense reception d. homeostasis

24. What do all methods of birth control have in common?

a. they all use some device
b. they are all expensive
c. they interrupt lovemaking
d. they prevent the egg from coming in contact with the sperm

25. Pregnancy begins:

a. upon successful implantation c. when the egg is fertilized
b. during the follicular phase d. when ovulation occurs

26. The fact that many insects are now immune to DDT is an example of:
a. natural selection b. genetic drift c. geographical isolation d. translocation

27. The nutrient glucose is useful to the body:

a. to prevent goiter c. active reabsorption
b. as a source of energy d. during the process of respiration

28. Radiant energy is covered into chemical energy during:

a. oxidation b. glycosis
c. respiration d. photosynthesis

29. Which of the following is not a form of vegetative reproduction?

a. regeneration
b. budding
c. spore formation
d. vegetation by runners

30. Nitrogenous waste is produced by the metabolism of:

a. fats b. carbohydrates c. proteins d. starches

31. Which of the following is a reflex act?

a. breathing b. blinking c. walking d. sleeping

32. In an ecosystem:
a. only energy is recycled c. both materials and energy are recycled
b. only materials are recycled d. neither materials nor energy is recycled

33. Distribution of plants is affected by:

a. type of soil
b. amount of light
c. amount of rainfall
d. A, B, and C are correct

34. Which decoction contains traces of iron to arrest hemorrhage?

a. corn silk b. ampalaya leaves flowers c. gumamela d. coconut milk

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35. Hyperacidity can destroy the lining of the stomach. Which of the following substance can
ease the discomfort?

a. water therapy
b. milk of magnesia
c. starch solution
d. gelatin

36. Deficiency of carbohydrates is characterized by:

a. sluggishness
b. pallor
c. obesity
d. bone deformation

37. Salt as a preservative causes:

a. cell shrinkage b. ionization c. hydrolysis d. hydration

38. What do you call the practical or industrial application based on scientific principles?
a. scientific method b. technology c. theory d.
experimentation

39. What is the principal cause of earthquakes?

a. faulting
b. landslides
c. nuclear explosions
d. volcanic erupt

40. Purification of metals can be done best by:

a. filtration
b. flotation
c. aeration
d. electrolysis

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