Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments: Santosh Ghosh, Ranjana Yadav

Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101410
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seta
Original article
Future of photovoltaic technologies: A comprehensive review

Santosh Ghosh a, Ranjana Yadav b, *
a
Corporate R&D Department, Kirloskar Brothers Limited, Pune 411045, India
b
Department of Applied Chemistry, Gautam Buddha University, Yamuna Expressway, Noida 201308, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Presently, the world is going through a euphoric rush to install photovoltaic (PV) devices in deserts, over water
End-of-Life waste bodies, on rooftops of houses, vehicles, and parking spaces, and many other applications. The cumulative PV
Photovoltaic technology installation is estimated to have crossed 600 GW globally to date and is expected to cross 4500 GW by 2050 due
Policy paradigm
to sustained investment and continual innovation in technology, project financing, and execution. This article
Recycle and reuse
presents a critical and comprehensive review of the wide spectrum of present and future PV technologies, not
Waste management
only in terms of their performance but also in terms of the aspects of their end-of-life waste management and
ecotoxicity, which have been largely neglected by the researchers and policymakers. The global status of the
regulatory framework is reviewed as well, with regard to the life cycle management of PV waste. And It is found
that presently, the world is very poorly equipped with regulatory frameworks to deal with massive PV waste
(about 78 million tonnes), expected to be generated by 2050. Based on the findings, an immediate and disruptive
paradigm shift is proposed in the policy framework, from the promotion of new PV installation to life cycle
management of PV assets.
Introduction photovoltaic (PV) installation is being added to global installed capacity

every day since 2013 [6], which resulted in the present global installed
The world is under siege by the imminent threat from global capacity of approximately 655 GW (refer Fig. 1) [7]. The earth receives
warming. Despite isolated efforts taken by individual nations so far, the close to 885 million TWh of PV energy per year, which is approximately
global average temperature continues to rise. Despite all the efforts, in 6200 times the commercial primary energy needed by the world in
the last 22 years, the world has witnessed the 20 warmest years, and the 2008, and 3500 times the primary energy the world will require in 2050
previous four years are the hottest ones in the history of modern civi [6]. On the other hand, the energy conversion cost (Levelized cost of
lization [1]. The global average temperature has increased from 0.86 ◦ C energy (LCOE)) of PV energy is dropping sharply due to innovations in
above the pre-industrial baseline during 2006–2015 to 1.04 ◦ C above the manufacturing technology driven by knife-edge global competition. Due
baseline temperature in the last five years [2]. To deal with this ever- to the synergy of these conducive factors, the rate of capacity addition is
aggravating global warming scenario, the world has embraced renew expected to further increase to over 125 GW per year from 2020 on
able energy technologies. And through the collective and individual wards [8], and with this euphoric rush, the global installed capacity is
initiatives by the global community, investment in new renewables expected to reach 4500 GW globally, by 2050 [9].
continued to increase [3], despite regressive China’s 531 Policy (cur PV arrays are, basically, an aggregation of several PV modules
tailed subsidies for the solar industry), and Section 201 ruling of USA interconnected in different configurations, e.g., series–parallel (SP),
(applied 25% import tariff). And in 2018, the total investment in new total cross-tied (TCT), bridge link (BL), honeycomb (HC), and others.
renewables reached USD 288.9 billion globally [4], compared to USD [10]. The number of modules in series (i.e., string) in an array depends
265 billion in 2017 [5]. Presently, the renewable energy investment in on the open-circuit voltage of the modules and the design voltage of the
the developing world, excluding China, increased to a record high of arrays. The number of such strings of series-connected modules is con
USD 61.6 billion [4]. nected in parallel depending upon the plant capacity (or land avail
As a result of sustained investment and continual innovation in ability). Each module, on the other hand, is an aggregation of several
technology, project financing, and execution, over 100 MW of new series-connected PV cells. Hence, a small increase in the efficiency of
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Santosh.ghosh@kbl.co.in (S. Ghosh), Ranjanagbu@gmail.com (R. Yadav).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2021.101410
Received 20 February 2020; Received in revised form 13 April 2021; Accepted 16 June 2021
Available online 24 June 2021
2213-1388/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Ghosh and R. Yadav Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101410
PV cells enhances the power output of the PV array to a large extent and
reduces the LCOE, in turn. For the purpose of calculation of LCOE, the
useful service life of a PV plant is assumed to be 20–30 years [11,12]
with minimum interruption in operation due to failures. However, PV
projects consist of a large number of components, which are handled and
interconnected manually in uncontrolled and sometimes severe envi
ronmental conditions, which causes premature failures of components
while in operation in real-world scenarios, in some cases. And it is
difficult to ascertain the rate of degradation of the useful life of PV
technologies accurately, through simulation only in a laboratory envi
ronment, without long-term field trials [19].
In a study of failure pattern carried out on 350 operating PV plants
over two years, the root cause behind 52% of the reported failures was
attributed to inferior parts and materials used in the PV systems, which
was responsible for 48% of energy lost, due to failures of different kinds,
during the period of study [13]. Apart from the financial loss, there is a
bigger implication of the early failure of the PV power plant compo
nents, which is its impact on the environment [14,15]. The world bank Fig. 2. Estimated cumulative end-of-life PV waste.
has estimated that the global solid waste generation will increase to 3.4
billion tonnes by 2050 from about 2 billion tonnes in 2016 [16]. This
policy framework regarding end-of-life PV waste management is also
estimated figure does not include the large volume of PV components
reviewed.
which will reach their end of the service life of 25 years and the com
After this brief introductory section, the rest of the article is orga
ponents which will fail prematurely. The waste generated from the PV
nized as follows. The theoretical background is briefly discussed in
energy sector is estimated to rise between 1.7 and 8 million tonnes by
Section 2. Section 3 delineates the recent development in PV technology.
2030 and between 60 and 78 million tonnes by 2050 (refer Fig. 2 [9]).
The comparative analysis of different PV technologies is presented in
Hence the PV waste will add to the burden of solid waste management
terms of their power conversion efficiency, the maturity of technology,
infrastructure [17,20]. On the other hand, PV technology is changing at
waste management, ecotoxicity, the effect of soiling, and energy econ
an un-unprecedented speed and being introduced to the market even
omy, in Section 4. Section 5 discusses the present policy paradigm
faster. The consumers, power producers, and policymakers are
pertaining to PV technology and required course correction, followed by
absorbing the technology, mostly on the face value of the manufacturers,
the conclusion of the present article in Section 6.
as it is challenging to ascertain the long-term performance, reliability,
and their effects on the environment of the newly introduced technol
Theoretical background
ogies, over their lifecycle, under the real-world scenario [18]. And the
current research is mostly focused on improving the efficiency of the PV
The PV effect, i.e., the phenomenon in which the electrical potential
technologies, and aspects of end-of-life PV waste management technol
is developed across the junction between two photoresponsive materials
ogy and required policy framework are rare in the literature, rather,
upon being irradiated with photons, was first demonstrated by a French
largely neglected by the researchers. This article attempts to fill this
physicist, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel, in 1839 [21]. Over the
lacuna in the available literature by presenting a comparative analysis of
following century, scientists and researchers around the world started
PV technologies in terms of efficiency, waste management, ecotoxicity,
exploring different photoresponsive materials viz. selenium, platinum,
and energy economics to enable the policymakers, project developers,
cadmium, and germanium for the generation of electricity. However,
and consumers to make an informed decision. The global status of the
Fig. 1. The global trend of installed capacity addition of PV energy.
2
until the middle of the 20th century, work related to photoelectricity the junction (see Fig. 3). As shown in Fig. 3, free charge carriers start
remained confined to laboratories only, as the efficiency did not increase flowing through the external load when connected.
high enough for practical applications. The performance characteristics of the semiconductor p-n are non-
In 1954, three papers were published, almost simultaneously, by Bell linear in nature. The current produced by the p-n junctions is a func
telephone laboratories in New Jersey, RCA laboratories in Princeton, tion of the potential difference across the p-n junction, which may be
and US Air Force Aerospace Research Laboratory in Ohio in the Amer represented by the equivalent circuit model shown in Fig. 4. From the
ican Physical Society journals, which set a new era of research in the equivalent circuit (Fig. 4), the output current (I) can be mathematically
field of PVs. In all three papers, the semiconductor p-n junction devices’ expressed as
capability was demonstrated in converting the energy of incident radi
I = IPH − ID − ISH (2)
ation into electricity, with a quantum leap in efficiency from what was
achieved in the previous century [22]. Within four years of reaching this where IPH is photocurrent produced by the cell and ISH is the shunt
historical stage, in 1958, single crystalline silicon (s-Si) based PV cells current through the shunt resistance (RSH), ID is non-illuminated diode
were deployed in their maiden application to power transmitters of the current, and can be mathematically expressed as:
satellite-Vanguard 1 in space [23]. Through continual innovation in PV
(3)
qV+qIRS
technology thereon, driven by energy poverty, global competition, and ID = IS (e AkT − 1)

the need to curb greenhouse gas emission, presently PV technology has where IS is reverse saturation current. Substituting Eq. (3) and ISH in
become techno commercially most attractive technology for power Eq. (2), the equation for current versus voltage (Eq. (4)) characteristics
generation [24,25] and has become an inseparable part of the global can be obtained.
society. The fundamental science behind the operation of photo- ( )
responsive materials is briefly discussed in the following paragraphs. qV+qIRS
I = IPH − IS e AkT − 1 −
(V + IRS )
(4)
The sunlight is, basically, a continuous bombardment of photons RSH
akin to any other electromagnetic wave. The energy of the photon (Eλ)
The output characteristics vary with environmental conditions as IPH
determines the wavelength (λ) and spectral properties of electromag
and V are functions of irradiance and cell temperature. Their interde
netic wave and can be mathematically defined as:
pendency may be expressed mathematically as:
Eλ = h × C/λ (1)
Photocurrent at ambient condition, IPH− A = CTI CSI IPH (5)
where h is Plank’s constant and C is the speed of light. In the PV
process, to make the energy conversion possible, the energy of photons And voltage at PV cell terminal at ambient condition, VA = CTV CSV V (6)
of the incident radiation should be more than the band-gap energy of the
receiving material, which are about 1.2 eV for silicon and 0.78 eV for
germanium at 0 ◦ K. This implies that photons’ energy level must be high whereCTI istemperaturecoefficientof current, CTI = 1+(Tr − Ta )×βT /Sr (7)
enough to break some of the covalent bonds of the semiconductor ma
terial and push electrons from the valance band to the conduction band CSI is radiation coefficient of current, CSI = Sa /Sr (8)
and thereby create free charge carriers, i.e., electrons and holes.
In the absence of electromagnetic radiation in semiconductor ma CSV is radiation coefficient of voltage, CSV = 1 + (Sa − Sr ) × λT × ξs (9)
terials, some of the covalent bonds break, and charge carriers, i.e., free
electrons and holes, are created at a temperature above absolute zero. CTV is temperature coefficient of voltage, CTV = 1 + (Ta − Tr ) × λT (10)
However, in that case, the free charge carriers recombine continuously Here, notations S and T represent irradiance and temperature,
at the same rate, and as a result, the material remains in a steady state. respectively, while subscripts a and r represent ambient and reference
When photons of more energy than the band-gap energy of materials (e. (at standard test condition (STC)) values, ξ is the rate of the change in
g., solar irradiance) irradiate the semiconductor materials, the rate of the cell temperature, λ is open circuit voltage coefficient, and β is short
generation of free charge carrier increases more than the rate of circuit current coefficient.
recombination. And as a result, a potential difference is created across As evident from Eqs. (2)–(10), the photocurrent and the power
output are directly proportional to the irradiance level. However, the
relation with temperature is non-linear in nature. With the increase in
cell temperature, the band-gap energy of the PV cells decreases, and thus
photons of higher wavelengths are absorbed as well; at the same time,
the lifetime of the minority carriers increases. Due to the above phe
nomena, the short circuit current increase marginally; however, the
open-circuit voltage decreases, as with an increase in temperature, the
Fig. 3. Generation of free charge carriers in semiconductor materials under the

bombardment of photons. Fig. 4. Single diode equivalent circuit model of PV cell [26].
3
saturation current decreases exponentially. Due to the above phenom technologies are scalable at a faster rate than the crystalline PV tech
ena, eventually, the PV efficiency reduces significantly with the increase nologies and hence expected to dominate the market share in the future.
in temperature.
The module current (IModule) of NS series cells can be mathematically Recent developments in the crystalline silicon (c-Si) PV technology
expressed by modifying Eq. (4) as:
The theoretical threshold of classical crystalline PV efficiency is
qV+qIRS (V + INS RS )
IModule = IPH − IS (e NS AkT − 1) − (11) estimated to be 29.4% [28], and a value close enough was already
NS RSH
achieved two decades ago. On a laboratory scale, the achievement of
and the array current (IArray) of NP parallel cells and NS series cells 25% efficiency was reported way back in 1999 [29], and a very marginal
can be expressed as: improvement in efficiency value has been achieved since then. Presently
the highest efficiency of the crystalline PV achieved globally is 26.1%
qV+qIRS (NP V + INS RS )
IArray = NP IPH − NP IS (e NS AkT − 1) − (12) (see Table 1). Hence it is evident that the traditional PV technology is
NS RSH
already on the verge of reaching the saturation point in terms of
The following section presents the recent developments in PV tech improvement of efficiency. Hence researchers around the world are
nologies that are either already available commercially or going to be exploring new technologies to push the efficiency c-Si PV cells further,
available in the near future. which are briefly discussed in the following sub-sections.
Recent developments in PV technology Multijunction cells

The concept of multijunction devices was introduced to maximize
Conventionally, commercial production of PV energy has been the conversion efficiency of PV cells by matching the wavelength of
centered around crystalline silicon and thin-film technologies (e.g., photons with the band-gap of the material. The materials of different
Cadmium telluride (CdTe) and Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS)). band-gaps are stacked and connected in series or parallel to absorb a
However, more recently, a large number of emerging PV technologies broader solar spectrum. The solar radiation is split into a spectrum of
are being pursued by researchers and industries for creating better op different wavelengths to match the band-gap energy of the absorbing
tions in terms of efficiency, recyclability, consumption of energy and materials, either by using bandpass filters [30] or by stacking materials
resources during production, and ecotoxicities, such as dye-sensitizers, of different band-gaps in a suitable order (material of the higher band-
carbon nanotubes, organic polymers [27], inorganic materials (e.g., gap on top of the stack). A highly recombinative layer is used for
Cu2ZnSnS4 or CZTS), and inorganic–organic hybrid materials (e.g., pe creating inter junction series connections to form the stack (e.g., tunnel
rovskites). The detailed list of technologies and their best efficiency junctions), which allows large current density with minimal voltage
achieved on a laboratory scale is presented in Table 1. As evident from drop. One such material combination is Ge/GaAs/InGaP, which yielded
Table 1, the present efficiency level achieved for the emerging tech considerably higher efficiency (47.1%) than individual constituent
nologies are far lower than that of crystalline and thin-film technologies; crystalline material (refer Table 1). However, these cells still lack cur
hence the present market share of those are < 1%; however, these rent matching between different layers, as the band-gap of the germa
nium is low and hence produces a higher current (almost twice) than the
Table 1 limiting sub-cell current [31]. Secondly, because of the series arrange
Reported peak efficiency of the PV technologies [62,64,71]–[73] ment of different layers, these cells are extremely spectral sensitive. The
Photoresponsive Technology/ Best Efficiency (%) in Lab Reference multijunction device optimized for peak sun may underperform drasti
Material Scale at cally under morning and late afternoon sun. Hence presently, a PV cell
Single Concentrated with the ideal combination of materials is not available yet, but re
Sun Sun searchers around the world are working on various technologies, such as
Crystalline Silicon metamorphic growth [32], wafer bonding [33], multi-quantum wells
Single Crystalline Silicon (s-Si) 26.7 27.6 [64,71] [34], and inverted stacks [35]. Though technologically, these processes
Multi Crystalline Silicon (m-Si) 22.3 [64]
–
look promising, the high cost involved in these processes will remain a
Silicon Heterostructures (HIT) 26.7 – [64]
Thin Film Crystal 21.2 – [64] barrier for application as flat panels [36] in the near future, and their
Single-Junction Gallium Arsenide commercial applications may be limited to concentrated PV systems
(GaAs) only.
Single Crystal 27.8 30.5 [64]
Thin-film Crystal 29.1 – [64,71]
Multi-junction Cells
Interdigitated back-contact (IBC) structure
Two Junction 32.8 35.5 [64] The crystalline silicon modules, presently which are most commonly
Three Junction 37.9 44.4 [64] used on the commercial scale, consists of aluminum back surface field
Four Junction or more 39.2 47.1 [64] cells, produced from 180 or 200 µm p-type silicon (s-Si or m-Si) wafers
Thin Film
with screen printed fingers and busbars on the top surface, i.e., over n-
Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) 14.0 – [64]
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) 22.1 – [64] layer (refer Fig. 3) for collection of electrons. These fingers and busbars
Copper indium gallium selenide 23.4 23.3 [64] cause shading losses and thereby reduce the cells’ efficiency. IBC, on the
(CIGS) other hand, yields higher efficiency as the shading loss is eliminated by
Emerging PV integrating all the contacts at the back surface. Due to the availability of
Dye Sensitised Cells (liquid 13 [62]
both the terminals on the same plane, the interconnection of cells be
–
electrolyte)
Inorganic Cells (CZTSSe) 12.6 – [64] comes simpler, and higher packing density is achieved as well [37].
Organic cells 16.5 – [64] Additionally, the aesthetics of the panel improves, and the resistive
Organic Tandem Cells 14.2 – [64] losses reduce, which eventually increases the efficiency [38]. The effi
Perovskite Cells 25.2 [64]
–
ciency of as high as 21% was reported under single sun radiation as early
Perovskite/ Si Tandem Cells 28.0
Quantum Dot Cells 16.6 – [64] as 1985 from first-generation IBC technology [39], and the technology
Carbon Nano Tube (Single-walled)/ 12 – [72] has matured manifold since then. Currently, IBC technology has proven
Si Heterojunction to be an effective means of increasing the short-circuit current density.
Carbon Nano Tube (Multi-walled)/ 10 – [73] This technology, along with complementary technologies such as the
Si Heterojunction
combination of carrier-selection and passivation contact, seems to be the
4
obvious route for achieving higher conversion efficiency in the future. Secondly, as each cell carries only half the current, the internal resistive
However, the manufacturing process of IBC involves high-temperature losses reduce to 25% compared to the standard modules. The third
diffusion in multiple steps (rear emitter diffusion, FSF diffusion, and advantage of half-cut module design is, as the cells are half the size of the
rear base diffusion) [40]. These additional high-temperature processes standard cells, they are less prone to micro-cracks and other surface
make the production cost too high to be used on commercial applica defects generated in the manufacturing and assembly processes.
tions under the irradiance of a single sun. Mitsubishi Electric was the pioneer in manufacturing the commercial
To make the IBC commercially competitive with the classical c-Si, half-cut cells, and, presently, several other solar module producers have
future research needs to be focussed on optimization of existing carrier- joined the list. Presently the maximum efficiency of 19.9%, having a
selective materials, development of novel interfacial and contact power rating of 420 W, is claimed for commercial half-cut PERC mod
passivation materials, and most importantly, the development of low- ules [47].
cost diffusion techniques.
Bifacial
Half-cut cells Researchers have been working on bifacial technology since the
Though the c-Si module technology is perceived as a matured and 1960 s for utilizing the reflected (albedo) radiation from the ground, in
time-tested technology, there are long-standing performance and reli addition to the direct radiation. The first published literature on the
ability issues associated with it, such as reverse break down under same can be traced back to 1980 [48] based on single crystalline silicon
partial shading and non-uniform dust deposition [41]. Under these (s-Si) cells (refer Fig. 6). Apart from s-Si silicon, currently bifacial
mismatch conditions, the affected PV cells are reverse biased and start technology based on multi-crystalline (m-Si) [49], glass and other
acting as a load to the fully illuminated ones instead of acting as the transparent conductive oxides (TCO), silicon thin film [50], CIGS [51],
generator of photocurrent [42]. As a result, the temperature of the non- GaAs thin film [52], dye-sensitized solar cells [53], and CdTe [54] have
productive cells increases and causes hot spotting. Under this phenom also reached technological maturity. Presently, bifacial PV panels have
enon, the temperature of the affected cell reaches up to 150 ◦ C [43], and reached the potential to deliver up to 50% higher power output
in some cases, it may reach above 400 ℃ (due to thermal runaway or
secondary breakdown), causing irreversible damage of PV cells (see
[44]) and even fire in some cases [45].
The technique, which is commonly used by almost all manufacturers
to mitigate the impact of hot spotting, is providing a bypass diode (BPD)
in anti-parallel with one-third of the cells in a module (i.e., each sub-
panel) as shown in Fig. 5 (a). With this arrangement, once the cells in
any sub-panel are subjected to partial shading, the bypass diode gets
forward biased and starts conducting. As a result, the reserve bias
voltage and reverse current across those get restricted, if not eliminated,
completely [46]. However, this phenomenon reduces the module output
by 33%, which is a substantial loss of energy.
To reduce energy loss under partial shading, the concept of half-cut
cells/modules was introduced. In these types of modules, instead of full-
size cells, half-cut cells are used in twice the numbers, and the modules
are divided into two halves (refer Fig. 5 (b)). This allows half of the
module to operate in full capacity (i.e., at maximum power point), even
if the other half is completely shaded, whereas the complete module will
be bypassed, in case of standard module design, under such scenarios. Fig. 6. Cross-sectional view of p-type bifacial c-Si cells.
Fig. 5. Power flow in PV modules in (a) standard module (b) half-cut cell module.
5
compared to mono facial panels of respective technology [55]. Owing to modules commercially by sandwiching c-Si between two layers of
its advantages, bifacial technology has been excluded from Section 201 amorphous silicon in 1997, which they named as heterojunction
tariffs by the office of the United States Trade Representative (USTR), intrinsic thin film (HIT). Though the production of Si heterojunction
which implies that a 25% import tariff shall not be applicable on the cells requires fewer manufacturing steps compared to that of standard c-
products based on bifacial technology. Several leading manufacturers Si, the manufacturing process is intricate. Hence, despite the initial
around the world have already scaled up their manufacturing capacity success of Panasonic Corporation with HIT, a very limited number of
to meet such high future demand for bifacial modules. Due to this global commercial organizations have enhanced the capacity for mass pro
inclination towards bifacial technology, the market share of this duction of silicon heterojunction cells. Sharp Corporation, Japan, has
technology is expected to rise to as high as 40% by 2028 [56]. However, reported a new efficiency record of 25.09% for full-size (i.e., six-inch) Si
the cumulative effects of mutual (panel-to-panel) and self (panel-to- cell using heterojunction structure (see Fig. 7).
ground) shading in a PV power plant may diminish its perceived ad The production of heterojunction modules is estimated to have
vantages in the case of the standard design of the array. This impact of increased marginally to 5.2 GW in 2019 from 3.7 GW in 2018 [60].
mutual and self-shading can be subdued by innovative designs of panel
orientation and spacing. Khan et al. [57] analyzed the vertical bifacial Passivated emitter and rear cell (PERC)
solar farms globally and reported an increase of 10–20% energy. In The core of PERC technology is based on the passivation layers
another experimental study carried out in Forst (Lausitz, Germany) and deposited at the interfaces of different constituent materials within the
Tucson (Arizona, USA), it was found that the vertical bifacial farms cells to prevent charge recombination. Through the inclusion of
outperformed the optimally tilted bifacial farms in a certain period of passivated layers, an efficiency of over 22% is achieved at a commercial
the year [58]. Additionally, the vertical orientation of the modules was scale. Traditionally the manufacturers have developed Al2O3 passiv
observed to reduce the rate of soiling and, eventually, the cost of ation layers using plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD)
cleaning. Apart from the innovative orientations, the energy yield can be technology. Atomic layer deposition (ALD) technology was introduced
enhanced by innovative ground sculpting as well. Khan et al. [59] have as an alternative to PECVD in 2011 in the PV industry. Though ALD
shown that the gain in power output can be enhanced up to 50% through technology, per se, emerged in the semiconductor industry in 1984 for
ground sculpting. depositing flawless thin film layers in electroluminescent displays. In the
PV industry, presently, this technology is used to deposit atomically thin
Shingled cells layers of Al2O3 at the interfaces, which ensures superior deposition
Shingled cell technology is a far more disruptive improvement over conformity through self-limiting chemical half-reactions and resists the
the classical s-Si and m-Si technology than the half-cut and bifacial inherent degradation phenomena of PERC, i.e., light and elevated tem
technology. These are manufactured by a similar slicing process, perature induced degradation (LeTID). For deposition of Al2O3 through
through which the half-cut cells are produced, but completely differs in ALD technology, at first, Silicon wafers are exposed to trimethylalumi
the process of interconnection. In the case of shingled cells, instead of num (TMA), which chemically reacts with hydroxyl groups, present on
the ribbons and solder, the adjacent cells are connected using an elec the wafer surface, and produces methyl group layer, and the reaction
trically conductive adhesive (ECA). Due to the elimination of ribbon and stops automatically as TMA does not react with methyl groups. To in
soldered joints, both power output and reliability increase. crease the thickness of the layer, TMA is removed from the reactor, and
Several leading manufacturers around the world have set up facilities water is sprayed to form a hydroxyl-terminated surface, which enables
for the production of Shingled cells. Solaria Corporation, USA, started the TMA to react again. This cycle is repeated till the required thickness
manufacturing shingle-cell modules (PowerXT series) in 2016. Sun is achieved.
Power Corporation, USA produced 1.5 GW of P-Series product (P- Though due to the advantages of ALD discussed above, the efficiency
19–410) since 2019, based on s-Si cells, which offer efficiency up to of PERC cells increases by up to 0.5%; it has the following drawbacks:
19.9%. The global production of Shingled cells in 2019 is estimated to Firstly, production of PERC cells using ALD technology still requires
cross three times the production of 2018 of 4.5 GW [60]. PECVD equipment, for depositing a silicon nitride layer over the Al2O3.
Traditionally, both the layers were being deposited in the same PECVD
Heterojunction cells reactor. Implementation of ALD technology requires interruption of the
Heterojunction cells are manufactured by stacking different photo process after deposition of Al2O3 and physical transportation of the
responsive materials in order to absorb irradiance of different wave samples to the PECVD reactor, which increases the processing time and
lengths and thereby enhance the efficiency of energy conversion. exposes the cells to the risk of contamination and physical damage.
Panasonic Corporation, Japan, was the pioneer in producing cells and Secondly, the deposition rate of atoms in the ALD process is very slow
Fig. 7. Cross-sectional view: heterojunction cell.
6
compared to PECVD, which has been one of the main barriers to ALD methylammonium lead iodide (MAPbI3) [66] exhibit strong carrier
adoption in the PV industry. Third, in the ALD process, the material absorption and high diffusion length; hence PSC has a power conversion
tends to deposit around the edges as well, which does not happen in the efficiency of over 20% (see Table 1) on the commercial scale. Apart from
case of PECVD. This is also a major barrier to the adoption of ALD for the the above, PSC has several other advantages over other emerging PV
manufacturing of PERC cells. technologies, such as lower cost of manufacturing, availability of diverse
choices of manufacturing processes, materials, and architecture. The
Emerging and future technologies main challenges pertaining to PSC are its stability [67], hysteresis in I–V
curves [68], and ecotoxicity because of the presence of the lead (soluble)
Since the early application of PV cells in satellites, crystalline PV compound in the cells. Scaling up of certain manufacturing processes
technology is dominating the market share. However, due to numerous involved in producing high efficiencies PSCs, e.g., spin coating process
advantages, the market share of thin-film technology is slowly [69], is also a technological barrier for faster deployment. Besides, there
increasing. The market share of crystalline PV modules was about 92% is another challenge with regard to recycling and encapsulation of PSCs,
in 2014, which is expected to decline to 73.3% in 2030 and subsequently as an alternative material to lead used in the manufacturing of PSCs is
to 44.8% in 2050 [9] (see Fig. 8). Some of the emerging and future thin- yet to be found [65]. Hence, once the obstacles discussed above are
film technologies are discussed below in brief. resolved with the right focus on R&D, perovskites can revolutionize the
photovoltaic landscape in the future.
Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs)
DSCs are being regarded as the most promising PV technology of the Comparative analysis of the different PV technologies
future because of their high theoretical efficiency, comparatively simple
manufacturing processes, and low cost of manufacturing [61]. DSCs use Power conversion efficiency (PCE)
molecular dyes designed to absorb the irradiance efficiently and create
free charge carriers to transport the absorbed energy. The dyes The most commonly and widely referred parameter for comparing
employed in DSCs are abundant, non-expensive, and nontoxic; hence the different PV technology is power conversion efficiency (PCE). It is of
researchers around the world are looking at this technology as one of the paramount importance to the manufacturers, project developers, con
potential technologies of the future. The molecular dyes are bound to a sumers, and all stakeholders as it affects the energy yield, the LCOE, and
mesoporous (TiO2) and porous network, which is then infiltrated by eventually financial viability of the projects. The theoretical limiting
either a conducting polymer or an electrolyte. The generated free charge value of PCE is defined by the Shockley–Queisser (SQ) limit [70]. The
carriers in the dye get dissociated, as the electrons are injected in the theory of the SQ limit is based on the balance between the radiative and
oxide very quickly. The cation regenerated in the dye by using either a photogeneration recombination of thermalized carriers. The efficiency
hole conducting polymer or a redox shuttle in the electrolyte. of different PV technologies achieved at the research scale is presented
Continual research has significantly improved the DSC performance in Table 1. On a commercial scale, the PCE will always be lower than SQ
over the last two decades and reached a peak efficiency of 13% [62] limits due to additional losses under practical scenarios
using liquid electrolytes (employing a zinc–porphyrin-based co- The efficiency of PV modules deviates widely from that of the cell of
sensitized system). However, the use of liquid electrolytes restricts the the same technology manufactured at the research scale, presented in
application of DSCs to the open atmosphere. This drawback of DSC was Table 1, as it is easier to maintain the purity and homogeneity in cells of
overcome by replacing the liquid electrolyte with the organic hole- smaller sizes. The comparison of cell-to-module deviation in the effi
transporting materials (HTMs) such as spiro-OMeTAD [63]. The effi ciency is discussed in the ensuring subsection in more detail. Further, the
ciency of DSC is reported up to 10% [64] using HTMs. Presently, the rate of degradation of efficiency of the commercial PV modules is
research is focused on increasing the efficiency in several ways, such as considered to be from 0.5% to 1% per year [74], and with this rate, the
optimizing the nature of redox mediator and developing new efficiency of the panels is expected to drop by 20% over their useful
ruthenium-free dyes and co-sensitization with complementary dyes of lifetime of 25 to 30 years [11], and during this useful life span, the PV
semiconducting oxide porous layers. panels are expected to produce 14 to 20 times the energy consumed to
produce those [75,76]. However, in unfavorable environmental condi
Perovskite solar cell (PSC) tions, the module, in some cases, degrade at a much higher rate.
Since its inception in 2009, PSC has matured at a very fast rate, and
presently this technology has emerged as one of the most promising
technologies of the future [65]. Perovskite materials such as
Fig. 8. Estimated market share of PV technologies in (a) 2014, (b) 2020 and (c) 2030.
7
Maturity of manufacturing technology materials of high value to be recovered, and hence the recycling process
is economically non-viable as of today [78]. Secondly, PV modules have
Table 1 presents the comparative efficacy of different materials in a useful lifespan of up to 25–30 years [11], and hence the motivation
converting PV energy to electrical energy. However, these values are for behind investigating the aspects of waste management is very limited, as
the cells of the research scale, and it does not provide any information apparently it seems to be too early to think about PV waste management.
about whether the technologies can be readily scaled to commercial However, the estimated PV waste to be generated by the end of the next
projects without losing the efficiency substantially. The quality of decade is up to 8 million tonnes, which may increase up to 78 million
smaller samples manufactured from carefully selected defect-free re tonnes by 2050 (see Fig. 2). The estimated cumulative recoverable value
gions of a larger cell shall always be higher than that of the modules may exceed USD 15 billion by 2050 [57], and also, recycling of PV waste
produced on a commercial scale. The additional integration losses and will contribute to the sustainability of the long-term supply chain for the
lack of homogeneity over larger surface causes drift in efficiency when production of new PV modules [59]. Studies show that with the recy
modules are produced at a commercial scale. The cell to module effi cling of PV waste, the energy payback time (EPBT) of a standard PV can
ciency drift is presented in Fig. 9, in which the best efficiency of cells is be reduced to about 1.6 years from the present EPBT of about 2.6 to 3.3
obtained from Table 1, while the module efficiencies of the corre years [78]. However, presently the recycling technology for all crys
sponding technologies are extracted from [71]. talline technologies except that for the s-Si is mostly in the development
From Fig. 9, it may be observed that the cell to module deviation in stage and yet to reach technical and commercial maturity. And the
the efficiency is least in CdTe thin-film technology (2 percentage point), present operational recycling plants mostly operate based on down
while it is 2.3 point for c-Si technology. The maximum deviation of 6.7 cycling processes, which enables recovery of only a portion of the ma
points is observed for multijunction technology. This deviation in each terials and value. However, although the necessity of the development of
case provides a fair amount of understanding about the maturity each PV waste management technology may not appear to be commercially
technology has attained in scaling up to commercial size. Dye-sensitized very appealing today, it will become very significant with the increase in
cells exhibit a notable exception with the deviation of only 3.1 per PV waste in the future [79,80]. Hence it is important to identify the
centage points, despite being a third-generation or emerging global status and issues associated with PV waste management, and the
technology. same is briefly presented in the following sub-sections.
Waste management Waste management of c-Si modules

C-Si technology currently dominates the PV market (see Fig. 8), and
Presently there is a euphoric rush around the world for setting up historically, the c-Si PV waste has been dumped unprocessed to landfills
new PV installations, and hence the total installed capacity is increasing around the world; however, in the process of degradation in landfills,
at an exponential rate (see Fig. 1). However, presently only about 10% of harmful chemicals can percolate into the ground and contaminate the
the modules are recycled globally [48]. The PV waste is not only groundwater and environment [82]. Hence Europe introduced the
generated due to failure of those at the site but generated in all four WEEE directive 2012/19/EU, which bestows the responsibility of EoL
stages of their life cycle, typically which are manufacturing, trans management of PV waste upon the producers of those (see Section 5).
portation, installation, and operation. However, the share of waste Following the directive, glass and metal recycling facilities across
generated from premature failures and end-of-life (EOL) is higher than Europe are being utilized for processing PV waste for segregation and
that generated in other stages. The mid-life failures are mainly caused by safe disposal of PV waste. Dedicated facilities for c-Si PV recycling are
repeated electrical, mechanical, and thermal load cycles, such as heavy also being set up in some of the member countries of the EU. France is
precipitation, wind, temperature gradients caused by mismatch losses, the pioneer in this initiative by opening the world’s first dedicated c-Si
cell degradation, micro-cracks, contact defects, glass breakage, and recycling facility at Rousset [83].
defective bypass diodes [77]. The recovery process of precious metals from c-Si modules involves
As discussed in Section 3 (also refer Fig. 8), presently, over 90% of separating the Al frame, layers of glass, encapsulants, and cells [84]. The
the modules used are c-Si type, and c-Si modules do not have enough separation of the encapsulant layer from the integral structure is
extremely challenging, and several approaches have been proposed by
the researchers, including Physical, thermal, and chemical processes
[85,86]. Post delamination, the substrate glass and the metals in the
semiconductors are disintegrated, separated, and purified [79]. The
precious metals are recovered through chemical dissolution, etching,
floatation, or leaching processes. The advantages and disadvantages of
various recycling and recovery processes are summarised in Table 2.
Waste management of thin-film modules

Though presently c-Si modules dominate (over 90%) the market
share, it is estimated to decrease to 44.8% by 2030 [81], and the shares
of thin-film and emerging technologies are going to increase; hence, the
necessity of recycling thin-film PV will surface with a time lag of just 10
years. And this time lag is short enough to identify the status and issues
related to it and act upon those now.
While CdTe and other thin-film technologies provide emission-free
energy during operation, the heavy metals used in thin-film PV cells
are expected to pose health and environmental risk during EoL disposal
if not done scientifically [87]. Some manufacturers (e.g., First Solar)
have developed recycling processes for CdTe, which are scalable
commercially; however, for other thin films and third-generation PV
materials, recycling technology is yet to reach maturity [55]. First Solar
has claimed to have achieved a 95% to 97% recovery rate through a
Fig. 9. Cell-to-module deviation in the efficiency of different technologies. process developed by them for both Cd and Te, which could be reused in
8
Table 2
The recycling processes of c-Si and thin-film module.
Waste Recycling process Technology Key advantages Key disadvantages Ref.
Disintegration Physical disintegration of laminates No harmful emissions High possibility of cell damage. [11,85,86]
by mechanical means Lesser energy requirement unlike thermal Difficult to separate EVA from other
processes materials.
Thermal The EVA gets completely oxidized. High harmful emissions. [86,94,95]
The recovered materials are clean from EVA. High energy consumption.
No mechanical impact and hence a high possibility High processing cost.
of salvaging cells.
Chemical
Dissolution using an organic solvent Easy dissolution of anti-reflective coating and EVA. Emission of hazardous fumes. [9697]
Dissolution using Nitric acid The used chemical can be reused. The waste chemical needs to be treated for
reuse.
Ultrasonic wave (supplementary to Accelerates dissolution process, when used along Costly process. [98]
chemical process) with the chemical process. Cells may get damaged in the case of
inorganic acids.
Segregation and Mechanical process Both dry and wet methods are possible. Difficult to segregate fine particles of high- [99]
recovery of material Relatively simple and economical process. value materials.
Etching High-value materials can be recovered at a high Risk of chemical emission. [100]
purity level. Energy-intensive process
Erosion Chemical-free process The Additional pre-purification process is [101]
Glass can be salvaged necessary.
Vacuum Blasting Chemical-free process Processing time is longer. [102]
The semiconductor layer can be salvaged Risk of emission of metal particles.
Leaching Complete disintegration of metal from the glass. Extremely chemical-intensive process. [100]
And possible to further extract the metal. Precise control of chemicals is required for
the effectiveness of the process.
Floatation Simple method The process involves several stages. [101]
The use of chemicals is limited. Additional pre-purification process is
necessary.
Tenside chemistry Complete disintegration of metal from the glass. The process to be adapted to each cell [103]
Used chemical (Tenside) is reusable. technology.
The disintegration time increases with the
module area.
their new production [9]. Wang and Fthenakis [88] demonstrated Cd selective layer and lead (II) sulfide is a lesser toxic alternative (compared
and Te separation through several ion-exchange resins on the metals in to CZTS and lead (II) iodide) for light absorber application.
sulphuric acid solution over different periods. The metals were sepa
rated from their ion-exchange or acid solutions, and a recovery rate of Effect of soiling on different PV technologies
over 90% was reported. Dattilo [89] demonstrated wet-chemical
extraction of metals Ga and In from CIGS panels through the electrol Deposition of aerosols is one of the most dominant environmental
ysis process with the Cu and Se. The products of the electrolysis process phenomena that reduce PV modules’ modest efficiencies [10,21].
settled on the cathode, which were then removed and separated by “Aerosol” in this context refers to suspended particulates of organic and
oxidization and distillation processes. inorganic origin, including sand, dust, ash, soot, pollen that spread
through the air, smoke, fog, and similar other mediums. The irradiance
Ecotoxicity intensity gets attenuated based on several factors, viz. concentration of
aerosol deposition, type of aerosol, shape, size, and chemical composi
The potential release of toxic and heavy metals (viz. cadmium, lead, tion of the particles. For concentrated PV systems, the intensity of per
copper, nickel, zinc, and tin) from PV modules to the environment, at formance degradation increases by 5 times compared to non-
different stages of their life cycle, has been evaluated in [90]. The au concentrated PV under the same deposition intensity [105]. Secondly,
thors of [90] observed that though silicon and thin-film PV do not pose the aerosol deposition causes partial shading as well, when the deposi
a human health hazard under non-routine events, such as fire and field tion is non-uniform over the panel, which is a common phenomenon in
breakage, it is important to study different PV technologies for their the case of inclined modules [6]. And under partial shading, not only the
long-term impact on the environment. It has recently been experimen efficiency of the affected module reduces, but also the temperature of
tally demonstrated that the environmental impacts of metal emissions the affected cells increases and causes irreversible damage to the
from perovskite or polymer-based emerging PV technologies may affected cells in many cases [41].
significantly increase under exposure to humidity during operation Bianchini et al. [18] carried out an economic assessment of PV plants
[91]–[93]. High-efficiency organic PV devices’ initial development was of different technologies. In their study, the authors also reported the
based on chlorinated and or aromatic solvents, which are presently impact of aerosol deposition on performance ratios of different panels
substituted with solvents having lesser toxicity, such as xylene. Though (installed in the same location), which is presented in Table 3.
this solvent is compatible with the industry standard, its impact on
human health and the environment is not negligible. Hence, presently Table 3
more eco-friendly processes for producing organic cells are being Effect of aerosol deposition on performance ratio of different PV technologies.
investigated, such as nanoparticulate organic PVs (NPOPV) [104]. Celik PV Initial Performance Reduction in Performance Ratio in 30 days
et al. [15] showed that copper and lead’s toxicity could be higher in the Technology Ratio period, without cleaning
operational phase than in the extraction phase. The authors of [15] also HIT 85.3% 0.03%
compared the toxicity from different layers of CZTS, perovskite, and m-Si 83.2% 0.06%
quantum dot (QD) type of solar cells. They showed that cadmium sulfide CdTe 84.8% 0.07%
a-Si/µc-Si 91.4% 0.38%
is a lesser toxic alternative (compared to ZnO and SnO2) for electron
9
Deposition of aerosols over PV modules cover, and its impact on the Table 4
performance ratio depends on several parameters, such as the aerosols’ LOCE of different technologies.
physicochemical properties, surface temperature, and texture of the PV PV Technology LCOE (€/kWh)
modules [106,107]. An experimental study [18] shows that a-Si tech
HIT 0.129
nology is impacted by the aerosol deposition the most, and hence its m-Si 0.135
performance is most sensitive to cleaning frequency. On the other hand, CdTe 0.174
HIT technology is found to be least influenced by this environmental a-Si/µc-Si 0.133
phenomenon. The multi-crystalline module and CdTe-based thin-film m-Si with tracking 0.154
GaAs with Fresnel lens 0.336
module are found to be affected by aerosol almost equally (see Table 3).
Comparison of the energy economy
The Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) determines the economic average LOCE of other technologies under the single sun. At the loca
competitiveness of PV technologies [108], and it is mainly dominated by tions having a higher diffused to direct irradiance ratio, the LOCE of
the price of PV modules, and hence the LCOE reduces with the increase bifacial modules is found to be lower by 2% to 6% [112], compared to
in maturity of the PV technologies and increase in PV production vol mono-facial ones.
ume. Louwen et al. [107] collated the data related to the production of c-
Si modules from 1976 and 2015 and estimated the trend. The authors of Present policy paradigm and required course correction
[109] have shown that with each doubling of installed capacity of PV
energy, the energy required to produce the c-Si PV modules reduced by Several nations around the world have recognized the urgency of
12 to 13%, and the carbon footprint of production reduced by 17% to action needed to combat climate change and introduced policies and
24%, which also contributed in the reduction of the price of PV modules. legislation to restrict global warming and climate change through
The price is found to be reduced at an average rate of 20.1% between
1976 and 2015, with two distinct exceptions in the PV price trend.
Firstly, the price drop halted in 2008 for some time due to the shortage Table 5
of polysilicon feedstock. Secondly, the price dropped at a faster rate after Country-wise timeline (target) for achieving carbon neutrality [113]
this plateau due to the oversupply of polysilicon feedstock. Since 2012, Country Targeted timeline Status
the average PV module price is found to be following the predicted rate Suriname Achieved Carbon negative
of 20.1% again till 2015. With further increase in the economy of scale, Bhutan Achieved Carbon negative
market competition, and maturity in technology, the price continued to Norway 2030 Commitment has been legislated into law
fall. From 2015 to 2025, the global weighted average electricity cost is Uruguay 2030 Policy document in place
Finland 2035 Policy document in place
estimated to drop by at least 37% from concentrating PV and by at least
Iceland 2040 Policy document in place
59% from non-concentrating PV technologies [110]. Sweden 2045 Commitment has been legislated into law
However, PV project cost is not uniform across the globe, as the cost United Kingdom 2050 Commitment has been legislated into law
of land, manpower, and equipment varies widely. The overall normal France 2050 Commitment has been legislated into law
ized (per kW) PV project cost is presented in Fig. 10 [111]. The LOCE of Spain 2050 Legislation is proposed
New Zealand 2050 Legislation is proposed
different PV technologies calculated for different plants installed at the Germany 2050 Under discussion
same location (Forli, Italy) is presented in Table 4. The data presented in Netherlands 2050 Under discussion
Table 4 is extracted from the work of Bianchini et al. [18]. It may be Ireland 2050 Under discussion
observed from Table 4 that the least LOCE is observed for HIT tech Denmark 2050 Policy document in place
Chile 2050 Policy document in place
nology (0.129 €/kWh), followed by a-Si/µc-Si (0.133 €/kWh) and m-Si
Portugal 2050 Policy document in place
(0.135 €/kWh), in order. LOCE of CdTe was found to be maximum Costa Rica 2050 Policy document in place
amongst the technologies studied in similar environmental conditions. Fiji 2050 Policy document in place
The LOCE of GaAs with a fresnel lens was found to be almost double of Marshall Islands 2050 Policy document in place
Fig. 10. Normalized PV project cost as of 2018.
10
coordinated efforts of policymakers, energy producers, and consumers inclusion of PV waste in the waste electrical and electronic equipment
(see Table 5). (WEEE) directive − 2012/19/EU [115]. The new WEEE Directive be
As evident from Table 5, the nations which are missing from this stows the responsibility of collection, handling, and recycling of PV
collective effort are fossil fuel-producing states of the Persian Gulf, the waste, on the producers of those, at the end of its useful life. The re
United States of America (USA), and Australia. However, despite sponsibility includes all the activities related to administration,
nonchalance at the country level, several smaller economies within financing, and reporting within the EU region. The definition of “pro
some of these nations have committed to carbon neutrality. For ducers” within the scope of directive 2012/19/EU includes manufac
example, despite having no national strategy for renewable energy, turers, distributors, importers, resellers, and any legal or natural entity,
several states of the USA have taken initiatives to reduce dependence on established in a member country of the EU that introduces the PV
fossil fuel individually. California and New York have taken a target to modules into the EU market. In 2018 the directive was amended vide
become carbon neutral by 2050. Similar initiatives have been taken by directive 2018/849/EU along with the directive of end of life (EoL) of
different cities of the USA as well (see Table 6). As a result of this, even vehicles, batteries, and accumulators, to make those more effective. The
without having a national-level policy initiative, over 50 coal-fired directive aims at ensuring module recovery of 75% and material recy
power plants have been shut since 2017 in the USA, and recently (as cling of 65% (both by weight), which shall be subsequently increased to
of April 2019), the USA has registered production of more energy from 80% and 70%, respectively.
renewable resources (23%) than fossil fuel (20%), for the first time
[114]. Similar initiates have been taken by Queensland, Victoria, and Status of the regulatory framework for PV waste management in Asia
South Wales in Australia, at an individual level [113].
As a result of this collective effort at the country level, state level, and Among estimated total waste of 8 million tonnes to be generated
municipality level, renewable energy is now on the verge of becoming globally by 2030, the three largest PV markets in Asia, i.e., India, Japan,
the mainstream source of electricity globally. In 2018, the share of re and China, are expected to generate PV waste up to 0.50, 1, and 1.5
newables in global electricity generation reached 26%, and for a fourth million tonnes respectively [9]. In the case of China, the national high-
consecutive year, total installed capacity additions for renewable energy tech R&D program for PV recycling and safe disposal research has rec
were higher than cumulative capacity addition for fossil and nuclear ommended the formulation of policy and technology development
power. The biggest share of this new capacity addition of renewable regarding PV waste management under the twelfth 5-Year Plan; how
power came from photovoltaic (PV) energy in the last decade. There are ever, the same is yet to be implemented [116]. In the case of Japan, as
numerous reasons behind this unprecedented growth in the installed per the estimates of the ministry of the environment, the generation of
capacity of PV energy. Primarily, it is the most widely available PV waste is expected to rise from 0.01 to 0.8 tonnes per year by 2040
renewable energy resource on earth, and on the other hand, the cost of [117]. Although Japan PV Energy Association (JPEA) has introduced
energy conversion has reduced to the lowest compared to all other en guidelines on the disposal of PV waste in late 2017 and JPEA strongly
ergy resources ever known to mankind through continual innovation in recommends the industry to follow the guidelines, the implementation
PV technology and manufacturing processes. of the same is completely voluntary [118]. India has set an ambitious
However, this exponential growth in installed capacity is going to target of installing 100 GW of PV energy by the year 2022 [119];
result in exponential growth in PV waste as well, generated from pre- however, it is not geared up to handle PV waste as well, in terms of
mature failures and EoL disposals, with a time lag of 20–25 years. policy guidelines on the same. Presently the tender specifications of the
Hence the policy framework also needs to be in place for recycling and Government of India (GoI) for PV projects assign the responsibility of
reusing the PV waste hand in hand with the policy for the promotion of collection and disposal of PV waste to the project developers, as per e-
new PV installations. The global status of PV waste management policy waste (management and handling) rules, 2011, formulated by the
is reviewed in the following subsection. Ministry of Environment and Forests, GoI. However, these rules do not
have any specific mention of PV waste in it. Further, there is no basic
facility available in the country to recycle laminated glass or PV waste,
Status of the regulatory framework for PV waste management in Europe as well [120].
Smaller Asian countries such as North Korea and Thailand have not
Since PV waste management is economically not lucrative yet, reg taken any initiatives to formulate the regulation for solar PV waste
ulations are needed to enforce the disposal of PV waste to the environ management and recycling [9]. South Korea has embarked on the
ment, scientifically and safely. The European Union (EU) has taken the journey in this direction by classifying PV waste as one of the industrial
lead in providing a legislative framework to extend the responsibility of wastes and including the same in Article 4.2 of South Korea’s Enforce
PV waste management to the producers of PV modules through the ment Rule of Wastes Control Act (Act No. 14783). Ministry of Trade,
Industry, and Energy has taken the initiative to establish the PV waste
Table 6 recycling facility in North Chungcheong Province of South Korea [121].
The target of renewable share set by US cities [4]
City Target share of renewable energy and timeline Status of the regulatory framework for PV waste management in USA and
Arlington, Virginia 15% by 2050 Australia
Atlanta, Georgia 5% by 2020
Austin, Texas 55% by 2025 In the case of the USA, which is expected to generate PV waste up to 1
Beaverton, Oregon 75% by 2020 million t by 2030, does not have any specific regulation at the country
Boulder, Colorado 60% by 2050
Breckenridge, 100% by 2025
level either for collection, handling, and safe disposal of PV waste.
Colorado General regulation for hazardous and non-hazardous waste manage
Fayetteville, 100% energy for all government operations by from ment, i.e., Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976), is appli
Arkansas renewable resources by 2030 cable. However, there are isolated efforts in some individual states, such
Minneapolis, 100% energy for municipal facilities and operations from
as California [122] and Washington, to formulate regulations for PV
Minnesota renewable sources by 2022
Orlando, Florida 100% of energy for municipal operations from renewable module utilization and EoL waste management. In the case of Australia,
sources by 2030 there is no policy for dealing with PV waste at the country level as well.
Portland, Oregon 100% by 2030 However, akin to the USA, some states (e.g., the state of Victoria) have
Salt Lake City, Utah 50% of energy requirement for municipal operations from taken industry-led initiatives in this direction to focus on developing the
renewable sources by 2020
capability to alleviate potential risk from PV structures and their waste
11
[123]; however, implementation of these isolated initiatives is purely Declaration of Competing Interest
voluntary.
From the above discussions, it is evident that despite paving the way, The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
well in time, for the rest of the world to follow, the regulatory initiative interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
of Europe has not been replicated even in countries in which the PV the work reported in this paper.
markets are growing at higher rates, such as China, India, USA, Japan,
and Australia. Despite being the biggest consumers of PV modules, these References
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101410

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments

Future of photovoltaic technologies: A comprehensive review

Introduction photovoltaic (PV) installation is being added to global installed capacity

Fig. 1. The global trend of installed capacity addition of PV energy.

technology thereon, driven by energy poverty, global competition, and ID = IS (e AkT − 1)

Fig. 3. Generation of free charge carriers in semiconductor materials under the

Recent developments in PV technology Multijunction cells

Fig. 7. Cross-sectional view: heterojunction cell.

Waste management Waste management of c-Si modules

Waste management of thin-film modules

Fig. 10. Normalized PV project cost as of 2018.

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