Journal of Cleaner Production 294 (2021) 126252

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Multi-levels of photovoltaic waste management: A holistic framework

Sajjad Mahmoudi a, Nazmul Huda a, *, Masud Behnia b
a
School of Engineering, 44 Waterloo Road (44 WR), Macquarie University, NSW, 2109, Australia
b
Macquarie Graduate School of Management, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: With the unprecedented global growth of Photovoltaic (PV) panels installation at the annual growth rate
Received 4 July 2020 of 25e30%, their appropriate End-of-Life (EoL) management gets into focus. The major gap is currently a
Received in revised form strategic pathway that facilitates internationally closed-loop supply chain (CLSC) leading to a circular
28 January 2021
economy from the management point of views. This paper introduces a universal framework for sus-
Accepted 1 February 2021
Available online 5 February 2021
tainable management of about 5000 GW PV products by 2050 and illuminates the different boundaries
and elements that influence the circular economy. There is a minimum of 24 types of substances
Handling Editor. Dr Sandra Caeiro embedded in PV waste flow which are classified into 6 categories. The research findings estimate 60e80
million tons (MT) of PV waste by 2050 which entails proactive strategy for EoL treatment. Latest update
Keywords: of WEEE Directive in 2019 enforces 85% recovery and 80% preparation for recycling of PV panels. If an
PV waste Management environmentally friendly treatment pathway could be achieved and the recovery rate and purity level
End-of-life PV module meet the market demand, there is strong potential for a circular economy, but it needs proper
Sustainability marginalization at the management levels. This study indicated that the PV panels’ sustainability should
Circular economy
be broken down into three principal levels comprising product and component (Macroscopic), material
Secondary materials market
(Mesoscopic), substances (Microscopic). In each level, the associated parties were introduced, and critical
Closed-loop supply chain
elements were discussed. The parties at the macroscopic level mostly consider the projection of the
waste, awareness, and marketing of the recovered materials. While the environmental impacts, treat-
ment pathway and its standard are covered by the associated parties at the mesoscopic level. The micro-
management more concerns the monitoring of the purity level and transparent movement of the
recovered materials and substances into the new industry and new market and highlights further
consideration on the regulation at the international and national levels in this case.
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and PV waste management proposal panels is proposed and the PV waste management roadmap is
illuminated.
To be able to answer the questions what legislation and in-
centives need to be in place to make the recycling of PV panels
viable and what would be a potential framework towards PV panels 1.1. Up-to-date worldwide PV deployment background
circular economy, the proper understanding of the PV market, as
well as the opportunities and threats in the short and long term, is Global solar panel capacity has grown significantly in recent
required. In the following sub-sections, 1.1e1.7 the overall status of years leading to a cumulative capacity of 227 GW by 2015 (IEA-
PV modules is elucidated in terms of global PV deployment, PV PVPS, 2017), and 303 GW (GW) by 2016 (IEA-PVPS, 2016), then
waste generation, PV waste management in terms of policy and erected to more than 480 GW in 2018 (IRENA, 2019), predicted to
regulations, latest research findings, and the current major gaps are rocket to 700 GW in 2020 (Woodmac, 2016) and reach 1720 GW by
outlined and aims and significance of this research are expressed. 2030, and 4675 GW by 2050 (IRENA: Stephanie Weckend, 2016;
Thereafter, the overall formwork and classification of EoL PV panels Komoto and Lee, 2018). Solar panels as types of clean and green
as one of the key aspects towards the circular economy of EoL PV products would not be completely environmentally-friendly
without considering proper disposal pathway and holistic treat-
ment strategy at the end of their operational life (REC-Group, 2018).
* Corresponding author. Given the fact that the use of renewable energy products and in
E-mail address: nazmul.huda@mq.edu.au (N. Huda). particular PV panels are broadening significantly, the erecting and

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126252
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S. Mahmoudi, N. Huda and M. Behnia Journal of Cleaner Production 294 (2021) 126252

mandating of the suitable policy and regulation for the discarded resulting from transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and
PV module is inevitable by every PV consumer country. their Disposal (Ogunseitan, 2013).
Table 1 provides the revolutionary progress of regulatory
scheme on collection and recovery targets of Waste Electrical and
1.2. Global cumulative PV waste generation
Electronic Equipment (WEEE). As can be seen, the original directive
was initially regulated in 2002 with an annual collection target of
Solar photovoltaic panels have been designed to generate clean
4 kg per inhabitant concerning the annual recovery and recycling
and renewable energy for about 25e30 years; however, there is no
targets of 75% and 65%. Subsequently, four revisions were pub-
such a constant lifetime to be expected and the panels will grad-
lished and in the latest one it is asking for the annual recycling rate
ually enter to the waste stream either at the early stage of their
of 85%, and recovery rates of 80% of the total annual WEEE.
lifetime or a regular lifetime. This is due to damage during the
In addition to the WEEE Directive, Europe, and some major PV
transportation and installation stages, initial failures after start-up
user countries such as United Kingdom, Germany, Czech Republic,
operations, technical and physical failures during operation caused
Korea, Japan, China and the U.S. state of California have revised
by severe environmental conditions, and unexpected external fac-
their WEEE regulations for appropriate treatment of their obsolete
tors including natural disasters (Komoto and Lee, 2018). It is
PV panels. The main regulations and contributions for the EoL PV
anticipated that the significant PV deployment in overall results in a
panel sector employed by them can be seen in Table 2.
considerable number of modules to be entered into the waste
stream in the coming years (see Fig. 1).
Globally, the number of panels which reach to the end of
1.4. Latest findings on PV waste management
functional life is increasing so that the worldwide cumulative PV
panel waste was estimated to be to 43500 tons by 2016, with a
(Hocine and Samira, 2019) pinpointed that EoL PV panel
considerable surge to 1.7 or 8 million tons (early-loss scenario vs
assessment should not be based on a fixed life cycle (approximately
regular-loss scenario projection) by 2030, remarkably escalating to
25 years) because the economic benefits of the panel according to
even higher, amounting to 60 or 80 million tons (early-loss scenario
its energy generation could vary from one region to another one. In
vs regular-loss scenario projection)in 2050 (IRENA: Stephanie
fact, an aging evolution scheme can be more realistic so that a panel
Weckend, 2016). The development of an early supporting frame-
with no economic profitability at one region is moved to another
work can facilitate the comprehensive end-of-life policies and
region such as a remote area for supplying electricity for pumping
management of PV panels.
or rural lighting and still meets the economic profitability
requirement since the electricity supply costs vary in a different
1.3. Latest worldwide policy and regulation region.
The current status of solar panel waste recycling, recycling
This section of the manuscript will review some of the promi- technology, environmental protection, waste management, recy-
nent policy and regulations presently being employed for EoL PV cling policies and the economic aspects of recycling was evaluated
management across the globe. In the literature, there is a range of by (Chowdhury et al., 2020). Their findings showed that the vast
policy and regulations either suggested or enacted for the EoL majority of the countries are extending the duties of the PV ma-
management of PV module which should be appropriately adapted terials’ manufacturers in terms of PV waste management either for
based on the conditions of PV consumer countries. disposal or reuse. However, there are not enough indications on
Directive 2012/19/EU was established by the European Union. policies that can be carried out globally to handle the PV waste and
This regulation is mostly for the reduction of the amount of waste limit the environmental burden at the global level. Further im-
that goes to disposal through the proper collection and treatment provements in the economic viability, practicality, high recovery
method and prevents illegal exportation of the waste (Paiano, rate and environmental performance are required.
2015). A wide range of restrictions and regulations has been (Farrell et al., 2020) investigated the routes in the recycling of
established for limiting using hazardous materials in electrical and EoL c-Si PV panels and provided insights on the technical chal-
electronic equipment (Li et al., 2015). Also, the Basel Convention lenges and opportunities towards a circular economy. It was out-
was enacted in 1999 on liability and compensation of damage lined that among various recycling methodologies of mechanical,

Fig. 1. Estimation of Global EoL PV waste (million t) generation (Weckend et al., 2016).

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S. Mahmoudi, N. Huda and M. Behnia Journal of Cleaner Production 294 (2021) 126252

Table 1
The WEEE Directive regulatory scheme on collection and recovery targets (data summarized from (IRENA: Stephanie Weckend, 2016; Komoto and Lee, 2018).

Type Date Annual collection target Annual recycling/recovery targets

Original WEEE Directive 2002/96/ 4kg/inhabitant 75% recovery, 65% recycling

EC
Revised WEEE Directive up to 2016 2002/19/ 4kg/inhabitant Start with the 75% recovery, 65% recycling, 5% increase after 3
EU years
Revised WEEE Directive from 2016 to 2918 2002/19/ 45% (by mass) of all equipment put on the 80% recovery and 70% prepaid for reuse and recycled
EU market
Revised WEEE Directive from 2018 and 2002/19/ 65% (by mass) of all equipment put on the 80% recovered and 75% prepared for reuse and recycled
beyond EU market*
Revised WEEE Directive from 2019 and 2002/19/ e 85% recovered and 80% prepared for recycled
thereafter EU

Table 2
International contributions for the management of EoL PV module (data was collected from the review paper (Komoto and Lee, 2018; Sica et al., 2017)).

Country Regulations and Contributions in EoL PV module management

United - Registration of all produced and imported PV panels

Kingdom - Putting obligations for all manufacturers for providing critical data of the panels
Germany - Updating their regulation for the end-of-life treatment of PV modules
- Considering heavy fines for offenders
- Obligations for registering of imported and manufactured PV panels into or in Germany
Czech - Asked Retina as a photovoltaic waste processor for rehabilitation and recycling management of their PV panels
Republic - WEEELABEX is an organization situated in Czech is also involved in a project aimed at developing standards and monitoring of waste-processing
companies as well as collecting, storing, processing, and recycling of WEEE
Japan - Developing recycling technologies
- Developing a local company working on recovery technologies
- Obligation enacted by environment ministry asks the PV panel manufacturer to look after the recycling aspects of panels.
- NPC company accepted a joint venture for recycling of PV panels with Hamada Company as an industrial waste-processing
- Shell oil company officially connected with the EOIO (European photovoltaic international organization)
- A roadmap was promoted by METI and MOE that endorses the laws and regulations of the design and R&D of the low-cost technologies required for the
optimal and environmentally friendly dismantling, transportation, and treatment of the discarded PV panels
USA - California developed a proposal for control and supervise the processing of EoL PV components
- Recycling and reducing landfill disposal of hazardous substances have been supported by the department of toxic substances control.
- First Solar as the American silicon film panel producer has planned for recycling and reusing of PV panels by the establishment of companies in the U.S.,
Germany and Malaysia.
- Only general waste regulations are applied for the collection and recycling of end-of-life PV modules in the whole United states excepts California and
Washington
- the state renewable energy system tax and the necessity of takeback and recycling program for end-of-life PV modules was implemented in Washington
by Senate Bill 5939
- commitment for the manufacturers to prepare product stewardship plans that describe how they will finance the takeback and recycling program and
provide for takeback of PV modules at locations within the state.
- Stewardship developed by the Washington State Department of Ecology states that manufacturers who sell solar units in the state of Washington after
July 1, 2017, are responsible for financing and providing a recycling program for their units.
- Manufacturers who do not provide a recycling program cannot sell solar modules after January 1, 2021.
- The U.S. Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) has maintained a corporate social responsibility committee that reviews developments related to PV
recycling and announced the launch of a National PV Recycling Program in September 2016.
China - CESRI (Chinese environmental science research institute) investigate on the environmental management of EoL PV panels
- exploration has started in terms of technology development, recycling and safe disposal
- no specific regulations for the discarded PV panels
- the necessity of special laws and regulations aiming at providing a high recycling rate of first and second PV generations has been targeted
- Cost-effective and optimum energy usage and the proper financial frameworks were proposed
Europe - Transposed the PV requirements into national law
- All producers that put PV panels on the market in the European Union need to either operate their take-back and recycling systems or join the producer
compliance schemes.
- European R&D initiatives are developing recycling technologies to reduce the expenses of treatment
- Enhancing the awareness regarding the value of recovered secondary raw materials to enhance the potential revenue streams by recycling of EoL PV
materials.
- The European Commission also asked the European Committee for Electro-Technical Standardization (CENELEC) to develop specific PV treatment
standards for different fractions of the module the waste stream to support a high-value recycling approach
- Developing a standard and technical specification containing (Part 1 and Part 2) for PV module collection and treatment in terms of administrative,
organizational, and technical requirements for waste photovoltaic panels.
- Also, the standard for monitoring, sampling, and reporting and storage requirements were provided in the standard.
Korea - No regulations governing the EoL stage of the photovoltaic panel in Korea.
- The registration and reporting of end-of-life PV panels was mandated by the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy (MOTIE) to update the existing
regulations
- Promotion of R&D protocol for the development of recycling facility to reclaim of unbroken wafers with a capacity of 730 tons/year
- Aiming at the foundation of a PV recycling centre in Korea in the near future
- There is also the Non-R&D projects lead by the local government and six non-profit organizations supporting:
- the technology, process, and facilities for the recycling of c-Si and thin-film Si PV module
- Establishing a system for the declaration, collection, and transportation EoL PV module

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S. Mahmoudi, N. Huda and M. Behnia Journal of Cleaner Production 294 (2021) 126252

chemical, and thermal recycling and recovery of materials highlights the latest findings related to managerial aspects. Second,
embedded in the EoL c-Si panel, pyrolysis offers the most effective this research attempts to establish a universal management
potential in order to the optimum recovery of material and energy framework to achieve a circular economy in the PV industry and
in the c-Si panels especially for removing polymeric material in the attempts to illuminate the gaps and establish a foundation.
form of the EVA encapsulant and majority of the PV backsheet. It
can also provide energy which can aid the delamination of further 1.6. The essence of developing various regulatory and management
panels and positively affect the economic feasibility of the recycling levels
process leading to a circular economy.
As a proactive measurement, the cost-benefit analysis of PV Photovoltaic waste contains different types of materials
waste recycling and its feasibility assessment are being grown by including valuable resources as well as toxic materials
receiving the scholars’ attention in recent years (Liu et al., 2020). (;(Chowdhury et al., 2020; Mahmoudi et al., 2020b) which can be a
Performed the cost-benefit assessment of PV panels in China and matter of concern. Thus (Ardente et al., 2019), evaluated the
highlighted that the treatment of waste generated in 2020e2034 is resource-efficient recovery of critical and precious metals in c-Si
viable and estimation showed that the unit net benefit is 0.57 USD/ panels and revealed high-quality recycled materials can minimize
KW with the NPV and BCR of 21.14 million USD and 1.023 respec- the environmental burdens and leads to significant benefits (Salim
tively. The sale benefits of recovered PV materials is the most et al., 2020). Explored the complexities around managing the end-
sensitive factor affecting the project’s economy which also of-life (EoL) residential solar photovoltaic (PV) through a partici-
confirmed by other studies (Faircloth et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2018). patory system thinking approach and urged proper regulation for
The environmental impacts and economic benefits of domestics PV the PV product and material recovery rates to avoid valuable and
waste recycling were also investigated in Thailand by (Faircloth hazardous materials be disposed of in the landfill, stockpiled or
et al., 2019) and Australia by (Mahmoudi et al., 2020a). The illegally dumped (Savvilotidou et al., 2017). Performed the toxicity
former research showed that although the cost to recycle could be assessment and feasible recycling of the 2nd generation of the PV
as little as $0.03 per kg by applying discounted cash flow (DCF), panels through an optimized chemical treatment and raised the
there is no economic profitability on PV recycling yet unless the PV recycling challenges of critical metals in thin-film modules.
waste flows are increased, and the initial investment costs are Conducted a comparative LCA of CdTe and Si panels and high-
decreased. The latter research, on the other hand, indicated that the lighted the importance of the process of the recovering of raw
domestic full treatment of annually 20 Kilotons PV panels is feasible materials, a reduction of energy demand and emissions of materials
and meet the environmental sustainability and circular economy that would increase the potential environmental impacts and hu-
metrics. man health risks by improper and informal recycling or being
The treatment of discarded PV modules is inevitable and entails discharged in landfills. On the other hand (Sica et al., 2017; Tao and
a holistic, and systematic approach for the management of dis- Yu, 2015), discussed that the appropriate treatment and formal
carded PV modules. At this stage, the guidelines and recycling recycling leads to an affirmative influence on the environment, the
infrastructure are being developed globally and there is a decen- sustainability of natural resources, economic viability, closed-loop
tralized focus in this case while solving PV waste management as an supply chain and circular economy.
upcoming global problem entails a unanimous and integrated Despite this, the process of recycling and recovery of discarded
framework. Nonetheless, there are still many countries which are PV panels through mechanical dismantling, thermal and chemical
far behind without a concrete regulation system for EoL PV prod- separation can still generate and release toxic to the environment
ucts (Mahmoudi et al., 2019a; Tao and Yu, 2015). as all recovered materials are not 100% recycled yet (Awasthi et al.,
According to the current literature, it is realized that the current 2016; Wu et al., 2016). The hazard remained in the valuable
gap is the lack of an overall framework outlining proactive metrics recovered substances can enter into completely new products and
and boundaries in policy and management of EoL Solar PV panels put the public and environment under exposure to risk factors
across the world. In fact, the scholars addressed some of the aspects (Zeng et al., 2017), and cause environmental and health problems
of PV waste management fragmentally and mostly provided the (Cucchiella et al., 2015). Also, inappropriate treatment may cause
technical proof and evidence on PV waste recyclability in terms of public concerns about the environmental burden and health risks
treatment methodology and economic feasibility; however, there is of the EoL PV modules which can create barriers to the market
no research presenting the connection and link between each penetration (Fthenakis, 2000) as well as changing the belief of the
segment of PV panel sustainability and providing a universal user to no more consider it as the green product.
framework helping the industry and decision-makers to visualize
the roadmap in this matter. The proposed framework in this paper 1.7. How the EoL PV wastes should be classified?
is a critical step for the evolution of the circular economy in the PV
industry. To effectively solve the global concern about the significant
photovoltaic waste generation in the world, a systematic approach
1.5. Aims and significance of this paper which observantly classifies the discarded PV waste based on
various factors is imperative. In the course of waste management,
This study intends to address the following questions. 1) What the material flow of the EoL PV panel starts with the obsolete PV
are the current and future PV deployment projections and esti- panel and can potentially end up with the completely new products
mated waste distribution of the PV panels up to 2050? 2)What are through desired treatment. To achieve optimal outcome form PV
the latest action plans and regulations at the global level to handle waste treatment, a pivotal classification of PV panels waste needs to
the PV waste? 3) What is the overall framework of sustainable PV be taken into consideration. To this end, the material flow of EoL PV
waste management leading to a circular economy? 4) What are the panels can be broken down into four categories including product,
major elements and steps need to be considered on this frame- component, material and substance Fig. 2.
work? 5) What is the priority of these levels to achieve sustain- The term product is the combination of various assembled
ability in this sector? The significance of this article is twofold. First, components and separate parts with economic value and specific
this research provides a clear vision and classified information on application which is priced by market and has a regular lifetime
the status of PV waste management at the global scale and before discarding. The term component is basically the different
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S. Mahmoudi, N. Huda and M. Behnia Journal of Cleaner Production 294 (2021) 126252

Fig. 2. PV waste classification to three levels of macroscopic, mesoscopic, and microscopic management.

parts embodied in a product and consists of different materials. The finally marketing of the secondary materials and substances in local
term material is the mixture of different substances which provide and international markets.
a specific function for a component and substance as the principal
composition is defined as a mater with the uniform unit (Zeng et al.,
2.1. PV waste management at the product and component level
2017).
With regards of this classification, different types of decom-
The step one is called “Macroscopic” management which fo-
missioned PV modules such as c-Si, CdTe, CIGS is product;
cuses on the EoL PV waste stream at the product and component
mounting structure, cabling, inverter, transformer, solar cells,
level. The importance of monitoring decommissioned PV panel at
frame, back sheet, strips are typical components dismantled from
the product and component level is more helpful for the reduction
EoL PV waste; metal, plastic, steel, glass, laminate encapsulate
of the extra environmental burden that could be imposed by dis-
(EVA), Edge Seal, (Absorber, TCO and buffer layers) is regarded as
regarded treatment method while either the product or some of the
the material of PV waste flow; and further copper, gold, silver, in-
components of the panel are still reusable with just some minor
dium, nickel and cadmium are substances.
services. In addition to the true sustainability sourcing of material
To put it in another way, product/component, material, and
and manufacturing, the full track of PV panels in terms of product,
substance of EoL PV waste can also be categorized into macro-
component, material and substances throughout their lifecycle
scopic, mesoscopic, and microscopic levels. On the whole, the
from cradle to grave is one of the prominent steps towards sus-
different levels of management are required in terms of regulation
tainability (Mahmoudi et al., 2020a). Also, a very critical monitoring
and policy if the sustainability of the solar photovoltaic panel is
step which was unintentionally overlooked by policymakers starts
desired.
exactly after the disposal stage (Dias et al., 2019).
The natural progression of PV technology has led to the pro-
2. Macroscopic management of EoL PV panels duction of the higher versions of the panels with more affordability
and better functionality and lower environmental issues across the
The sustainability and viability of the EoL PV panels manage- life cycle of the panel. It can potentially increase the probability of
ment program require careful attention to the multiple factors. early replacement of the new version of the panel with the older
These factors are many but mainly limited to the PV waste pro- one in addition to the regular decommissioning of the panel. Here,
jection, reverse logistics network design, developing proper treat- the authors strongly believe that the foundation of a global orga-
ment facilities and infrastructures, training of the workforces, nization via either Federation of PV producing countries or OECD
awareness regarding the environmental burdens, and economic countries or United Nations that could track the PV waste flow at
viability and profitability for the parties and the investors, and different treatment steps is imperative. The detailed structure of
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S. Mahmoudi, N. Huda and M. Behnia Journal of Cleaner Production 294 (2021) 126252

such an organization requires further exploration which is out of million tonnes by 2030) based on the regular loss scenario, could
the scope of this article. If a broad monitoring system and proper yield a value up to V 540 million by 2030. Another report by
obligation are ratified for all imported and manufactured photo- (IRENA: Stephanie Weckend, 2016) disclosed that potential value
voltaic modules into or in every PV user country, these panels can creation of 60e80 million tons of EoL PV panel generated up to
be carefully tracked and be collected as soon as it is discarded by 2050 is expected to surge to over US$ 15 billion by applying the
the end-user. same regular-loss scenario. It can also prevent tremendous envi-
This organization can mandate a registration procedure for all ronmental burdens caused by the production of the panel.
discarded PV panel based on the producer, brand, serial number However, improper treatment strategy including a weak moni-
and all necessary identification factors so that it could be addressed toring system, transboundary movement of the PV waste flow, low
whenever is needed. A robust tracking system plus considering recovery rate, defective reverse logistics networks would cause a
heavy fines for lawbreakers would potentially avoid any trans- serious challenge and big loss such as resource depletion, envi-
boundary movement of the waste as well as the illegal recycling ronmental burdens and health and human risks. There are many
which may cause serious environmental and health risks in both recycling and recovery methodologies and procedures which have
short and long term. been addressed by the scholars; however, none of them could still
lead to the desired output and meet the limitation ratified for the
2.2. The commitment of active parties environmental burdens yet. Fig. 5 shows the overall issues with the
current PV treatment procedures adopted from the latest review
To effectively manage the EoL PV panels, a responsible man- papers published by (Chowdhury et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2018). The
agement legislative that can mandate the commitments of all major processes employed in this case are quite diverse. For
parties is necessary. Under such a management legislative, the instance, the physical disintegration, thermal treatment, radio-
principal reference is supposed to be a global organization that has therapy, nitric acid dissolution, and Ultrasonic irradiation are
authority and power to compel all parties to systematically share considered under the category of delamination technology. Also,
and report information required for the management of EoL PV there are a variety of processes such as dry and wet mechanical
waste. Through the systematic data collection, the organization can process, etching, vacuum blasting, surfactant chemistry, leaching,
vividly visualize the global PV waste generation trend and its status flotation as the material separation technology. However, the
at various scales and assign proper commitment for the target category of material purification technology and procedures in
parties. To this aim, all parties need to be a valid member of the pyrometallurgical (pyrolysis), hydrometallurgical (acid leaching)
organization by making an official account of their business at any and biotechnological technologies (microbial leaching) have been
level which is dealing with the panels either at the selling of the less explored. The purification level in all of these processes are not
panel or the disposal or treatment process of the panel. well capable yet for a high purity level of the PV waste materials
There are several parties who are involved at the macroscopic and they mostly lead to certain levels of emissions (Awasthi et al.,
level including insurance companies, PV producers, installers, 2016) and releasing harmful and toxic gases (Keiichi Komoto,
home builders, and PV owners. The reason why a couple of parties 2018), health risk issues (Huang et al., 2016; Zeng et al., 2016),
are supposed to report the status of the panel at this level is to make and high energy consumption (Chowdhury et al., 2020).
sure the panel has been properly registered and traced at the early
stage of its operation by the organization. All the parties at this level 2.4. Forecasting of future PV waste generation
of management are responsible to inform any issues which are
caused the panel being discarded and before delivering to the The reliable prediction of the total amount, concentration or
parties related to the mesoscopic scales. The major parties for all material composition, and value of reclaimable material of future
management levels are depicted in Fig. 3. The scenario is imple- PV waste streams has a critical impact on the economic viability of
mented by reporting of necessary data shared by corresponding the treatment program and by decreasing the potential risks of
parties at each level to the local government. It is followed by investment on the treatment of EoL PV panels. It also can be a major
government verification after visual and careful inspection and incentive for the investors and also policymakers for enacting
finally will be published after the confirmation of the appointed directive and legislations. Thereafter, the policymakers and in-
organization globally. So, the lawbreakers will be penalized by vestors would have a clearer result to take a better step toward
heavy fines if the organization is identified at any time even in successful treatment and sustainability with lower environmental
future. The role and effective cooperation of the other parties at the burdens and higher profitability.
mesoscopic and microscopic levels are addressed in sections 4 and Better insights on the reliability of PV waste projection, lower
5 of this manuscript. loss and more economic profit would be expected. Reliability and
quality of EoL PV waste projection as a critical factor must be
2.3. Potential opportunities and threats in EoL PV waste carefully assessed by the authorities in a sense that the probability
of PV waste generation through both the wear and technological
As shown in Fig. 4, the EoL PV panel contains a different category obsolescence of the first photovoltaic panel placed on the market
of materials and substances including precious metals, base and and the early and constant failures of recently sold products are
special materials, hazardous metals, critical substances, and other considered in the waste projection (Peeters et al., 2017). By
metals and materials. When it comes to volume, it can be consid- considering the three-level of failures depicted in Fig. 6, the PV
ered as a very interesting source of the commodity. The volume of waste streams can be forecasted with higher precision. This waste
PV waste is one of the key factors which can play a critical role in projection strategy can be effective to identify whether a PV panel
the viability and sustainability of treatment toward circular econ- would return for repair or reuse, remanufacturing or recycling, and
omy and consumption. As discussed earlier in the introduction recovery.
section, PV deployment had an astonishing growth since last de-
cades leading to an incredible amount of EoL PV products gradually. 2.5. Economic feasibility assessment
The recent review paper by (Sica et al., 2017), underlined that the
raw materials technically recoverable (at a rate of 65e70% by mass) The decision markers main role would be to create the economic
from the global cumulative volume of PV panel waste (at least 1.7 climate for profitable PV treatment through enacting suitable
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S. Mahmoudi, N. Huda and M. Behnia Journal of Cleaner Production 294 (2021) 126252

Fig. 3. The perspective of photovoltaic (PV) waste management including all major parties.

regulations, making financial incentives for investors to get

involved, R&D support program, etc. It means that the short- and
long-term profitability of the business should overweigh the total
cost as time-limited as possible reducing the escalation of probable
risks and loss.
The economic feasibility of the treatment program of EoL PV
panels hinges on the geographic concentration of the discarded
panel, the proximity of PV wastes to the appropriate recycling fa-
cilities, and on their content of valuable materials (Fthenakis,
2000). The annual amount of the PV waste generation (at least
20,000 tons/year for a recycling plant), purity rate of the recovered
materials, and attractive price and proper marketing strategy can
play as the influential factors. Besides, because of global high de-
mand of the raw materials, the scarcity of the original material and
substances which in turn determine the market price of raw ma-
terials can act as a stimulator and motivation factors for successful
and promising revenue stream of the secondary materials extracted
from EoL PV panels. Last but not least, an international ban on
landfilling, and enacting global policy and regulation on proper
recycling strategy and creating an incentive for the private sector
such a tax exemption and low-interest-rate loan can potentially
make this business more successful and sustainable. The assess-
ment of the viability of the EoL PV treatment program should be
taken into account at the macroscopic level of management to
avoid the potential risks of failure in the early stage. The common
method, in this case, is the Discounted cash flow (DCF) method
estimating the net present value (NPV) and the discount payback
time (DPBT) as two influential economic indicators. These in-
dicators consider an incremental approach to calculate cash inflows
and outflows in a business. The financial indexes employed DCF
Fig. 4. The material inventory of the PV waste stream for c-Si, a-Si. CIGS, CdTe panels.
method for economic profitability assessment of the PV waste flows
are (Bortolini et al., 2013) who studied a multi-parameter analysis

7
S. Mahmoudi, N. Huda and M. Behnia Journal of Cleaner Production 294 (2021) 126252

Fig. 5. Downsides of available recycling procedures for silicon and thin-film based PV modules adapted form (Chowdhury et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2018).

Fig. 6. The EoL PV waste strategy applying early failure, constant accidental failure and wear-out failure factors.

for the technical and economic assessment of photovoltaic systems schemes.

in the main European Union countries (Cucchiella et al., 2015),
evaluated the potential revenues coming from the recovery of 14 e-
2.6. Awareness and marketing
products including PV panels on the base of current and future
disposed volumes in Europe (D’Adamo et al., 2017), investigated the
A cleaner and more sustainable world require a more extensive
financial feasibility of the recycling processes of crystalline silicon
awareness about the opportunities and threats of EoL PV waste
PV module, and (Tudisca et al., 2013) evaluated the economic
flow leading to the reduction of this unregulated waste. The
convenience of PV systems on farm buildings for Italian feed-in
awareness component (Fig. 7) including health hazards, disposal
8
S. Mahmoudi, N. Huda and M. Behnia Journal of Cleaner Production 294 (2021) 126252

and relevant authorities to enhance the effectiveness of the edu-

cation. Some of the insightful surveys tested to measure the
awareness of WEEE are a survey-based analysis of public environ-
mental awareness and performance on household electrical and
electronic equipment in Ningbo, China by (Huang et al., 2006), a
novel collection model tested by (Sole
et al., 2012) in Catalonia
(Spain) to foster the separate collection and recycling of electrical
and electronic toys, with the participation of selected primary and
secondary schools, as well as waste collection points and munici-
palities, survey-based analyses by (Sun et al., 2015) with 1874 valid
participants evaluating the consumer behaviour and perspectives
concerning spent household battery collection and recycling in
China.
Along with awareness as an important component, considering
influential marketing programs (see Fig. 9) and supportive policies
are necessary to empower the associated parties for better trading
of secondary material extracted through recovery and recycling. To
Fig. 7. Influential factors for effective awareness and insights about EoL photovoltaic
wastes. this end, a clear understanding of the role and opportunities for
secondary raw materials of EoL PV waste as part of the imple-
mentation of the Circular Economy Action Plan (CEAP) is needed. To
practices, environmental burdens of improper disposal and treat- achieve a successful marketing outcome, the initial step is to reduce
ment strategy, awareness towards legislative policies, the value of the current marketing barriers such as the absence of quality
the recovery of embedded material and substances in the PV waste standards for recovered PV materials, difficulties related to the
flow, growing the people insights about sustainability and the gaps trading of secondary raw materials (Ratner et al., 2020), and con-
in PV products as a green product at their end-of-life stage can cerns about the presence of chemicals in recycled materials owing
considerably support the better management of the EoL PV panels to low purity rate (Chowdhury et al., 2020; Zeng et al., 2017).
in the mesoscopic and microscopic levels of management. Since
achieving behavioural changes in all parties is a critical matter,
enhancing the level of awareness in the various aspects depicted in
Fig. 7 may help us to effectively deal with this crucial E-waste. 2.7. Reverse logistics
The authors of this manuscript would suggest that the main
player for increasing the level of awareness about EoL PV wastes Reverse logistics (RL) network is known as the conceptual
can be a global organization and the local governments of every PV framework, mathematical programming, and computational algo-
consumer countries employing various potential elements and rithms employed for decision-making to find the most effective and
tools for educating the target audiences depicted in Fig. 8. The economically efficient networks for design, operation, and control
overall strategy of education can be designed by the organization, of the reverse flow of the EoL or discarded product (Yu and Solvang,
and the customized program may be defined by the governments 2016). RL covering the collection, sorting, transportation and stor-
age of product, components, parts, materials, substances at any
stage of the end of the life treatment process. Collection and
transportation process has a critical effect on sustainability and
minimizing of environmental issues. The profitability of a reverse
logistics network is a paramount concern and is always coupled
with either maximizing overall profits or minimizing costs
(Demirel et al., 2016).
Present global markets of the photovoltaic panels are dominated
by residential (roof-top), industrial sites, and utility applications.
The distribution of these facilities is quite heterogeneous depend
on the demand and the extent of each country. The collection and
transportation of these waste inside of each country present a
challenge. Also, when it comes to the global scale this challenge
becomes more complicate and requires a holistic RL network
design to effectively determine how to deal with the reverse flow of
the PV waste at both country level and global level with lowest
environmental impact and costs. The estimated cumulative waste
volumes of EoL PV panels by country in ton (Fig. 10) indicates that
the profitability of some countries may not meet the minimum
annual PV waste generation required to assure the economic
feasibility of the treatment. To avoid any problem for such coun-
tries, the creation of a convention to provide an opportunity for
countries with lower PV waste flow to join the potential countries.
These countries can contribute in EoL PV waste program of each
other with the aim of reducing environmental burdens and making
mutual interests by capturing the remaining values of EoL PV
Fig. 8. A general framework to create awareness for target audiences of EoL PV waste panels and bring them back to supply chain trough shared treat-
management. ment program.
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S. Mahmoudi, N. Huda and M. Behnia Journal of Cleaner Production 294 (2021) 126252

Fig. 9. Marketing Pathway for successful selling of Secondary Materials.

3. Mesoscopic management of EoL PV panels recyclers, transboundary movement of the PV waste, and to make
sure that the panels are fully tracked. Thereafter, the panels will be
As part of EoL PV waste management strategy, the mesoscopic delivered to the official recycling, recovery and disposal companies
management level aims to carefully look at how the recovery of as the main parties who are seriously in charged with multiple
embedded materials in the waste flow can effectively avoid the directives and rules. Then, these parties need to meet the limita-
resource losses and meet the environmental protection targets tions of the environmental impact for the treatment process as well
through material compatibility analysis, life cycle assessment (LCA), as purity of the recovered materials before and after treatment up
and material flow analysis (MFA), (Khan, 2020). to the full recovery of the materials embedded in the panels and the
disposal of the residues after treatment.

3.1. PV waste management at the material level

3.2. Material compatibility analysis
Aiming at a closed-loop supply chain, Fig. 11 demonstrates the
valuable resources existing in the PV waste flow which can be In the treatment of EoL PV panels, there are a number of pro-
reclaimed by appropriate treatment strategy. A various EoL PV cesses (see Fig. 12) such as dismantling, crushing and shredding as
panel recycling methods are being commercialized; however, the the mechanical treatment, and using various solvents for acid
process efficiency, economic feasibility (Deng et al., 2019), recycling leaching, etching, neutralization, and purification in the chemical
and recovery rates, and environmental performance (avoided/ treatment and heating the PV sandwich and the other plastic ma-
imposed burdens) are under development and need to be improved terials by incineration for thermal treatment. If these processes, for
as highlighted by many studies. For example (Contreras-Lisperguer instance, the types of solvent and solvent ratio, etching or leaching
et al., 2020), pinpointed that the design and development of a fully time are not selected carefully, there is a possibility of creating a
recyclable and reusable PV panel are very essential. The current certain level of damage in the recovered materials such as impurity,
design lacks the easy disassembly and material recovery standard low performance, and health issues as well as releasing harmful
and causes a variety of issues (Herceg et al., 2020). Evaluated the and toxic gases (Klugmann-Radziemska and Kuczyn
ska-Łazewska,
_
impact of recycling PV panels on electricity production’s footprint, 2020). Assessed the compatibility of recovered semiconductor sil-
and (Farrell et al., 2020) outlined that pyrolysis offers the best po- icon wafer material in the production of the photovoltaic produc-
tential for the optimum recovery of material and energy for the c-Si tion. The results confirmed 58% total environmental impact
modules. reduction and 42% mitigation in Global Warming Potential (GWP)
There are four major target parties at this level who are sug- and greenhouse gas emissions of photovoltaic production compare
gested to be responsible to report clear and accurate information to the primary production stage (Zeng et al., 2017). Discussed that
(the standard of the report is enacted by the global organization) to even formal recycling would not the dissipation of the Hazardous
the local governments including construction and decommission- substances into new products especially in new lower-grade
ing companies, collection and transportation companies, reuse products and proper regulation are still lagging behind. There is
business, and finally recycling, recovery and disposal companies. also the possibility of serious environmental impact follows from
The essence of continuous confirmation of the status of the dis- inappropriate and incompatibility of the chemical and thermal
carded panel at this level is to avoid any chance for the unofficial treatment methods on the target materials embedded in the PV
10
S. Mahmoudi, N. Huda and M. Behnia Journal of Cleaner Production 294 (2021) 126252

Fig. 10. The distribution of the cumulative global PV waste generation by 2050 based on regular loss scenario (the map was adopted using the data provided in (IRENA: Stephanie
Weckend, 2016)).

Fig. 11. EoL PV waste treatment levels comprising product, component, material, and substance.

waste flow resulting considerable loss of materials during the used to evaluate and quantify environmental impacts of the treat-
treatment (Khan and Asiri, 2019). Then, these losses will be scat- ment and disposal steps of EoL PV panel product. There are a
tered in the environment with harmful effects and health prob- number of scenarios such as reuse, recycling, recovery of the ma-
lems. Thus, applying the compatibility rules is necessary to enhance terials and substances which can be assessed based on the
the recycling yields effectively. ISO14040 and 14044 standards (ISO14040, 2006; ISO14044, 2006)
as general guidance to perform LCA (Gerbinet et al., 2014). The
3.3. Life cycle assessment EoL PV waste sustainable closed-loop life cycle pathway of PV panels demon-
strated in Fig. 13. Through the proposed pathway, the resource
To keep the energy security and climate change mitigation depletion would be potentially minimized. Nonetheless, the bur-
achieved by utilizing PV panel, LCA as a robust methodology can be dens follow from the production stage and the end-of-life

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S. Mahmoudi, N. Huda and M. Behnia Journal of Cleaner Production 294 (2021) 126252

Fig. 12. Solar PV recycling processes for various PV generation and technologies (Chowdhury et al., 2020; Kang et al., 2012; Klugmann-Radziemska and Ostrowski, 2010).

treatment stage highly rely on mesoscopic and microscopic flow analysis (MFA) as an attractive decision support tool can be
management. considered to manage the complex waste stream (Islam and Huda,
LCA technique of EoL PV panel compiles and examines the in- 2019; Kiddee et al., 2013). According to the common definition of
puts and outputs of materials and energy associated with the MFA provided by (Brunner and Rechberger, 2016), “MFA is a sys-
operational processes of the treatment pathway, and provide crit- tematic assessment of the flows and stocks of materials within a
ical interpretation to the public sector, stakeholders and manufac- system defined in space and time. It connects the sources, the
turers with a possible recommendation for improvements and pathways, and the intermediate and final sinks of a material”. One
sustainability (Curran, 2015; Lunardi et al., 2018). With this in mind, of the common and user-friendly software applied in this case is
it is worth noting that sometimes the treatment process works called “STAN” that supports performing material flow analysis
perfectly up to a certain step, for instance, the recovery of mate- (MFA). There are a variety of MFA and supplementary methods such
rials; however, achieving pure substances which can make much as Dynamic SFA and MFA, Static MFA, Input-output MFA, substance-
higher economic values need further treatment with serious flow analysis (SFA), covering agent-based model, sales-stock-
environmental burdens and cost. In such difficult and multi- lifespan model, population mass balance, logistic model, lifespan
influential factors situations, interpretation of the result when distribution, distribution delay and time-step method, mass-
decision-making must be carried out for such complicated e-waste balance model, time-step and consumption and use etc. Which
is not easy at all. Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCA) can be are widely employed by researchers.
suggested as a facilitator for decision making which is discussed in In resource, waste and environmental management of EoL PV
section 4.5. panels, MFA is capable to quantify EoL PV panel mass flows in a
system (PV Waste generated in a region, country, continent, and
worldwide) during a defined period. According to the MFA princi-
3.4. Material flow analysis of EoL PV waste ple which follows the law of conservation of mass, the material
flows of PV waste is evaluated through comparing the inflows into
(Kwak et al., 2020) discussed that EoL solar panels with complex an MFA system and the outflows plus changes during trans-
material structure can be potentially a source of environmental formation (Sajid et al., 2019). The balance of the system is assessed
pollution and hazard but (Mahmoudi et al., 2019b) investigated by considering the defined boundaries and uncertainties.
that it also potentially offers a valuable resource recovery leading to
considerable economic benefits and environmental protection
through proper treatment. The treatment of the panels requires the 3.5. Multicriteria analysis (MCA)
active role of multi-parties in the reverse supply chain, evaluation
and identification of the material flow in the whole PV waste Growing EoL PV panel can provide business and jobs opportu-
management pathways (D’Adamo et al., 2017). Toward circular nities, value creation resulting in new economic avenues. In the
economy, closed-loop supply chain and sustainability, Material course of selecting the optimum method for the treatment of such a
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S. Mahmoudi, N. Huda and M. Behnia Journal of Cleaner Production 294 (2021) 126252

Fig. 13. Modified sustainable pathway of PV panel life cycle adapted from (Tao and Yu, 2015).

complicated waste flow, the utilizing of multicriteria analysis

(MCA) has been suggested and utilized by the scholars (Khan and
Kabir, 2020). Performed the sustainability assessment of common
waste-to-energy generation technologies using MCA (Milutinovi
c
et al., 2014). Evaluated the sustainability of waste management
with energy recovery using MCA and found that sustainable sce-
nario is recycling inorganic and composting organic waste (Rani
et al., 2020). Utilized the multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM)
under the fuzzy atmosphere to evaluate the sustainability planning
of an E-Waste recycling job selection problem. MCA is a decision-
making tool developed for complex problems concerning multi-
ple and often conflicting criteria, and objectives like EoL PV waste
panel. MCA for PV waste management can act as an optimizer by
focusing on the minimization of the environmental impact through
maximum energy recovery, lowest materials and substances loss
caused by treatment and landfilling and creating maximum value
creation through appropriate marketing strategies. It will be ach-
ieved by the weighting of various factors mainly related to the
technical feasibility aspects of the treatment scenarios, and the
intersection of economic, environmental, and social elements. The Fig. 14. Suggested decision-making criteria for EoL PV waste management.
‘weighting’ step; hence, can act as a useful arm to aid in better
decision making leading to the desired trade-off. To this end, a
variety of scenarios are considered and through various tools and move toward sustainable management of EoL PV panels.
weighting of the influential factors the compromised decision can
be adopted. The overall decision-making concept is depicted in 4. Microscopic management of EoL PV panel
Fig. 14 visualizing. MCA empower us to close to the intersection
leading to sustainability by weighting the influential factors. In the microscopic level of management, the focus is on the
Whatever the weighting factors are adjusted in the sense that the effective handling of the waste after recovery into to the much
output is placed at a certain distance far from the centre the deeper level of treatment associated with the recovery of the
effectiveness of a particular factor surges in return for sacrificing of substances contains in the PV waste flow. At this level, the recov-
sustainability. Hence, MCA can be considered as a powerful tool to ered materials are may be considered for further treatment through
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S. Mahmoudi, N. Huda and M. Behnia Journal of Cleaner Production 294 (2021) 126252

serious MCA to check the technical possibility as well as the overall sustainability.
percentage of social, environmental, and economic profitability of
the further treatment.
5. Future directions

4.1. Monitoring of the recovered PV materials and substances PV waste will inevitably become a serious challenge for the
governments within the next decade, and the overall framework
The essence of the monitoring system at the microscopic level introduced in this paper is just an intuitive that suggests how to
will be at the highest level since the fact that the severity and face this problem. However, it needs further investigation at each
challenges of EoL PV waste management are much higher than the management level. For example, the reverse logistics network
previous stages. The reason is that the recovered materials and design, economic viability assessment, awareness and marketing of
substances are going to back to the market for the sake of circular the secondary materials and substances have not been addressed
economy and environmental sustainability. It means that recovered comprehensively since it is out of the scope of this paper. Also,
materials and substances can be utilized either in the same pro- further work on PV waste recycling method that is safe for the
duction process or a completely new industry for completely new environment and the recovered secondary raw materials that
products. Poor monitoring system means that the recovered ma- meets the market demand is required. Another future study di-
terials and substances with low purity level containing a certain rection is the development of a monitoring system worldwide that
level of toxic and other harmful germs and materials can be moved is capable to track the PV panel throughout its lifecycle at all levels
and scattered throughout the market. to achieve sustainability and circular economy. The authors hope
It should be a serious warning for the authorities and policy- that future research could prove the necessity of the introduced
makers as the public at different levels with vulnerable immune framework practically and solve this global challenge appropriately
systems are on the direct exposure of health risk and danger. It by performing research on the details of the action plan for the
would a catastrophic problem if no monitoring system exists at this central organization, local governments, and the major parties.
level. The findings of the recent research on the potential market
and application of the recovered materials and substances extrac-
6. Conclusion
ted through the treatment of the EoL PV panel which can be
considered as a confirmation of this early-mid stage warning (see
This paper has given an account of the management of the EoL
Fig. 15).
PV products as one of the fastest-growing waste globally with the
estimated flow of about 60e80 million tons by 2050. An articulate
4.2. Restriction on secondary materials supply chain framework was introduced into macro, meso, and micro-levels of
management and some important initiatives supporting the pro-
The major parties at this level are supposed to be at least three active management of EoL PV modules were explored. The in-depth
including the transportation companies who collect and transfer exploration of the current efforts on the PV waste management
the secondary materials and substances from the plant to the next revealed that there is a lack of holistic managerial framework
party, the third person companies who sell the materials in the approaching the PV waste flow in terms of product and component,
market, and the end-user referring to the industries who consume material, and substances altogether. At the moment, Europe has the
these materials and substances in the production of new products most contribution to all three management levels to achieve a
(microscopic level in Fig. 3). The main commitment of the plant is to circular economy in the PV industry. The other pioneer countries or
provide a certificate that confirms the purity level of the secondary region such as United Kingdom, Germany, Czech Republic, Korea,
materials and substances meet the regulations mandated by the Japan, China, and the U.S. state of California have just revised their
global organization. This confirmation letter will be delivered to the WEEE regulations to add PV waste into the current regulation
local government and other parties. After this, the rest of the program, but it is yet to achieve a functional perspective and
partners should also update the status of those materials and appropriate action plan. In practice, a holistic framework is required
substances at each step up to the end-user level. This cycle will be to shed light on the various angles of the sustainability in the PV
continued to make a closed-loop supply chain and confirm industry. Twelve prominent parties alongside the local

Fig. 15. The recent discovered application of the second recovered materials from EoL PV panels in the new industries adopted from (Mahmoudi et al., 2020a).

14
S. Mahmoudi, N. Huda and M. Behnia Journal of Cleaner Production 294 (2021) 126252

governments of each PV consumer and producer country were SEIA Solar Energy Industries Association
introduced and the functionality of each was discussed in different CESRI Chinese environmental science research institute
levels. In macro-level, a central organization at the global level with CENELEC European Committee for Electro-technical
the close cooperation of local governments is required to ensure the Standardization
sustainability program is well implemented and the expected MOTIE Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy
outcomes are achieved as well. To address the social and cultural MFA Material Flow Analysis
dimension of sustainability, six influential factors were discussed in EoL End of Life
meso-level to enhance the awareness of the target audiences EVA Ethylene-vinyl acetate
including public and enterprises on EoL PV wastes opportunities a-Si Amorphous silicon
and threats, and the essential marketing metrics leading to CPV Concentrator photovoltaics
consideration and purchase of recovered secondary materials. DPBT Discount Payback Time
Current findings showed that PV recycled materials have the po- DCF Discounted Cash Flow
tential to be employed in the same industry or other industries such RL Reverse Logistics
as buttery industry, construction industry, ceramic tiles industry. To MFA Material Flow Analysis
avoid the transboundary movement of the PV waste and ensuring SFA Substance-Flow Analysis
of safe delivery of the recovered materials into either same or new
industries, a universal monitoring system was introduced in micro-
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