Computer Network

AKC Notes
Module 8

1. Multiplexing
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of
the devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. In a multiplexed system, n
lines share the bandwidth of one link. Figure shows the basic format of a multiplexed system. The
lines on the left direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which combines them
into a single stream (many-to-one). At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer
(DEMUX), which separates the stream back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and
directs them to their corresponding lines.

There are three basic multiplexing techniques: frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-

division multiplexing, and time-division multiplexing.

2. Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when the
bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted. In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier
frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be
transported by the link. Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate
the modulated signal. Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands-to
prevent signals from overlapping.

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 FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.

Multiplexing Process
Each source generates a signal of a similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer, these similar
signals modulates different carrier frequencies (/1,12, and h). The resulting modulated signals are
then combined into a single composite signal that is sent out over a media link that has enough
bandwidth to accommodate it.

Demultiplexing Process
The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent
component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them
from their carriers and passes them to the output lines.

3. Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-
optic cable. The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable.
Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line wastes the available bandwidth. Multiplexing allows us
to combine several lines into one.
WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing involve
optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
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4. Time-division multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several connections to share the
high bandwidth of a link Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared.
Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.

We are concerned with only multiplexing, not switching. This means that all the data in a message
from source 1 always go to one specific destination, be it 1, 2, 3, or 4. The delivery is fixed and
unvarying, unlike switching. TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate
channels into one high-rate one. We can divide TDM into two different schemes: synchronous and
statistical.

5. Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing

In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection is divided into units, where each input
occupies one input time slot. A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of data. Each input
unit becomes one output unit and occupies one output time slot. The duration of an output time
slot is n times shorter than the duration of an input time slot. If an input time slot is T s, the output

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time slot is T/n s, where n is the number of connections. Figure shows an example of synchronous
TDM where n is 3.

In synchronous TDM, a round of data units from each input connection is collected into a frame. If
we have n connections, a frame is divided into n time slots and one slot is allocated for each unit,
one for each input line. If the duration of the input unit is T, the duration of each slot is T/n and the
duration of each frame is T. Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of one complete
cycle of time slots, with one slot dedicated to each sending device. In a system with n input lines,
each frame has n slots, with each slot allocated to carrying data from a specific input line.

Interleaving
TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one on the multiplexing side and the other on
the demultiplexing side. The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed, but in
opposite directions. On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that
connection has the opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This process is called Interleaving. On
the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to receive a unit from the path. In this figure, we assume that no switching is involved
and that the data from the first connection at the multiplexer site go to the first connection at the
demultiplexer.

Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could be. If a source does not have data to send, the
corresponding slot in the output frame is empty.

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Data Rate Management
TDM handles disparity in the input data rates using three strategies, or a combination of them, can
be used. We call these three strategies multilevel multiplexing, multiple-slot allocation, and pulse
stuffing.

Multilevel Multiplexing: Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used when the data rate of an input
line is a multiple of others. In Figure, we have two inputs of 20 kbps and three inputs of 40 kbps.
The first two input lines can be multiplexed together to provide a data rate equal to the last three.
A second level of multiplexing can create an output of 160 kbps.

Multiple-Slot Allocation: Sometimes it is more efficient to allot more than one slot in a frame to a
single input line. For example, we might have an input line that has a data rate that is a multiple of
another input. In Figure, the input line with a 50-kbps data rate can be given two slots in the output.
We insert a serial-to-parallel converter in the line to make two inputs out of one.

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 Pulse Stuffing/Bit Stuffing: Sometimes the bit rates of sources are not multiple integers of each
other. Therefore, neither of the above two techniques can be applied. One solution is to make the
highest input data rate the dominant data rate and then add dummy bits to the input lines with
lower rates. This will increase their rates. This technique is called pulse stuffing, bit padding, or bit
stuffing.

Frame Synchronizing
Synchronization between the multiplexer and demultiplexer is a major issue. If the. multiplexer
and the demultiplexer are not synchronized, a bit belonging to one channel may be received by the
wrong channel. For this reason, one or more synchronization bits are usually added to the
beginning of each frame. These bits, called framing bits, follow a pattern, frame to frame, that
allows the demultiplexer to synchronize with the incoming stream so that it can separate the time
slots accurately.

6. Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing or Asynchronous TDM

In synchronous TDM, each input has a reserved slot in the output frame. This can be inefficient if
some input lines have no data to send. In statistical time-division multiplexing, slots are dynamically
allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency. In statistical multiplexing, the number of slots in each
frame is less than the number of input lines. The multiplexer checks each input line in round-robin
fashion; it allocates a slot for an input line if the line has data to send; otherwise, it skips the line
and checks the next line.

Addressing
An output slot in synchronous TDM is totally occupied by data; in statistical TDM, a slot needs to
carry data as well as the address of the destination. In statistical multiplexing, there is no fixed
relationship between the inputs and outputs because there are no preassigned or reserved slots.
We need to include the address of the receiver inside each slot to show where it is to be delivered.
The addressing in its simplest form can be n bits to define N different output lines with n = log2 N.

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 Since a slot carries both data and an address in statistical TDM, the ratio of the data size to address
size must be reasonable to make transmission efficient. The frames in statistical TDM need not be
synchronized, so we do not need synchronization bits. In statistical TDM, the capacity of the link is
normally less than the sum of the capacities of each channel.

7. Differences between Synchronous & Statistical TDM

Synchronous TDM Asynchronous TDM

In this, multiplexer allocates same time slots to In this, multiplexer does not allocates same time slots
each device without considering fact that device to each device without considering fact that device
contains data or not. contains data or not.

Number of slots per frame are equal to number Number of slots per frame are less than number of
of input lines i.e., If it contains n input lines, then input lines i.e., If there are n input lines, then there are
it must have n slots in one frame. m slots in one frame (m<n).
There is no guarantee that full capacity link is
There is guarantee that full capacity link is used.
used.
Total speed of input lines cannot be greater than Total speed of input lines can be greater than capacity
capacity of path. of path.
Usage of devices is less. Usage of devices is more.
Number of time slots in a frame as always based on
Number of time slots in a frame as always based
statistical analysis of number of input lines that are
on number of input lines.
likely to be transmitting at any given time.
Time slots are fixed and pre-defined. Time-slots are not pre-defined.

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