AR22-15 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE I

Introduction to Indian Temple Architecture

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE- EVOLUTION

1. Prehistoric Period ( Roughly between 200000 B.C to about 3500-2500 B.C): mainly
archaeological- comes under stone age of the history when primeval people used stones or
stone made implements for different tasks.
 Paleolithic Age ( lasted till 8000 B.C)
 Mesolithic Age (8000-4000 B.C)
 Neolithic Age (4000-2500 B.C)

2. Harappan Period/Indus Valley Civilization ( 3300 -1700 B.C) :very modern urban civilisation
with expert town planning and engineering skills
3. Vedic period (1500-500 B.C) :contribution to the architectural history is the use of wood along
with brick and stone for building their houses.
 Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 B.C): Four sacred Vedas, vedic village
 Later Vedic Period (1000-500 B.C) : City planning, Varna system
th
4. 6 century B C- religion influencing architecture- Jainism & Buddhism- development of early
architectural style- Stupas, sthambhas, chaithyas, viharas
5. Cave architecture- Ajanta &Ellora Caves
6. Gupta Period (280-550 A.D): Known as the Golden age. First temple building activity
7. Rock cut temples- Temples were hewn out of huge rocks
8. Free standing/Structural temples- Since gupta period continued later

Indian Architecture evolved in various ages in different parts and regions of the country and was
generally affected by many great and important historic developments. Naturally, the emergence and
decay of great empires and dynasties in the sub-continent, each in their way influenced the growth and
shaped the evolution of Indian architecture. External influences have also shaped the nature of Indian
architecture and so has the influence of different regions of the country.

INDIAN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

BEGINNINGS & PURPOSE

In the Vedic period (1500 to 500 BC) there were actually no temples as such. They pleased the Gods by
performing yagas using sacrificial altars. These YAGASALAS later got transformed to temples.
 The architectural elements and decorative details in the temple had their origin in the early
wood, timber and thatch buildings
 The architect and sculptor were given a plenty of freedom in the ornamentation and decoration
of the temples andresulted in an overwhelming riches of architectural elements, sculptural
forms and decorative abundance - the characteristic feature of Indian temple architecture

PRINCIPAL ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES

The sanctuary as whole is known as the VIMANA that consists of

two parts
• The upper part of VIMANA is called as SHIKHARA

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Introduction to Indian Temple Architecture
• The lower portion inside the VIMANA is called as the Garbha-Griha( cella or inner chamber)
• MANADAPA, is the pillared hall in front of the garbha-griha, for the assembly of the devotees.

BASIC ELEMENTS OF TEMPLES

1. Garbhagriha’ meaning the womb chamber.  It is nucleus and the innermost chamber of the
temple where the image or idol of the deity is placed. The chamber is mostly square in plan
and is entered by a doorway on its eastern side.
2. ‘Sikhara’ meaning the tower or the spire  It is the pyramidal or tapering portion of the temple
which represents the mythological ‘Meru’ or the highest mountain peak.  The shape and the
size of the tower vary from region to region.
3. ‘Mandapa’ is the pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of the devotees It
is used by the devotees to sit, pray, chant, meditate and watch the priests performing the
rituals.
When a temple has more than one mandapa each one is allocated for a different function and
given a name to reflect its use:
 Ardha mandapa- entrance portico which leads to the main temple
 Sabha mandap- for meeting
 Nritya mandao- for dancing
 Kalyana mandap- for marriage functions
 Ashtana mandap- assembly hall
 maha mandap- big hall for conducting religious activities
4. Pradikshana Patha: Ambulatory passageway for circumambulation
5. Gopuram- Monumental entrance to the temple premises. Toranas- gateways typical to North
Indian temples.

TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE- EARLY PERIOD: GUPTA & EARLY CHALUKYAN TEMPLES

GUPTA PERIOD
• a firm foundation of temple architecture was laid
• basic elements of the Indian temple emerged- a square
sanctum and pillared porch
• evolved Gupta temple had a covered processional path for
circumambulation that formed a part of the worship-ritual.
• Earlier temples had a flat slab-roof, often monolithic linked by
a simple stepped stylobate and architrave, but the later
temples in brick and stone developed a shikhara.
• The basic configuration of the Hindu temple can be seen at
the Temple 17 at Sanchi and the Kankali Devi at Tigawa, both
from the early 5th century CE.

GUPTA TEMPLE, TIGAWA- 5th Century

Only temple standing at the monument site at Tigawawhich
contains ruins of about 36 temples.
 Square sanctum
 Attached portico supported by four pillars

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Introduction to Indian Temple Architecture
 Coluns-square base and boldly ornamented with robust sculptures of GodsHighly
decorated column capitals- stero typed inverted bell capital style from Asokan times
came to end
 Covered with a flat roof

EARLY CHALUKYAN TEMPLES ( 6th – 12th century)

The rule of CHalukyas marks an important mile stone in the history of South India. Also called as the
golden age in the history of Karnataka. Beginning at Aihole, Badami and Bijapur. Badami &
Aihole considered as the cradle of temple architecture that influenced the components of later Hindu
temples elsewhere in India.

Temple Evolution: Chalukyan architecture evolved in three phases

1. Cave/Rock cut Temples: began in the last quarter of 6th century
2. Temple building at Aihole (capital of the Chalukyas over 200 years): LadKhan and Durga
Temples- the best specimen of early chalukyan architecture.
 Combined contemporary north and south Indian Style of Construction to create their own-
Vesara/Mixed Style
 high platform
 Plinth mouldings
 a projected roof over the ardh mandapa
 Shikhara in the primitive form – octagonal and cuboidal to
3. Adopted trabeated style
Interpreted the hindu concept of temple as house of god
Missed architectonic form that would symbolize a new faith & convert house into a virtual
monument
4. Western Chalukya- conceptual link between Badami Chalukya architecture of the 8th century
and the Hoysala architecture in the 13th century

Eg. (refer the lecture notes)

1. BADAMI CAVE TEMPLES (Phase I)
2. Temple Building At Aihole – Ladkhan & Durga temples

EARLY ROCK- CUT ARCHTICTURE OF PALLAVA PERIOD (610 AD- 690 AD)
Temple architecture under the Pallavas resolves into two phases:
1. The first phase (610 -690), the Mahendra and Mamalla Group, is wholly rock-cut
took two forms:
 mandapas (610 - 640) : an excavation, an open pavilion excavated in the rock. It
takes the shape of a simple pillared hall with one or more cellas in the back wall
 rathas and mandapas (640 - 690). : Ratha - series of monolithic shrines in
granite resembling certain wooden prototypes which contains all the essential
features of a temple including domed storey to shikhara..
2. The second (690 - 900), the Rajasimha and Nandivarman Group is entirely structural.

Rock-cut temples/RATHAS of Mahabalipuram

 pioneer of the Dravidian monolith era and mark the point of transition between the earlier
tradition of rock-carved temples and the later tradition of freestanding stone structures.

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 represent the diversity of Dravidian architecture of the time and Pallava’s variety in art form
 scale models or templates for much bigger temples built subsequently in Tamil Nadu.

Refer lecture note for detailed explanations

TYPOLOGY /CATEGORIZATION OF INDIAN TEMPLES

The distinct architectural styles of temple construction of the north India and the south India was the
result of the broad geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic differences. Temple
styles fall into two categories: North Indian style called NAGARA and southern style called DRAVIDIAN.
There is a derivative of the above two styles which is called VESARA
1. North Indian /Nagara Style( A D 600 till present day): associated with the land between the
Himalayas and Vindhyas
• the Khajuraho Group of temples
• Gujarat temples
• Orissan temples
2. South Indian Style/Dravida Style (A D 625-1750 till present day): Geographically, the temples
within the land between the Krishna and Kaveri rivers. associated with the temples of southern
India
• Pallava: Rock cut and structural temples
• Chola
• Pandya:
• Vijayanagara
• Nayak
3. Central Indian /Vesara/ Mixed Style ( A D 450-750 and 1000-1325 till present day)
 Early Chalukyan Temples
 Hoysala

NORTHERN INDIAN /NAGARA / INDO-ARYAN STYLE( A D 600 till present day)

 Kalinga Style (800-1250 AD)- Eastern Indian Temples of Orissa

 Khajuraho Group of Temples
 Gujarat Temples
Two distinct features of the Nagara style are plan and elevation
o The plan is square with a number of gradual projections in the middle of each side which
imparts it a cruciform shape.
o These projections can occur throughout the height of the structure.
o In elevation it exhibits a tower (shikhara) gradually inclining towards in convex curve.
o The projection in the plan are also carried upwards to the top of the shikhara and is
called the rekha shikhara.

EVOLUTION
North Indian or Nagara Style: associated with the land between the
Himalayas and Vindhyas
1. origin in the structural temples of the Gupta period with basic
elements consisting of a square sanctum and attached pillared porch.

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Introduction to Indian Temple Architecture
- The Kankali Devi temple/Gupta Temple at Tigawa
The temple has a square sanctum and an open portico supported on four pillars, its roof made from
horizontal slabs of stone.
2. Evolved Gupta Temples also had a covered processional
path for circumambulation
 In the formative period there were only two structures
of the temples- original sanctum (tall) and hypostyle
hall or mandapa (short). Originally in Nagara style
there were no pillar.
e.g. Parashurameswara Temple, Bhubaneswar

3. By the eighth century emerges in its characteristic form-

Basic structure evolved:
e.g. Chandella period- Khajuraho group of Temples
o Adhisthana- a plinth or a tall platform with one
or more flights of steps leading to it
o Ardha-Mandapa- a hypostyle entrance porch
o Mandapa- hypostyle room with pyramidal
covering
o Antarala- hall or space that joins the mandapa
to the inner sanctum
o Garbha Griha- square inner sanctum with Shikhara a curvilinear tower with amalaka &
kalasa on top
o Pradakshina Patha

4. Addition of structures/ Expansion of Temple

Complexes- the number of mandapas increased
with increase in needs and got named accordingly
to reflect its purpose. Elements of semi religious
in character also got added like Surya Kund of Sun
Temple, Modhera
5. Nagara Temples exhibits distinct varieties in
elaboration. There are local variations and
ramifications in the formal development of the
style in the different regions as seen in Kalinga

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Style, Khajuraho Groups and Gujarat Temples. However, the curvilinear tower, pyramidal roofed
mandapas are common.

1. Eastern Indian temples of Orissa ( Kalinga-800-1250 A D)

- The Orissan temple architecture ranging from 7th to 13th century A.D corresponds to an
altogether different category for their unique representations called Kalingan style of temple
architecture though broadly they come under the Northern style or Nagara style
- the most compact and homogeneous architectural group with generic name DEUL
- perceived the temple as body of cosmic man or
Purusha- The lower and the upright portion of
the deul is called the bada, the tall middle
portion is called chhapra, the flat fluted disc at
the summit is called amla and its finial is called
kalasa. Like human physical divisions of leg,
thigh, waist, chest, neck and head .
- Pillars are notable for absence
- Interior plane & featureless but exterior
profusely ornamented
- trabeated style of construction

The Orissan temples are of three types-

- Rekha Deul: emphasis on vertical lines - houses garbha griha
with a curvilinear super structure
- Pidha Deul : consists of pidas- several tiers sitting one upon
the other rising to a pinnacle- houses mandapas
- Khakhara Deul:
- a different style of architecture closely appearing similar to
the Dravidian Gopuran design.- as the crown looks like a
barrel- vaulted elongated roof

EVOLUTION
In the formative period of Orissan temple architecture there were only two structures of the temples.
1. original sanctum or Vimana or Bada Deul- of Rekha order
2. Jagamohan or Mukhasala. -standing before the main structure- which corresponds to the
mandapa- assembly hall
Later other structures like the Nat-Mandir or Dancing Hall/festive hall and Bhog Mandir or Hall of
Offerings were added in front in one axial line to the temple structure.

The Orissan temples are divided into three groups:

- Early Period (750-900 A.D.)
e.g. Parashurameshwar and Lakshmanesvara temples at Bhubaneshwar.
- Middle Period (c.900-1100 A.D.)
e.g. Mukteshwara and Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneshwar and Jagannath temple at Puri.
- Later Period (c.1100-1250 A.D.)
e.g.the Sun Temple at Konark.

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South Indian Style/Dravida Style (A D 625-1750 till present day)- Contributions of various
dynasties.

EVOLUTION

• Pallava:
o Pioneers & laid the foundation of Dravidian Architecture
o instrumental in the transition from rock-cut architecture to stone temples
o eg. Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram
• Chola:
o Developed the existing style of architecture which came to be known as Dravidian style of
Architecture.
o Development of Vimana, walled enclosures and Gopuram
o Monumentality of temples
o Eg. Brihadheswara Temple, Thanjavur
• Pandya:
o Evolution of Gopuram- number,height,embellishment
o High walled enclosure for security (muslim invasion)- Temple becoming fort
o Eg. Madurai Meenakshi Temple Complex
• Vijayanagara
o Concept of enlarged and highly decorated enclosure walls
o Addition of mandapas, secondary halls, gopurams
o Addition of secular buildings
o Eg. Vittalaswami Temple, Hampi
• Nayaks
o Complexity in Temple Planning due to complexity in rituals
o Temple becoming city
o Huge corridors with covered ambulatory passageways
o Enclosed courtyards known as prakarams
o Large water tank/reservoir slightly off the axis to the main temple
o Eg. Rameswaram Temple

 Dravida style is associated with the land between the Krishna and Kaveri rivers.
 There are more than 4 sides in the sanctum , the square inner sanctum is set within a large
covered enclosure and external walls were divided into niches by pilasters.
 Pillars and pilasters are vastly used in this architectural style
 Have dedicated pavilions: Nandi Mandapa in Shiva temples and Garuda Mandapa in Vishnu
temples
 Dravidian temples have boundary walls.
 In later period, storeys in Vimana become more and more compressed, pillared halls and
corridors and the immense Gopurams were added.

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Central Indian /Vesara/ Mixed Style ( A D 450-750 and 1000-1325 till present day)
 Vesara style is associated with the land between the Vindhyas and the Krishna River.
 independent style, created through the selective mixing of the Nagara and Dravida orders.
 This style of temple architecture has become popular after mid seventh century at the time of
Chalukyas.
 In this style presence of pillars are prominent but Gopurams are absent.
 Eg. Chalukyas: Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal; Rashtrakutas: Kailashnath Temple, Ellora;
Hoysala: Hoysaleswara Temple, Halebid

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