L.

Joyprakash Singh, PhD

EC–204 Basic Electronics

(April 2024 - July 2024 Session)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
North-Eastern Hill University (NEHU)
(B.Tech. 2nd Semester)

Handout # 04

1 Rectifier Circuits
1.1 DC Power-Supply System
Most electronic devices/equipments require power from a Direct Current (dc or DC) source.
A power-supply unit converts available input ac signal into a dc signal that is much needed
for all electronic circuits, devices and applications[1, 2, 3, 4].

0 1.5 1.5 1.5

1
1 1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0.5
0 0
−1 0
−1

230 V
Transformer Rectifier Filter Regulator load/ckt
50 Hz

1.5
1.5 1.5
1
1 1

0.5 0.5
0.5

0 0 0

Figure 1

1.2 Alternating Current (AC)

An Alternating Current(AC) describes the flow of charge that changes direction period-
ically. As a result, the voltage level also reverses along with the current. A general AC
voltage may be written as
v(t) = Vm sin(ωt)
where ω = 2π/T is the angular frequency, and T is the period of the voltage under
consideration.

1.2.1 Average voltage over a time period, T

The average voltage of v(t) over a time period, T , is defined as[11]
1 T
Z
Vavg = v(t)dt
T 0
Therefore, we can now compute
1 T Vm T
Z Z
Vavg = Vm sin(ωt)dt = sin(ωt)dt
T 0 T 0
 T
Vm cos(ωt)
= −
T ω 0
Vm 1
= {− cos(ωT ) + cos(0)} but ωT = 2πF T = 2π T = 2π
ωT T
Vm
= {− cos(2π) + 1}
2π
Vm
= (−1 + 1) ∵ cos(2π) = 1
2π
=0

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L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD EC–204 Basic Electronics June 10, 2024

Hence, the average value of an ac voltage over the time period of the oscillation is zero.

1.2.2 Average voltage over half of the time period, T/2

Using the definition of the average voltage over a half of the time period, we have[11]
Z T /2
1
Vavg = Vm sin(ωt)dt
T /2 0
Z T /2
2Vm
= sin(ωt)dt
T 0
 T /2
2Vm cos(ωt)
= −
T ω 0
2Vm
= {− cos(ωT /2) + cos(0)}
ωT
2Vm
= {− cos(π) + 1}
2π
Vm
= {−(−1) + 1}
π
2
= Vm
π
≈ 0.6366Vm

1.2.3 The RMS value of the AC voltage

The term “RMS” stands for Root Mean Square, and is a way of expressing an AC quantity
of voltage or current in terms functionally equivalent to DC.
The rms is not an “Average” voltage, and its mathematical relationship to peak voltage
varies depending on the type of waveform. The rms value is the square root of the
mean (average) value of the squared function of the instantaneous values. It is
defined for a voltage, v(t), as[11]
s
1 T 2
Z
Vrms = v (t)dt
T 0
 Z T 1/2
1 2
= v (t)dt
T 0

Therefore,

1 T 2 Vm2 T Vm2 T
Z Z Z
2 2
Vrms = v (t)dt = sin (ωt)dt = 2 sin2 (ωt)dt
T 0 T 0 2T 0
Vm2 T
Z
= {1 − cos(2ωt)} dt ∵ cos(2θ) = cos2 (θ) − sin2 (θ) = 1 − 2 sin2 (θ)
2T 0
T
Vm2 Vm2 sin(2ω(t)

T
= [dt]0 −
2T 2T 2ω 0
2 2
Vm V
= T − m {sin(2ωT ) − sin(0)}
2T 4ωT
Vm2 Vm2
= − {sin(4π) − sin(0)}
2 8π
Vm2 Vm2
= − (0 − 0)
2 8π
Vm2
=
2
Hence, the rms voltage of the ac voltage is given by
r
Vm2 Vm
Vrms = = √ = 0.7071 Vm = 70.71%Vm
2 2

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June 10, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD

For example[12], 10 volts AC RMS is the amount of voltage that would produce the same
amount of heat dissipation across a resistor of given value as a 10 volt DC power supply.
Also known as the “equivalent” or “DC equivalent” value of an AC voltage or current. For
a sine wave, the RMS value is approximately 0.707 of its peak value.

1.2.4 Important relation to remember

A few handy things to keep in mind about RMS or rms values that apply when dealing
with a sine wave, are as follows:
√
Vpeak = Vm = 2Vrms = 1.4142Vrms
1
Vrms = √ Vm = 0.7071Vm = 0.7071Vpeak
2
Vaverage over T = Vavg over T = 0
2
Vaverage over T/2 = Vavg over T/2 = Vm = 0.6366Vm = 63.66%Vm = 63.66%Vpeak
π
Vrms π Vm π
= √ = √ = 1.1107
Vavg over T/2 2 2 Vm 2 2

1.3 Half-Wave Rectifier

The 230 V in Fig. 2(a) is the rms voltage at the primary of the transformer.
D1 N1 : N2 D1
N1 : N2
10:1 vo (t)
vi (t)
+ 230V,
vp (t) vi (t) RL 50 Ω vo (t) RL 50 Ω
− 50Hz

(a) (b)

Figure 2: Half-wave rectifier circuits

As shown in Fig. 2(a), we write signals on the primary and the secondary sides of the
transformer as

vp (t) = VP(m) sin(ωt) and vi (t) = VS(m) sin(ωt)

where VP(m) = the peak value of the input ac voltage to the transformer, and
VS(m) = the peak value of the input ac voltage to the diode, D1

Circuit Operation: Over one full cycle, defined by the period T (or 2π), the average
value (the algebraic sum of the areas above and below the axis) of vi (t) is zero. The circuit
of Fig. 2, called a half-wave rectifier, will generate a waveform, vo (t), that will have an
average value of particular use in the ac-to-dc conversion process.

However, we know that the output voltage appeared at the load of Fig. 2 is

Vm sin(ωt), 0 ≤ t ≤ T /2
vo (t) =
0, T /2 ≤ t ≤ T
It may be noted that the frequency of the signal in half-wave rectifier doesn’t change, that
is, F = Fprimary = Fsecondary = 50 Hz.
D1 D1

+ +

RL vo (t) RL vo (t)

− −

(a) Circuit at +ve half cycle (b) Circuit at −ve half cycle

Figure 3: Half-wave rectifier circuit operations

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L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD EC–204 Basic Electronics June 10, 2024

During the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ T /2 or the positive half cycle in Fig. 4(d), the polarity of the
applied voltage vi (t) is such as to establish “pressure” in the direction indicated and turn
ON the diode, that is, the diode is in the forward bias mode. Substituting the short-circuit
equivalence for the ideal diode will result in the output waveform as shown in Fig. 4(f),
where it is fairly obvious that the output signal is an exact replica of the applied signal.
The two terminals defining the output voltage are connected directly to the applied signal
via the short-circuit equivalence of the diode[4].
For the period T /2 ≤ t ≤ T , the polarity of the input, vi (t), is negative, and the resulting
polarity across the ideal diode produces an “OFF” state equivalent to an open-circuit. The
result is the absence of a path for charge to flow, and vo (t) = iRL = (0)RL = 0 V for the
period T /2 ≤ t ≤ T . The input vi (t) and the output vo (t) are sketched together in Fig. 4
for comparison purposes. The output signal vo (t) now has a net positive area above the
axis over a full period as shown in Fig. 4(f).
vp (t) vp (t)

VP (m) VP (m)

0 ωt 0 t
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π T T 3T 2T 5T 3T
2 2 2

−VP (m) −VP (m)

vi (t)
(a) vi (t)
(b)
VS(m) VS(m)

0 ωt 0 t
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π T T 3T 2T 5T 3T
2 2 2

−VS(m) −VS(m)

vo (t)
(c) vo (t)
(d)
Vm Vm

0 ωt 0 t
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π T T 3T 2T 5T 3T
2 2 2

−Vm −Vm

(e) (f)

Figure 4: Either blue or red colored figure set to be used for explanation.

Let’s now compute various parameters of a half-wave rectifier:

(a) Peak voltage, VS(pk) = VS(m) , at the secondary of the transformer: The peak
voltage at the output of the transformer is defined as
s " 2 Z #1/2
1 T 2 VS(m) T
Z
VS(rms) = v (t)dt = 2 sin2 (ωt)dt
T 0 i 2T 0
" 2 Z #1/2
VS(m) T
= {1 − cos(2ωt)} dt ∵ 2 sin2 (θ) = 1 − cos(2θ)
2T 0
" 2 2
#1/2
VS(m) VS(m)
= − {sin(4π) − sin(0)}
2 8π
" 2 2
#1/2
VS(m) VS(m)
= − ×0−0
2 8π
1
= √ VS(m)
2

√
∴ VSecondary(peak) = VS(pk) = VS(m) = 2VS(rms)

at the output of the transformer.

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June 10, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD

vo (t)

√
Vm = VS(m) − VB = 2VS(rms) − VB

Vrms = 0.5Vm
Vdc = 0.3183Vm

0 t
T T 3T 2T 5T 3T
2 2 2

Figure 5: Various parameters of a half-wave rectifier circuit

(b) It may be noted that for a half-wave rectifier

Vm = VS(m) − VB

where VB is the barrier voltage of the diode used.

(c) Peak Inverse Voltage, P IV = Vm , at the output of a half-wave rectifier:
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) [or PRV (peak reverse voltage)] rating of the diode
is of primary importance in the design of rectification systems. Recall that it is
the voltage rating that must not be exceeded in the reverse-bias region or the diode
will enter the Zener avalanche region. The diode must be capable of withstanding
at least this amount of repetitive reverse voltage. The PIV occurs at the peak of
each half-cycle of the input voltage when the diode is reverse-biased. The PIV is the
maximum voltage that occurs across the rectifying diode in the reverse direction. In
this circuit, the PIV occurs at the peak of each negative half-cycle.
The Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) at the output of the half-wave rectifier is given by

P IV = VS(m) = Vm + VB

(d) RMS voltage, Vrms , of the output of a half-wave rectifier: The rms voltage
at the load is defined as
s " #1/2
1 T 2 Vm2 T /2 2 Vm2 T
Z Z Z
Vrms = v (t)dt = sin (ωt)dt + 0dt
T 0 o T 0 T T /2
" #1/2 " #1/2
Vm2 T /2 2 Z T /2
Z
V m
= 2 sin2 (ωt)dt + 0 = {1 − cos(2ωt)} dt
2T 0 2T 0
" #1/2
Vm2 T /2 Vm2 T /2
Z Z
= dt − cos(2ωt)dt
2T 0 2T 0
 2 1/2
Vm T Vm2 sin(2ωT /2) Vm2 sin(0)
= − +
2T 2 2T 2ω 2T 2ω
 2 1/2
V2

V 1
= m − m sin(2π) ∵ ω = 2πF = 2π
4 8π T
1
= Vm
2

∴ Vm = Vpeak = Vpk = 2Vrms

at the output of the half-wave rectifier.

(e) Peak factor of a half-wave rectifier: It is defined as the ratio of the peak value
of the output voltage to the rms value of the output voltage. The peak factor of the
half-wave rectifier is as

Vm 2Vrms
Peak factor = = =2
Vrms Vrms

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L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD EC–204 Basic Electronics June 10, 2024

(f) Average output voltage, Vavg = Vdc , at the output of a half-wave rectifier:
The average voltage, Vavg = Vdc , of vo (t) over a time period, T , is defined as[11]
1 T
Z
Vavg = Vdc = vo (t)dt
T 0
Therefore, we can now compute
1 T
Z
Vavg = Vdc = Vm sin(ωt)dt
T 0
Vm T /2 Vm T
Z Z
= sin(ωt)d(t) + 0dt
T 0 T T /2
 T /2
Vm cos(ωt) Vm
= − + ×0
T ω 0 T
Vm 1
= [− cos(ωT /2) + cos(0)] but ω = 2πF = 2π
ωT T
Vm
= [− cos(π) + 1]
2π
Vm
= [−(−1) + 1] ∵ cos(2π) = 1
2π
Vm
=
π

(g) Ripple factor, γ, of a half-wave rectifier: Ripple is the unwanted ac component

remaining when an ac voltage into a dc voltage. Even though we try out best to
remove all ac components, there is still some small amount left on the output side
of the rectifier which pulsates the dc waveform. This undesirable ac component is
called ripple. The ripple factor is the ratio between the rms value of the ac voltage
and the dc voltage of the rectifier, that is,
rms value of the ac component of the wave Vr(rms)
γ= =
average of dc value of the wave Vdc
Note that the rms value of the ac component of the signal is Vr(rms) and Vrms is the
rms value of the whole voltage signal. We know
vo (t) = Vac component + Vdc
⇒ Vac component = vo (t) − Vdc
Therefore,
1 T 2
Z
2
Vr(rms) = V dt
T 0 ac component
1 T
Z
= (vo (t) − Vdc )2 dt
T 0
1 T 2
Z
vo (t) − 2vo (t)Vdc + Vdc2 dt


=
T 0
1 T 2 2Vdc T Vdc2 T
Z Z Z
= v (t)dt − vo (t)dt + dt
T 0 o T 0 T 0
2
= Vrms − 2Vdc2 + Vdc2
2
= Vrms − Vdc2
Therefore,
q 2
Vrms s
−
s
p
2
Vrms − Vdc
2 Vdc 2
Vdc
1 2
Vrms Vm2 /22
γ= = = − 1 = −1
Vdc Vdc Vdc2 Vm2 /π 2
r
π2
= − 1 = 1.2114
4
Thus, we see that the ripple voltage (current) exceeds the dc voltage (current). Hence,
the half-wave rectifier is poor converter of ac into dc.

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June 10, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD

(h) Rectification efficiency, η, of a half-wave rectifier: The rectification efficiency

of a half-wave rectifier is given by
dc power delivered to the load Pdc
η= =
ac input power from the transformer Pac
For a half-wave rectifier, the dc power delivered to the load is given by

Vdc2 V 2 /π 2
2
Pdc = Idc RL = = m
RL RL
and the ac power to load is
2
2 Vrms Vm2 /4
Pac = Irms (RL + rd ) = =
RL + rd RL + rd
where rd is the diode resistance in forward bias. Therefore
Vm2 /π 2  
RL 4 RL + rd rd
η= Vm2 /4 = 2 = 0.4053 1 +
π RL RL
RL +rd

In reality rd is much smaller then RL . If we neglect rd compare to RL , then the

efficiency of the rectifier is maximum. Therefore,

η = 0.4053 = 40.53%

This indicates that the half-wave rectifier can convert a maximum 40.53% of ac power
into dc power, and the remaining power of 59.47% is lost in the rectifier circuit. In
fact, 50% power in the negative half cycle is not converted.
(i) Form factor of a half-wave rectifier: The form factor (f.f.) is defined as the ratio
between rms load voltage and average load voltage. The form factor of any half-wave
rectifier is as
Vrms Vm /2 π
Form Factor = = = ≈ 1.5708
Vdc Vm /π 2

(j) Voltage regulation of a half-wave rectifier: The variation of dc output voltage

as function of the dc load current is called the regulation. The percentage regulation
is given by
VNL − VFL
% regulation = × 100
VFL
For an ideal power supply, the output voltage should be independent of load current
and the percentage regulation should be equal to zero.

Example-1: In Fig. 2(a), we know that Vprimary,rms = 230 V. Since the r.m.s. voltage of
the domestic electricity supply is 230 V. Electrical appliances should be designed to
withstand an instantaneous voltage of
√ √
VPrimary(m) = VP(pk) = 2VPrimary(rms) = 2 × 230 = 325.2691 V

and
N2 1
VSecondary(rms) = VPrimary(rms) = × 230 = 23 V
N1 10
F = Fprimary = Fsecondary = 50 Hz

The secondary peak voltage, VS(pk) or VS(m) , at the secondary of the transformer of
Fig. 2(a) is computed as
√ √
VS(m) = VS(peak) = VS(pk) = 2VSecondary(rms) = 2VS(rms) = 32.5269 V

ECE, NEHU, Shillong Handout # 04 7 / 23

L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD EC–204 Basic Electronics June 10, 2024

and the peak-peak voltage, VS(peak-peak) = VS(p-p) , is given by

VS(p-p) = 2VS(m) = 2 × 32.5269 = 65.0538 V

Thus, the output of the transformer may now be written as

v(t) = VS(m) sin(2πFt) = 32.5269 sin(2πFt) V

Now, the load voltage across RL is given by

vo (t) = vL (t) = Vm sin(2πFt) V

First approximation (ideal diode approximation):

Vm = VS(m) = 32.5269 V ∵ VB = 0
P IV = Vm = 32.5269 V
Vpeak-peak = Vp-p = 2Vm = 2 × 32.5269 = 65.0538 V
1
Vrms = Vm = 16.2635 V
2
Vm
Peak Factor = =2
Vrms
Vm 32.5269
Vavg = Vdc = = = 10.3536 V
π 3.1416
Vdc 10.3536
IL = = = 207.1 mA
RL 50
Idiode = IL(dc) = IL = 207.1 mA

Second approximation:

Vm = VS(m) − VB = 32.5269 − 0.7 = 31.8269 V VB |Si = 0.7 V

P IV = Vm = 31.8269 V
Vpeak-peak = Vp-p = 2Vm = 2 × 31.8269 = 63.6538 V
1
Vrms = Vm = 15.9135 V
2
Vm
Peak Factor = =2
Vrms
Vm 31.8269
Vavg = Vdc = = = 10.1308 V
π 3.1416

Vdc 10.1308
IL = = = 202.6 mA
RL 50
Idiode = IL(dc) = IL = 202.6 mA

Example-2: For the half-wave rectifier circuit shown in Fig. 6, find

(a) VL = Vdc with its frequency.
(b) VL if the diode is replaced by a silicon diode.
(c) VL if Vm is decreased to 10 V.

D1
N1 : N2

20V, RL 2 kΩ
50Hz

Figure 6

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June 10, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD

(a) In the given circuit of Fig. 6, the diode will conduct during the negative part of
the input. For the full period, the dc level is

VS(rms) = 20 V
√ √
VS(m) = VS(peak) = 2VS(rms) = 2 × 20 = 28.2843 V

For an ideal diode, we know

Vm = VS(m) = 28.2843 V
Vm 28.2843
VL = Vdc = − =− = −4.5016 V
π π
and its frequency, F =
(b) For a silicon diode, the output has
Vm − VB 40 − 0.7 39.3
VL = Vdc = − =− =− = −12.5096 V
π π π
(c) If Vm decreases to 10 V, then
10
VL = Vdc = − = −3.1831 V
π
10 − 0.7 9.3
VL |Si = Vdc |Si = − =− = −2.9603 V
π π
Example-3: For the half-wave rectifier circuit of Fig. 6,
Vm is given as shown on the right. Find
Vdc , PIV, and Vp-p .

From the given figure, we know Vm = 20 V. Therefore,

Vm
Vdc = − = −0.3183Vm = −0.3183 × 20 = −6.3662 V
π
Vdc |Si = −0.3183(Vm − VB ) = −0.3183 × (20 − 0.7) = −6.1434 V
Vdc |Ge = −0.3183(Vm − VB ) = −0.3183 × (20 − 0.3) = −6.2707 V
Vdc |GaAs = −0.3183(Vm − VB ) = −0.3183 × (20 − 1.2) = −5.9842 V

and

P IV = Vm = 20 V
Pp-p = Ppeak-peak = 2Vm = 40 V
Example-4: Consider the centre-tapped half-wave rectifier as shown in Fig. 2(b). Deter-
mine the value of dc load current assuming that the diode used in the circuit is an
ideal diode.
Given that
N2 1
VS(rms) = VS(rms) = × 230 = 23 V
N1 10
RL = 50 Ω

In any centre-tapped transformer, we know that VS(rms) = VS1(rms) + VS2(rms) where

VS1(rms) is the rms voltage of the upper secondary winding while VS2(rms) is that of
the lower secondary winding and also VS1(rms) = VS2(rms) . Therefore,
1 23
VS1(rms) = VS(rms) = = 11.5 V also VS2(rms) = VS1(rms) = 11.5 V
2 2
Calculating the maximum or peak value of the secondary voltage supplied to the
half-wave rectifier as
√
VS1(m) = 2VS1(rms) = 16.2635 V

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L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD EC–204 Basic Electronics June 10, 2024

which is also the peak or maximum voltage, Vm , appeared across RL because of the
ideal diode used. Therefore, the maximum load current is given by
Vm 16.2635
Im = = ∵ Vm = VS1(m) for any ideal diode
RL 50
∴ Im = 0.32527 = 325.27 mA

Hence, the dc or average value of the load current is

Im 0.32527
Idc = = = 0.1035367 = 103.5367 mA
π π
Vm
Note: The above assumption, that , has two things under consideration (a) the
RL
forward diode-resistance, rd , is negligible, and (b) the secondary winding resistance
is zero. The second assumption is often very near truth, however, rd is sometimes
not so small (the third ideal approximation wherein VB and rd are considered). If
it is comparable to RL , we must take it into consideration as thus the peak current
gets modified to
Vm
Im =
RL + rd
Thus the dc voltage across the load resistor becomes
Im Vm RL Vm
Vdc = Vavg = RL = =  
π π(RL + rd ) π 1 + RrdL

1.3.1 Advantages of a Half-Wave Rectifier

(i) The main advantage of half-wave rectifiers is in its simplicity (lower number compo-
nents).
(ii) Cheaper up front cost (as there is fewer components required. However, there is a
higher cost over time due to increased power losses).

1.3.2 Drawbacks of a Half-Wave Rectifier

(i) The ripple factor is 1.21, which is quite high. The output containt=s a lot of varying
components.
(ii) The maximum theoretical efficiency is found to be 40%. The practical value will be
less than this. This indicates that a half-wave rectifier circuit is quite inefficient.
(iii) The circuit has low transformer utilization factor, showing that the transformer is
not fully utilized.
(iv) The dc current flows through the secondary winding of the transformer which may
cause dc saturation of the core of the transformer. To minimize this saturation, the
transformer size have to be increased accordingly. This would increase the cost.

1.3.3 Applications of Half-Wave Rectifiers

Half-wave rectifier is not so good as compared to a full-wave or a Bridge rectifier, but some-
times, we require this rectifier depending on the requirements. Some of the applications of
half-wave rectifier are
(i) It is used for the detection of amplitude modulated radio signals.
(ii) For the welding purpose, it supplies polarized voltage.
(iii) It is used in many signal demodulation processes.

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June 10, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD

1.4 Full-Wave Rectifiers

Although half-wave rectifiers have some applications, the full-wave rectifier is the most
commonly used type in dc power supplies. There are two types of full-wave rectifiers:
(i) Center-tapped full-wave rectifier circuit, and
(ii) Bridge rectifier circuit.
A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one-way) current through the load during the
entire 360◦ of the input cycle, whereas a half-wave rectifier allows current through the load
only during one-half of the cycle. The result of full-wave rectification is an output voltage
with a frequency twice the input frequency and that pulsates every half-cycle of the input,
as shown in Fig. 7.
vi (t) vo (t)

Vm
VS(m)
Full-wave
0
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π
ωt vi (t) vo (t) 0
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π
ωt

−VS(m) rectifier
−Vm

(a)
N1 : N2 D1
10:1

vi (t) N1 : N2 N1 : N2
230V,
50Hz D4 D1
RL 50 Ω vo (t) D3 D1
vi (t)
vo (t) vo (t)
+ − + + − +
vp (t) vi (t) vp (t) vi (t)
− −
D2 RL RL
D2 D4
D2 D3
(b) Centre-tapped full-wave rec-
tifier (c) Bridge rectifier (d) Bridge rectifier

Figure 7: Full-wave rectifiers

1.4.1 Center-tapped full-wave rectifier

In a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier, it comprises of two half-wave circuits, connected in
such a manner that the conduction takes place through one diode during one half of the
input signal cycle and through the other diode during the second half of the cycle.
D1 D1

+ −

− +
+ + − +

− RL vo (t) + RL vo (t)

− −
D2 D2

vi (t)
(a) Circuit at +ve half cycle vo (t)
(b) Circuit at −ve half cycle

0 π ωt 0 π ωt
2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π

(c) Input signal waveform (d) Output signal waveform

Figure 8: Center-tapped full-wave rectifier circuit operations

Circuit operation: When the positive half-cycle is applied to the input, that is, trans-
former primary, as shown in Fig. 8(a), then the top terminal of the transformer secondary
is positive with reference to the centre tap, while the bottom terminal of the transformer
secondary is negative (with reference to the centre tap). As a result, the diode, D1 , is
forward-biased while the diode, D2 , is reverse biased. So the current will flow through D1 ,
but not through D2 during the positive half-cycle.
Fig. 8(b) shows the operation of two diode in the half-cycle of the input signal. During
this negative half-cycle, the condition is reversed. The diode, D2 , is now forward-biased
and the diode, D1 , is reverse biased. The current will flow through the diode, D2 , but not

ECE, NEHU, Shillong Handout # 04 11 / 23

L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD EC–204 Basic Electronics June 10, 2024

through D1 for the negative half-cycle. So the load current is shared alternatively by the
two diodes and is unidirectional in each half-cycle.

vi (t)

0 π ωt
2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π

(a) Input waveform to the centre-tapped full-wave rectifier.

vi(D1 ) (t) vo(D1 ) (t)

0 π ωt 0 π ωt
2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π

(b) +ve half-cycle making D1 forward and (c) Output waveform of the circuit during
D2 reverse biased. +ve half-cycle of the input.
vi(D2 ) (t) vo(D2 ) (t)

0 π ωt 0 π ωt
2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π

(d) −ve half-cycle of the input, but +ve half- (e) Output waveform of the circuit during
cycle w.r.t. D2 −ve half-cycle of the input.
vo (t) = vo(D1 ) (t) + vo(D2 ) (t)

0 π ωt
2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π

(f) Output waveform of the centre-tapped full-wave rectifier.

Figure 9: Input-output waveforms of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier.

We see from Fig. 9(c) and 9(c) that vo(D1 ) (t) and vo(D2 ) (t) are 180◦ out of phase. The same
holds true for vi(D1 ) (t) and vi(D1 ) (t) too as shown in Fig. 9(b) and 9(d).
As a result, for the centre-tapped full-wave rectifier, we get the output for both the half-
cycles as shown in Fig. 9(f). The circuits shown in Fig. 7(b), 8(a) and 8(a) are called a
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
full-wave rectifier because these have changed the full cycle of the ac input voltage to the
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
pulsating dc output voltage.
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

We shall now see some parameters associated with a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier circuit
considering the following function as the output of the circuit:

Vm sin(ωt) 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π
vo (t) =
Vm sin(ωt − π) π ≤ ωt ≤ 2π

(a) Peak output voltage, Vpeak , Vpk , or Vm , of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier: In

any case, the peak output voltage of a center-tapped full-wave rectifier is always one-
half of the total maximum secondary voltage less the diode drop (diode potential
barrier), no matter what the turns ratio. Therefore,

VS(m)
Vm = − VB
2
where VS(m) is the peak secondary voltage, not the peak centre-tapped secondary
voltage.

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June 10, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD

(b) PIV(Peak Inverse Voltage) or PRV (Peak Reverse Voltage): Each diode
in the full-wave rectifier is alternately forward-biased and then reverse-biased. The
maximum reverse voltage or peak inverse voltage that each diode must withstand is
the peak secondary voltage VS(m) . Thus, the peak inverse voltage appear across any
of the diode is
 
VS(m) VS(m)
PIV = − VB + = VS(m) − VB
2 2

But we know
VS(m)
Vm = − VB
2
⇒ VS(m) = 2Vm + 2VB

Therefore, the peak inverse voltage across either diode in a full-wave centre-tapped
rectifier is

PIV = 2Vm + VB Note: PIV ≥ 2Vm for a centre-tapped FWR

which is simply PIV = PRV = 2Vm for the ideal diode wherein VB = 0 V[3, 4].
(c) RMS voltage, Vrms , of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier: The rms voltage
at the load of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier is given by
s
Z 2π
1
Vrms = vo2 (t)d(t)
2π 0
 Z π Z 2π 1/2
1 2 2 1 2 2
= V sin (ωt)dωt + Vm sin (ωt − π)dωt
2π 0 m 2π π
 2Z π 1/2
Vm2 π 2
Z
Vm 2
= sin (ωt)dωt + sin (ωt)dωt ∵ sin(ωt − π) = − sin(ωt)
2π 0 2π 0
 2Z π 1/2
Vm 2
= 2 sin (ωt)dωt
2π 0
 2Z π 1/2
Vm
= {1 − cos(2ωt)} dωt
2π 0
 2Z π 1/2
Vm2 π
Z
Vm
= dωt − cos(2ωt)dωt
2π 0 2π 0
 2 1/2
Vm Vm2 sin(2π) Vm2 sin(0)
= π− +
2π 2π 2 2π 2
 2 1/2
Vm Vm2 Vm2
= − ×0+ ×0
2 4π 4π

Therefore,

1
Vrms = √ Vm
2

(d) Average output voltage, Vavg = Vdc , at the output of a centre-tapped full-
wave rectifier: The average voltage, Vavg = Vdc , of vo (t) over a time period, T , is
defined as[5, 11]
Z 2π
1
Vavg = Vdc = vo (t)dt
2π 0

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L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD EC–204 Basic Electronics June 10, 2024

Therefore, we have
Z π Z 2π
1 1
Vavg = Vdc = Vm sin(ωt)dωt + Vm sin(ωt − π)dt
2π 0 2π π
Vm π Vm 2π
Z Z
= sin(ωt)dωt + − sin(ωt)dt
2π 0 2π π
Vm Vm
= [− cos(ωt)]π0 + [cos(ωt)]2π
π
2π 2π
Vm
= [− cos(π) + cos(0) + cos(2π) − cos(π)]
2π
Vm
= [−(−1) + 1 + 1 − (−1)]
2π
2Vm
=
π

(e) Ripple factor, γ, of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier: The ripple factor is

the ratio between the rms value of the ac voltage and the dc voltage of the rectifier,
that is,
rms value of the ac component of the wave Vr(rms)
γ= =
average of dc value of the wave Vdc
u V /√2 2
s v !
p 2 u
2 −V2
Vrms Vrms
dc m
= = −1=t −1
Vdc Vdc 2Vm /π
s 2
π
= √ − 1 = 0.4834
2 2

(f) Rectification efficiency, η, of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier: The recti-

fication efficiency of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier is given by
dc power delivered to the load Pdc
η= =
ac input power from the transformer Pac
where the dc power delivered to the load is
Vdc2 4V 2 /π 2 4V 2
2
Pdc = Idc RL = = m = 2m
RL RL π RL
and the ac power to load is
2
2 Vrms Vm2 /2 Vm2
Pac = Irms (RL + rd ) = = =
RL + rd RL + rd 2(RL + rd )
where rd is the diode resistance in forward bias. Hence, the rectification efficiency is
4Vm 2  
π 2 RL 8 RL + rd rd
η= Vm 2 = 2 = 0.8106 1 +
π RL RL
2(RL +rd )

In reality rd is much smaller then RL . If we neglect rd compare to RL , then the

efficiency of the rectifier is maximum. Therefore,

η = 0.8106 = 81.06%

(g) Form factor of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier: It is given by

√
V rms Vm / 2 π
Form factor = = = √ = 1.1107
Vdc 2Vm /π 2 2

(h) Peak factor of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier: We know the peak factor is
Vm Vm √
Peak factor = = √ = 2 = 1.4142
Vrms Vm / 2

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June 10, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD

(i) Frequency at the load of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier: Referring to

the output waveform of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier as shown in Fig. 9(f),
we see that the period of the output waveform of the full-wave rectifier is just half
the period of the input waveform as seen in Fig. 9(a). The variation in voltage (or
current) repeats itself after each angle π of the input waveform, that is, a full-wave
output has twice as many cycles as the sine-wave input has. Therefore, the frequency
of the output signal, vo (t), in any full-wave rectifier is

fout = 2fin

that is, the frequency of the full-wave signal is double the input frequency.
(j) Voltage regulation of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier: The variation of
dc output voltage as function of the dc load current is called the regulation. The
percentage regulation is given by
VNL − VFL
% regulation = × 100
VFL

1.4.2 Bridge rectifier

Figure 7(c)-(d) show a bridge rectifier circuit. The output of a bridge rectifier is similar
that of a full-wave rectifier because it produces a full-wave output voltage, but has four
diodes unlike the centre-tapped full-wave rectifier which has only two diodes.

D4 D1 D4 D1

+ +
RL vo (t) RL vo (t)
D3 D2 D3 D2
− −

(a) Circuit at +ve half cycle (b) Circuit at −ve half cycle
vi (t) vo (t)

0 π ωt 0 π ωt
2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π

(c) Input signal waveform (d) Output signal waveform

Figure 10: Bridge rectifier circuit operations

Circuit operation: The bridge rectifier uses four diodes connected as shown as shown
in Fig. 7(b)-(c). When the input cycle is positive as in Fig. 11(b), diodes, D1 and D3 , are
forward-biased and conduct current in the direction shown. A voltage is developed across
RL that looks like the positive half of the input cycle. During this time, diodes D2 and D4
are reverse-biased.
When the input cycle is negative as in Fig. 11(c), diodes, D2 and D4 , are forward-biased
and conduct current in the same direction through RL as during the positive half-cycle.
During the negative half-cycle, D1 and D2 are reverse-biased. A full-wave rectified output
voltage as shown in Fig. 11(f) appears across RL as a result of this action. It may be
noted that during both half-cycles, the load voltage has the same polarity and
the load current is in the same direction.

A few parameters may be determined as follows:

(a) Peak voltage, Vpeak = Vpk = Vm , at the output of the bridge rectifier: A
bridge rectifier with a transformer-coupled input is shown in Fig. 10(a)-(b). During
the positive half-cycle of the total secondary voltage, diodes D1 and D3 are forward-
biased. Neglecting the diode drops, the secondary voltage appears across the load
resistor. The same is true when D2 and D4 are forward-biased during the negative
half-cycle.

Vpeak = Vpk = Vm = VS(m)

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L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD EC–204 Basic Electronics June 10, 2024

vi (t)

0 π ωt
2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π

(a) Input waveform to the bridge rectifier.

vi (t) vo′ (t)

0 π ωt 0 π ωt
2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π

(b) +ve half-cycle making D1 and D3 for- (c) Output waveform during the +ve half-
ward biased. cycle of the input.
vi (t) vo′′ (t)

0 π ωt 0 π ωt
2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π

(d) −ve half-cycle making D2 and D4 for- (e) Output waveform during the −ve half-
ward biased. cycle of the input.
vo (t) = vo′ (t) + vo′′ (t)

0 π ωt
2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 8π 9π 10π

(f) Output waveform of the bridge rectifier.

Figure 11: Input-output waveforms of a bridge rectifier.

However, in practical scenario, two diodes are always in series with the load resistor
during both the positive and negative half-cycles. If these diode drops are taken into
account, the output voltage is
Vpeak = Vpk = Vm = VS(m) − 2VB

(b) Peak Inverse/Reverse Voltage, PIV, at the output of the bridge rectifier:
The peak inverse voltage is the voltage appeared across the non-conducting diode.
During the positive half-cycle of the total secondary voltage, diodes D1 and D3 are
forward-biased. The secondary voltage appears across the load resistor. The same is
true when D2 and D4 are forward-biased during the negative half-cycle. The reverse
voltage across the either of non-conducting diode is VS(m) for ideal diodes.
Practically, the PIV for each diode in a bridge rectifier will always be VB less than the
peak value of the full secondary voltage. For example, from Fig. 10(a), the reverse
voltage appeared across the diode, D2 , by KVL (clock-wise direction) is
PIVD2 = Vm + VB = −VB + VS(m)
where
VS(m) = VB (D1 ) + Vm + VB (D3 ) = Vm + 2VB
Therefore, PIV terms of the peak output voltage is given by
PIVD2 = Vm − VB + 2VB = Vm + VB
The same goes for other diodes too. Hence, PIV of a bridge rectifier is always
PIV ≥ Vm + VB for a bridge rectifier[3, 4]

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June 10, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD

(c) RMS voltage, Vrms , of a bridge rectifier: The rms voltage at the load of a
centre-tapped full-wave rectifier is given by
s
Z 2π
1
Vrms = vo2 (t)d(t)
2π 0
 Z π Z 2π 1/2
1 2 2 1 2 2
= V sin (ωt)dωt + Vm sin (ωt − π)dωt
2π 0 m 2π π
 Z π Z π 1/2
1 2 2 1 2 2
= V sin (ωt)dωt + V sin (ωt)dωt
2π 0 m 2π 0 m
 2Z π 1/2
Vm 2
= 2 sin (ωt)dωt
2π 0
 2Z π 1/2
Vm
= {1 − cos(2ωt)} dωt
2π 0
 2Z π 1/2
Vm2 π
Z
Vm
= dωt − cos(2ωt)dωt
2π 0 2π 0
 2 1/2
Vm Vm2 sin(2π) Vm2 sin(0)
= π− +
2π 2π 2 2π 2
 2 1/2
Vm Vm2 Vm2
= − ×0+ ×0
2 4π 4π
Therefore,

1
Vrms = √ Vm
2

(d) Average output voltage, Vavg = Vdc , at the output of a bridge rectifier: The
average voltage, Vavg = Vdc , of vo (t) over a time period, T , is defined as[5, 11]
Z 2π
1
Vavg = Vdc = vo (t)dt
2π 0
Therefore, we have
Z π Z 2π
1 1
Vavg = Vdc = Vm sin(ωt)dωt + Vm sin(ωt − π)dt
2π 0 2π π
Vm π Vm 2π
Z Z
= sin(ωt)dωt + − sin(ωt)dt
2π 0 2π π
Vm Vm
= [− cos(ωt)]π0 + [cos(ωt)]2π
π
2π 2π
Vm
= [− cos(π) + cos(0) + cos(2π) − cos(π)]
2π
Vm
= [−(−1) + 1 + 1 − (−1)]
2π
2Vm
=
π

(e) Ripple factor, γ, of a bridge rectifier: The ripple factor is the ratio between the
rms value of the ac voltage and the dc voltage of the rectifier, that is,
rms value of the ac component of the wave Vr(rms)
γ= =
average of dc value of the wave Vdc
u V /√2 2
s v !
p 2 u
2 −V2

Vrms dc Vrms m
= = −1=t −1
Vdc Vdc 2Vm /π
s 2
π
= √ − 1 = 0.4834
2 2

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L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD EC–204 Basic Electronics June 10, 2024

(f) Rectification efficiency, η, of a bridge rectifier: The rectification efficiency of

a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier is given by
dc power delivered to the load Pdc
η= =
ac input power from the transformer Pac
where the dc power delivered to the load is
Vdc2 4V 2 /π 2 4V 2
= m
2
Pdc = Idc RL = = 2m
RL RL π RL
and the ac power to load is
2
2 Vrms Vm2 /2 Vm2
Pac = Irms (RL + rd ) = = =
RL + rd RL + rd 2(RL + rd )
where rd is the diode resistance in forward bias. Hence, the rectification efficiency is
4Vm 2  
π 2 RL 8 RL + rd rd
η= Vm 2 = 2 = 0.8106 1 +
π RL RL
2(RL +rd )

In reality rd is much smaller then RL . If we neglect rd compare to RL , then the

efficiency of the rectifier is maximum. Therefore,
η = 0.8106 = 81.06%

(g) Form factor of a bridge rectifier: It is given by

√
V rms Vm / 2 π
Form factor = = = √ = 1.1107
Vdc 2Vm /π 2 2
(h) Peak factor of a bridge rectifier: We know the peak factor is
Vm Vm √
Peak factor = = √ = 2 = 1.4142
Vrms Vm / 2
(i) Frequency at the load of a bridge rectifier: Referring to the output waveform
of a bridge rectifier as shown in Fig. 11(f), we see that the period of the output
waveform of the bridge rectifier is just half the period of the input waveform as seen
in Fig. 11(a). The variation in voltage (or current) repeats itself after each angle π
of the input waveform, that is, a bridge rectifier output has twice as many cycles as
the sine-wave input has. Therefore, the frequency of the output signal, vo (t), in any
bridge rectifier is
fout = 2fin
that is, the frequency of the bridge signal is double the input frequency.
(j) Voltage regulation of a bridge rectifier: The variation of dc output voltage as
function of the dc load current is called the regulation. The percentage regulation is
given by
VNL − VFL
% regulation = × 100
VFL
1.5 Summary of various parameters
Table 1: Various performance parameters of the rectifier circuits
Input Signal to the System Input to the half-wave rectifier Output of the half-wave rectifier Output of the center-tapped rectifier Output of the bridge rectifier
v(t) = vp (t) = VP(m) sin(ωt) vi (t) = VS(m) sin(ωt) vo (t) = Vm sin(ωt)
N1 N 2
VP(rms) = VS(rms) VS(rms) = VP(rms)
N2 N1
√ √ VS(m)
VP(m) = VP(peak) = VP(pk) = 2VP(rms) VS(m) = 2VS(rms) Vm = VS(m) − VB Vm = − VB Vm = VS(m) − 2VB
2
PIV= Vm + VB PIV= 2Vm + VB PIV= Vm + VB
1 1 1
Vrms = Vm Vrms = √ Vm Vrms = √ Vm
2 2 2
Vm Vm √ Vm √
Peak Factor= =2 = 2 = 2
Vrms Vrms Vrms
Z 2π Z 2π Z 2π
1 1 1 Vm 2Vm 2Vm
VP(avg) = v(ωt)dωt = 0 VS(avg) = vi (ωt)dωt = 0 V(avg) = Vdc = vo (ωt)dωt = Vdc = Vdc =
2π 0 2π 0 2π 0 π π π
s 2 r s 2 s 2 s 2
Vr(rms) Vrms π Vrms π π
Ripple factor, γ = = −1= ≈ 1.2114 −1= √ − 1 = 0.482 √ − 1 = 0.482
Vdc Vdc 4 Vdc 2 2 2 2
     
Pdc rd 2rd 2rd
Efficiency, η = = 0.4053 1 + 0.812 1 + 0.812 1 +
Pac RL RL RL

Vrms π Vrms π Vrms π

Form Factor= = ≈ 1.5708 = √ ≈ 1.1107 = √ ≈ 1.1107
Vdc 2 Vdc 2 2 Vdc 2 2

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June 10, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD

1.6 Barrier voltage

Parameters VB (V)
Ge 0.3
Si 0.7
GaAs 1.2
Table 2: Barrier potential of various semiconductors [11]

The important characteristics of diodes are:

(a) Maximum forward current,
(b) PIV rating,
(c) Forward and reverse ac resistance,
(d) Junction capacitances, and
(e) Behaviour in breakdown region

2 PIV revisit in details

Understanding of PIV for the rectifier circuits[2, 3, 4, 5]: Peak Inverse Voltage or
Peak Reverse Voltage is the maximum voltage that the rectifying diode has to with-
stand, when it is reverse biased [or during the negative half cycle of the input]. The
PIV rating of a diode is of the primary importance in the design of rectification sys-
tems. Recall that it is the voltage rating that must not be exceeded in the reverse-bias
region or the diode will enter the Zener avalanche region[4].

The PIV voltage must be less than the breakdown voltage of the diode;
otherwise, the diode will be destroyed . The peak inverse voltage depends on
the type of rectifier and filter. The worst case occurs with the capacitor-input filter[2].
(a) Half-wave rectifier: When the diode in a half-wave rectifier is in reverse bias
as in Fig. 12(b), we know that

PIV = −Vpeak,RL + VS(m) = VS(m) ∵ Ipeak,RL = 0 A, Vpeak,RL = 0 V (1)

D1 D1

+ −
+ − PIV + −

RL Vm RL 0V

− 0A +
− +

(a) (b)

Figure 12

However, when the diode in the half-wave rectifier is forward bias an shown in
Fig. 12(a), we get

VS(m) = VB + Vmax,RL = VB + Vm

Therefore, using the above equation in Eq. (1), we have

PIV = Vm + VB Note: PIV ≥ Vm for a HWR

Important note: PIV of a half-wave rectifier becomes 2Vm + VB ::::::

:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
with ::a
capacitor-input filter.
::::::::::::::::::::::

(b) Centre-tapped full-wave rectifier: First off, we can find the PIV for D2 of
Fig. 13(a) by applying KVL in the loops specified as follows:

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L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD EC–204 Basic Electronics June 10, 2024
D1 D1

+ −
− PIV +
Vm Vm
− − + + − +
+ −
RL RL
− PIV +
− +

D2 D2

(a) (b)

Figure 13

Writing KVL equation in the anti-clockwise direction for the lower mesh of
Fig. 13(a), we have

VS(m)
PIV = Vm + (2)
2
and applying KVL in the upper mesh of Fig. 13(a) in clockwise direction, we
get
VS(m)
Vm − + Vb = 0
2
⇒ VS(m) = 2Vm + 2VB (3)

Using Eq. (3) in Eq. (2), we finally obtain

1
PIV = Vm + (2Vm + 2VB )
2
= 2Vm + VB Note: PIV ≥ 2Vm for a centre-tapped FWR (4)

which is :::
the:::::
PIV:::
of::::
the:::::::
diode,:::::
D2 , ::
in::a:::::::::::::::
centre-tapped::::::::::
full-wave:::::::::
rectifier. Simi-
larly, we can find the PIV of the diode, D1 , in the same centre-tapped full-wave
rectifier of Fig. 13(b) as follows: By KVL in the clockwise direction from the
upper mesh
VS(m)
PIV = Vm + (5)
2
Again by KVL in counter-clockwise direction from the lower mesh, we have
VS(m)
Vm − + VB = 0
2
⇒ VS(m) = 2Vm + 2VB (6)

Using the above expression in Eq. (5), we get

2Vm + 2VB
PIV = Vm +
2
= 2Vm + VB (7)

or

[1] PIV = VS(m) − VB (8)

which is :::
the:::::
PIV:::
of::::
the:::::::
diode,::::
D1 ,:::
in::::
the:::::::::::::::
cantre-tapped::::::::::
full-wave:::::::::
rectifier.
From Eq. (4) and (7), we see that the peak inverse voltage across either
diode in a center-tapped full-wave rectifier in either :::::::::::
half-cycle:::
of:::::
the
input signal
::::::::::::::
is

PIV = 2Vm + VB

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June 10, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD

(c) Bridge rectifier: For the positive half-cycle of the input signal to the bridge
rectifier, there are two diodes, D3 and D4 , in reverse bias mode for which we
can find their PIV or PRV as explained below.
+ +
+
D3 PIV D1 D3 D1
−
Vm Vm
− + − +

RL L2 RL
+
D2 D4 D2 PIV D4
L3 L1−
− −

(a) (b)

Figure 14

Applying KVL in the clockwise direction on the top right corner of Fig. 14(a),
we find the PIV of the diode, D3 , as

PIV = VB + Vm = Vm + VB (9)

Same can also be verified by applying KVL on other meshes. Let’s check it out
by KVL in the counter-clockwise direction on the left most mesh of Fig. 14(a)
as

PIV = VS(m) − VB (10)

Now, to find VS(m) , we have to look at the path where the current flows in the
circuit during the positive half cycle of the input ac signal, that is, by KVL in
clockwise direction on the path: the secondary winding - D1 - RL - D2 , we have

− VS(m) + VB + Vm + VB = 0
⇒ VS(m) = Vm + 2VB

Using this expression in Eq. (10), we have

PIV = Vm + 2VB − VB = Vm + VB (11)

which equals the expression of Eq. (9), the PIV of D3 .

Now, we determine the PIV of D4 of Fig. 14(b) during the positive half-cycle
:::::::::::::::
of the input ac signal. Applying KVL around loop, L2 , [the bottom right
loop/mesh] in counter-clockwise direction, we get

PIV = Vm + VB (12)

This expression can also be verified using loops, L1 and L3 , in the same circuit
of Fig. 14(b). Applying KVL around loop L1 in counter-clockwise direction, we
have

− PIV − VB + VS(m) = 0
⇒ PIV = VS(m) − VB (13)

To get the above expression in terms peak maximum value available the output
of the bridge rectifier, that is, to get the PIV of the diode, D4 , in terms of Vm ,
we again apply KVL around the loop L3 in clockwise direction as

− VS(m) + VB + Vm + VB = 0
⇒ VS(m) = Vm + 2VB (14)

Using Eq. (14) in Eq. (13), we get

PIV = Vm + 2VB − VB = Vm + VB (15)

which is the PIV of the diode, D4 , that equals to that of the diode, D3 as in
Eq. (12).

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L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD EC–204 Basic Electronics June 10, 2024

Therefore in summary, the PIVs of various rectifiers follows:

PIV for
Type of Rectifier PIV in terms VS(m) PIV in terms Vm
diode(s)
Half-wave rectifier D PIV†= VS(m) PIV†= Vm + VB
Centre-tapped full-wave
D1 , D2 PIV= VS(m) − VB PIV= 2Vm + VB
rectifier
D1 , D2 ,
Bridge rectifier PIV= VS(m) − VB PIV=Vm + VB
D3 , D4
†
PIV in half-wave rectifier changes with filter!

3 Examples of full-wave rectifier circuits

Example-5: A sine wave of rms value 70.7 volts is applied to the primary of a centre-
tapped full-wave rectifier with a transformer turn-ratio of 2:1. Assuming that the
diode drop of 0.7 volt, determine the maximum PIV rating of each diode.
Solution: Given that

VP(rms) = 70.7 V
VB = 0.7 V
N1 : N2 = 2 : 1

We now find the rms voltage of the secondary winding as

N2 1
VS(rms) = VP(rms) = × 70.7 = 35.35 V
N1 2
Then, the secondary peak voltage, VS(pk) or VS(m) , at the secondary of the transformer
is calculated as
√ √
VS(m) = VS(peak) = VS(pk) = 2VS(rms) = 2 × 35.35 = 49.9924 V

and thus, PIV is now

PIV = VS(m) − VB = 49.9924 − 0.7 = 49.2924 V

It can be verified using the peak output voltage, Vm , where

VS(m) 49.9924
Vm = − VB = − 0.7 = 24.9962 − 0.7 = 24.2962 V
2 2
Therefore, the PIV using Vm is given by

PIV = 2Vm + VB = 2 × 24.2962 − 0.7 = 49.2924 V

which is the PIV value of any diode used in the centre-tapped full-wave rectifier.

References
[1] Mitchel E. Schultz Grob’s Basic Electronics, 12e, McGraw-Hill Education, 2016. (Cited
on pages 1 and 20)
[2] Albert Malvino, David Bates, Patrick Hoppe Electronic Principles, 9/e, McGraw-Hill,
2020. (Cited on pages 1 and 19)
[3] Thomas L. Floyd Electronic Devices- conventional current, 10/e, Pearson Education
Limited, 2018. (Cited on pages 1, 13, 16, and 19)
[4] Robert L. Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11/e,
Pearson Education Limited, 2014. (Cited on pages 1, 4, 13, 16, and 19)
[5] N. N. Bhargava, D. C. Kulshrestha, S. C. Gupta, Basic Electronics and Linear Circuits,
Tata McGraw-Hill, 1984. (Cited on pages 13, 17, and 19)

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June 10, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics L. Joyprakash Singh, PhD

[6] D. Chattopadhyay, P. C. Rakshit, Electronics: Fundamentals and Applications, 17e,

New Age Publishers, 2022.

[7] Satya Sai Srikant, Prakash Kumar Chaturvedi, Basic Electronics Engineering - Includ-
ing Laboratory Manual Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd., 2020.

[8] J. B. Gupta, Electronic Devices and Circuits, 6/e S. K. Kataria and Sons, 2016.

[9] Debashis De, Basic Electronics, Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd, 2010.

[10] B. L. Thereja, A. K. Thereja, S. G. Tarnekar A Textbook of Electrical Technology, 24/e,

S. Chand & Company Ltd., 2005.

[11] Mohammad Abdur Rashid, SCPLN02: Half wave rectifier and Full wave rectifier
https: // rashid-phy. github. io/ me/ pdf/ 2207-2020b/ SCPLN_ 02_ retifier.
pdf accessed on June 11, 2023 (Cited on pages 1, 2, 6, 13, 17, and 19)

[12] All about circuits, Measurements of AC Magnitude https: // www.

allaboutcircuits. com/ textbook/ alternating-current/ chpt-1/
measurements-ac-magnitude accessed on June 11, 2023 (Cited on page 3)

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