Regional Studies in Marine Science 34 (2020) 101021

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Regional Studies in Marine Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rsma

Analysis and environmental risk assessment of priority and emerging

organic pollutants in sediments from the tropical coastal megacity
Jakarta, Indonesia
∗
Larissa Dsikowitzky a , , Sarah E. Crawford b , Inga Nordhaus c , Fabian Lindner a,e ,
Dwiyitno d , Hari Eko Irianto d , Farida Ariyani d , Jan Schwarzbauer a
a
Institute of Geology and Geochemistry of Petroleum and Coal, RWTH Aachen University, Lochnerstrasse 4-20, 52056 Aachen, Germany
b
Institute for Environmental Research, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52064 Aachen, Germany
c
Leibniz Centre for Tropical Marine Research, Fahrenheitstraße 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
d
Research Center for Marine and Fisheries Product Processing and Biotechnology (BBRP2BKP), Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Jl. K.S.
Tubun, Petamburan VI Jakarta Pusat, 10260, Indonesia
e
Research Institute for Water and Waste Management at the RWTH Aachen (FiW), Kackertstraße 15 – 17, 52072 Aachen, Germany

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, is one of the rapidly growing coastal megacities in Asia. The
Received 29 July 2019 implementation of the urban wastewater infrastructure is not keeping up with the rapid expansion of
Received in revised form 21 December 2019 the city, leading to a severe deterioration of water and sediment quality in the metropolitan area. The
Accepted 22 December 2019
present study aimed to assess sediment contamination with organic pollutants in Jakarta rivers and the
Available online 26 December 2019
related risks to the coastal ecosystem. To this end, the site-specific and most harmful organic pollutants
Keywords: in the sediments were quantified, and the obtained chemical data were compared to reported sediment
Tropical urban areas toxicity thresholds for an impact assessment on the benthic community.
Coastal megacities The detected pollutant spectrum included several compounds, such as the detergent residues
Sediment toxicity nonylphenols and the insect repellent DEET (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide), that were previously reported
Emerging pollutants
as contaminants in industrialized countries but have been banned or partly substituted. The risk of
Tropical ecotoxicology
sediment contamination for benthic macroinvertebrates was associated with PAHs (polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons), DDT (bis(chlorophenyl)dichloroethane), nonylphenols and a synthetic fragrance. High
concentrations of paper manufacturing educts, a compound class that was recently reported in
industrialized areas with a flourishing paper industry, were found in Jakarta sediments. However,
sediment quality guidelines or sediment toxicity thresholds for these compounds are not available,
which limited the ecotoxicological risk assessment. More studies on sediment toxicities considering
emerging industrial pollutants and test species from all climate regions are urgently required, as a
prerequisite for an adequate impact assessment of sediment contamination.
© 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction of intense urban expansion on sensitive coastal aquatic ecosys-

tems include habitat loss, reduced biodiversity, altered substance
The intensity of global urbanization markedly accelerated dur- fluxes from land to sea, and a deterioration of the water and
ing the last decades, especially in emerging and developing sediment quality (e.g., Bruns, 2013).
economies. This trend is most prevalent in Asia, which accounted One of the newer Asian coastal megacities is Jakarta, the
for about 65% of the demographic expansion of all urban areas capital of Indonesia, which was chosen as the study area in the
across the world since the beginning of this century. A prominent present research. Jakarta is the centre of the national economic
development and experienced a strong population growth and
feature in urban Asia is the concentration of large populations in
an expansion of industrial manufacturing in recent years (Firman
megacities with more than ten million inhabitants (UN-Habitat,
et al., 2018). The implementation of the wastewater infrastruc-
2013). Of the 15 Asian megacities counted in 2014 (UN, 2014),
ture is not keeping up with this development, and, as such,
eleven were located in coastal regions. The negative impacts
results in inputs of enormous amounts of untreated or partially
treated wastewaters from households and industries that enter
∗ Corresponding author. the surface water of the city. The 13 rivers flowing through the
E-mail address: loga-pub@emr.rwth-aachen.de (L. Dsikowitzky). metropolitan area thus transport high organic pollutant loads

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2019.101021
2352-4855/© 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.
2 L. Dsikowitzky, S.E. Crawford, I. Nordhaus et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 34 (2020) 101021

into Jakarta Bay, the adjacent coastal ecosystem (Dsikowitzky were sampled for the current study (Stations R1–R12, Fig. 1). In
et al., 2016a; Jakarta Environmental Agency, 2017). While the addition, samples from four stations located at the major rivers
occurrence of organic pollutants in the aqueous phase of the in the central part of Jakarta were taken (R13–R16). These sample
Jakarta rivers and their dispersal in Jakarta Bay were subject to locations were chosen for representing the contamination levels
previous studies (Dsikowitzky et al., 2016b), the contamination of at the outer urban area of Jakarta. Surface sediment samples were
the urban river sediments with organic pollutants has not been collected with a stainless-steel Van Veen grab on October 6–7,
studied to date. 2012, and on October 19–21, 2013. The sampling protocols are
It is well documented that sediments function as a sink for included in Supplementary Material (Tab. S1 and S2). The top
lipophilic organic pollutants. However, sediments can also be- layer of the sampled sediments (0–5 cm) were allocated into pre-
come a source of pollutants if contaminated particles are remobi- cleaned metal cans, and stored at −20 ◦ C in the laboratory of
lized and dispersed along the stream course and into the coastal BBRP2BKP in Jakarta. Samples were transported on ice packs in
ecosystems, e.g. during river floods (León et al., 2017). In gen- cool boxes as airfreight to Germany over three days. At RWTH
eral, particle-associated pollutants are potentially bioavailable to Aachen University (Germany), the sediment samples were stored
benthic organisms, and acute or chronic toxic effects can occur if at −20 ◦ C until analysis.
sufficient pollutant levels are bioaccumulated. Predation by fishes
and epibenthic invertebrates on contaminated benthic organisms
2.2. Sample treatment and analysis
also introduces sediment contaminants into higher trophic levels
(Lee, 2018). These factors illustrate the importance in considering
Sample treatment and analysis followed well-established and
the contamination of the Jakarta river sediments as a potential
previously described methods (Schwarzbauer et al., 2000; Dwiy-
risk on the coastal ecosystem due to the impacts of rapid urban
itno et al., 2016; Dsikowitzky et al., 2017). The extract fractions
expansion.
were analysed with a quadrupole Finnigan Trace MS (Thermo
The overall goal of the present study was therefore an as-
Finnigan, Germany) linked to a HRGC-5160 Mega Series (Carlo
sessment of the contamination status of river sediments from
Erba, Italy) gas chromatograph. The gas chromatograph was
the Jakarta metropolitan area with respect to organic pollutants
equipped with a ZB-5 column (Phenomenex, Aschaffenburg, Ger-
and the risks for the coastal ecosystem. There is a general lack
of knowledge regarding the chemical contamination of tropi- many; 30 m × 0.25 mm ID × 0.25 µm film thickness). All details
cal rivers and estuaries in urban areas of emerging economies of the analytical conditions, compound identification and quan-
and related impacts on the environment. The few studies avail- tification procedures, used chemicals and quality assurance are
able about this topic were conducted in urban areas of Brazil, given in Dsikowitzky et al. (2017). Characteristic ions used for the
Vietnam and India. They were solely focused on the occurrence quantification of the target analytes were listed in Supplementary
of a small number of well-known organic priority pollutants, Material (Tab. S3). An LOQ (limit of quantification) of 2 ng g−1 was
i.e. PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), organochlorine pes- defined for the present study. Blank analyses (n = 3) revealed
ticides, and PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) in river sediments that target analyte concentrations in the blanks were below the
(Torres et al., 2002; Minh et al., 2007; Leena et al., 2012). Emerg- LOQ. Recoveries (n = 3) were determined by spiking annealed
ing pollutants were not considered in these previous studies. river sediment with purchased reference compounds and sub-
Thus, the undetected organic pollutants might pose potentially sequent execution of the analytical procedure as described in
unknown risks to the safety of water and fishery resources and to Dsikowitzky et al. (2017). The obtained results illustrate the
aquatic diversity in rivers and coastal waters of densely populated quality of analysis and are presented in Supplementary Material
tropical areas. (Tab. S3).
The specific objectives of the present study were:
2.3. Dry weight and total organic matter content
(i) the identification of the relevant pollutant spectrum and
the determination of pollutant concentrations in river sed-
Organic contaminant concentrations in the sediment samples
iments from the Jakarta metropolitan area;
are presented based on dry weight. Dry weights were determined
(ii) the linkage of the obtained chemical analytical data to
by drying 1 g sample aliquots at 105 ◦ C for 18 h. Total organic
known sediment toxicity data for an impact assessment on
matter contents were calculated by determining the loss on igni-
the benthic community, and
tion (LOI) and are given in the Supplementary Material (Tables S4
(iii) the evaluation of further risks that might be associated
and S5). LOI was determined by heating dried sample aliquots at
with the urban sediment contamination;
550 ◦ C for 4 h.
2. Experimental
2.4. Statistical analyses
2.1. Study area and sampling
Statistical analyses were conducted with the program PAST
The Jakarta metropolitan area is located in North Java, In- (free software, version 3.26). Data were tested for normality with
donesia. This area is characterized by a tropical monsoon climate the Shapiro–Wilk’s test and homogeneity of variances was tested
with a rainy season from October to March and a dry season with the Levene’s test. As data did not meet the preconditions for
from April to September. Jakarta is located in a low-lying, sub- parametric tests they were analysed with non-parametric statis-
siding delta region and is challenged by heavy monsoon rainfalls. tics. In order to compare concentrations of contaminants between
Thus, the metropolitan area is characterized by a combination stations and years (stations R2–R7 vs. all other stations; 2012 vs.
of high hazard-exposure and high vulnerability to monsoons. 2013), data were tested for significant differences with a Kruskal–
Although the area is water-abundant, the groundwater resources Wallis test and a Mann–Whitney pairwise test (Post hoc compar-
are greatly overexploited, and the quality of freshwater resources ison with Bonferroni correction). All tests were considered statis-
is severely deteriorated (Hoekstra et al., 2018). tically significant at p < 0.05. Calculation of total PAH concentra-
The mouths of the major rivers and canals that flow through tions included phenanthrene, anthracene, fluorene, fluoranthene,
the Jakarta metropolitan area and discharge into Jakarta Bay pyrene, benz(a)anthracene and chrysene/triphenylene.
 L. Dsikowitzky, S.E. Crawford, I. Nordhaus et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 34 (2020) 101021 3

Fig. 1. Overview of the study area, the Greater Jakarta metropolitan area, Java, Indonesia, and the location of the sampling stations (R1–R16). The sampled rivers
and canals flow through the densely populated central city area or the outskirts of the urban area and discharge into Jakarta Bay.

3. Results and discussion Table 1

Ranges of the organic pollutant concentrations [ng g−1 dry weight] as
detected in surface sediments from the rivers flowing through the Greater
3.1. Sources, concentrations and distribution of organic pollutants in Jakarta metropolitan area, Indonesia. The location of the sampling stations
the rivers of the Jakarta metropolitan area is shown in Fig. 1. Written in italics are those compounds of which the
concentrations exceeded the toxicity thresholds compiled in Tables 2 and 3.
The pollutants identified with the applied analytical approach Organic pollutant Concentration range Concentration range
and their concentration ranges in the river sediments are pre- October 2012 October 2013
sented in Table 1. Detailed concentration values are provided [ng g−1 dry weight] [ng g−1 dry weight]

in the Supplementary Material (Tab. S4 and S5). The pollutants Polycyclic aromatic compounds
were grouped according to their application (Tab. S6) or chemical Total PAHs 10–51,900 n.d.–17,550
structure into polycyclic aromatic compounds, pesticides, techni- Pesticides and their metabolites
cal compounds and personal care product constituents (PCPs). Total DDT n.d.–370 n.d.
DDD n.d.–540 n.d.
3.1.1. Sources Technical compounds and their metabolites
To elucidate the sources of the PAH contamination, different
C10 -C14 LABs 240–360,000 70–1,900,000
indicative ratios were calculated (Supplementary Material, Tab. Phenylmethoxy-naphthalene n.d.–2600 n.d.–630
S7). The PAH ratio results revealed that the rivers were affected by Nonylphenol technical mixture n.d.–63,000 n.d.–63,000
both petrogenic and pyrogenic contamination sources. This is in DIPNs n.d.–16,000 n.d.–6500
agreement with Rinawati et al. (2012) and Dwiyitno et al. (2016), Personal care product constituents and their metabolites
which reported similar conclusions about the origin of the PAH DEET n.d.–600 n.d.–200
contamination in sediments from Jakarta Bay, the coastal ecosys- HHCB n.d.–43,800 n.d.–31,600
tem which receives all riverine discharges from the metropolitan AHTN n.d.–1600 n.d.–3500
area. The PAH inputs might originate from the extensive use (and Methyltriclosan n.d.–40 n.d.

combustion) of fossil fuels related to the increasing industrial Total PAHs include: Phenanthrene, Anthracene, Fluorene, Fluoranthene, Pyrene,
growth and the increasing number of motor vehicles in Jakarta. Benz(a)anthracene and Chrysene/Triphenylene.
The full chemical names of the compounds are given in Table S1 of the
The organochlorine pesticide DDT (bis(chlorophenyl)
Supplementary Material.
trichloroethane) or one of its main metabolites DDD
(bis(chlorophenyl)dichloroethane) were only detected at two sta-
tions in central Jakarta sampled during the first campaign (Tab.
S4). This contamination likely originates from the historical usage of LABs (I/E ratio) was established as a molecular marker for
of DDT as a vector control in households, that was stopped in emissions of untreated sewage into aquatic ecosystems. Low I/E
Indonesia in the 1990s (see Tab. S6). ratios ranging from 0.6 to 1.1 are characteristic of consumer
Linear alkylbenzenes (LABs) are highly persistent residues products and thus the presence of untreated sewage. In contrast,
from detergent usage in households and are indicative for mu- higher I/E ratios (i.e. 2 to 7) represent greater treatment of sewage
nicipal sewage inputs. The ratio of internal to external isomers (Takada and Eganhouse, 1998). The ubiquituous presence and
4 L. Dsikowitzky, S.E. Crawford, I. Nordhaus et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 34 (2020) 101021

high concentration levels of LABs in the study area, along with Total PAH concentrations (Table 1) were comparable to those
the low I/E ratios ranging from 0.6 to 2.3 (i.e. poorly degraded previously reported from Jakarta Bay sediments and in the same
LABs, Tab. S4 and S5) indicate that heavy loads of insufficiently range as in coastal sediments of developing and developed coun-
treated municipal sewage are disposed of in the urban area of tries (Rinawati et al., 2012). A large study on sewage pollution
Jakarta. across the South and Southeast Asian region, including Jakarta
Nonylphenol technical mixture (Table 1) is the educt for the (Indonesia), revealed maximum total concentrations of LABs in
production of nonylphenol ethoxylates. Nonylphenol ethoxylates the range of 20 to 40 mg kg−1 in Jakarta river sediments (Isobe
have widely been used as detergents in households and for indus- et al., 2004). These values were much higher than in any of the
trial applications. Nonylphenols originate also from the biodegra- other investigated Asian urban areas, including the megacity of
dation of nonylphenol ethoxylates in the environment (Tab. S6). Tokyo. The maximum concentrations of LABs detected in our
However, in the European Union (DIRECTIVE 2003/53/EC), the study (October 2012: 360 mg kg−1 and October 2013: 1900 mg
usage of nonylphenols and nonylphenol ethoxylates in consumer kg−1 , Tab. S4 and S5, respectively) far exceeded the concentra-
products has been banned. This measure was a consequence of tions reported by Isobe et al. (2004). This might be related to
the observation that specific nonylphenol isomers disrupt the the lower number of stations considered by Isobe et al. and the
endocrine system of fishes and mammals (Soares et al., 2008). The different sampling design, which did not include all river mouths
occurrence of nonylphenol technical mixtures in most samples in Jakarta City.
from the Jakarta City center (Tab. S4, S5), indicates that municipal The concentrations of nonylphenol and HHCB detected in
sewage is a major input source in the study area. Thus, the Jakarta river sediments were compared to those in sediments
detected nonylphenols in the sediments suggests that nonylphe- from other Asian urban water areas and to those in sewage sludge
nol ethoxylates are still being used in consumer products in samples from Europe, the US and China (Fig. 2). This comparison
Indonesia, likely as household detergents. Official statistical data revealed that the contamination of Jakarta river sediments with
published by the Indonesian government reveal that the Indone- nonylphenols is comparable to that in other Asian urban areas
sian import of nonylphenol ethoxylates in 2014 was 2482 tons, and lower than in sewage sludge samples. In contrast, HHCB
corresponding to $5.1 million USD (BPS, 2014). concentrations in Jakarta river sediments were several magni-
DIPN (di-iso-propylnaphthalenes) and phenylmethoxynaph- tudes higher than those in river sediments from the megacities of
thalene are educts for paper manufacturing (Tab. S6) and were Shanghai and Guangzhou. Some samples exhibit concentrations
previously detected in water samples from the study area of HHCB that are even as high as those previously found in sewage
(Dsikowitzky et al., 2016b, 2017). In the industrial area of Bekasi
sludge.
southwest of Jakarta, paper manufacturing facilities are present
In contrast to HHCB and nonylphenols, the municipal sewage
that discharge into the Cikarang-Bekasi River (station R10) and
constituents DEET (n.d. −600 ng g−1 ) and MTCS (n.d. −40 ng g−1 )
probably also into the Citarum River (station R12). The paper
were only occasionally detected in the sediments and at much
manufacturing activity can explain the high concentrations of
lower concentrations (Table 1, Tab. S4 and S5). DEET has mainly
both compounds in the sediments from these stations (Tab. S4,
been reported as a water contaminant in many world regions, but
S5). However, both compounds were also detected in rivers that
can also be present in sediments (Zhang et al., 2015). The high
do not receive industrial discharges in the present study. This is in
water solubility of this compound (>1 g L−1 ) and the low log KOW
agreement with Dsikowitzky et al. (2016b), who speculated that
of 2.66 (Envichem Databank, 2018) suggests that DEET is mainly
the compounds could also originate from paper-based garbage,
present in the sediment pore water rather than being associated
as the disposal of solid waste into surface waters is a major
with the sediment solid matrix. Despite the nonphotodegradable
environmental problem in Indonesia.
and hydrophobic properties of MTCS that suggest a high tendency
The insect repellent DEET and the synthetic fragrances HHCB
to accumulate in sediment (e.g., log Kow and log Koc > 4;) (Chen
and AHTN (Table 1) are constituents of PCPs used in large quan-
tities in households. The application of these three pollutants et al., 2011), few studies have investigated or reported concen-
as molecular markers for municipal sewage discharge in aquatic trations of MTCS in sediment. Low concentrations of MTCS in
systems was previously described (Buerge et al., 2003; Nakada sediment that were found in the present study are in accordance
et al., 2008). The use of DEET probably poses a risk to human with the limited number of previous published values (<11 ng
health (Swale et al., 2014). Therefore, it has been replaced by g−1 ) that were speculated to occur as a result of photodegradation
Icaridin in many products sold in the European Union (e.g., Tan- of TCS in shallow surface sediments (Pintado-Herrera et al., 2014;
war et al., 2014). Methyltriclosan (MTCS) is a biodegradation Fernandes et al., 2011).
product of the antimicrobial agent triclosan (TCS) that is used in Concentrations of the paper manufacturing educts DIPN and
medical and consumer care products. Since TCS is only partially phenylmethoxynaphthalene in Jakarta river sediments (Table 1)
removed by secondary treatment processes (Huang et al., 2014; were comparable to those in sediments from Jakarta Bay (Dwiy-
Pintado-Herrera et al., 2014), municipal sewage discharge would itno et al., 2016). The DIPN contamination in the Jakarta area
be expected to be partially comprised of MTCS. was much higher than in German River sediments (Franke et al.,
Based on the compounds detected, municipal sewage, traffic, 2007). However, maximum DIPN concentrations of up to 16,000
the paper industry and associated paper waste are the main ng g−1 in the sediments of Jakarta rivers that receive paper
sources of sediment contamination in the Jakarta metropolitan industry effluents (Tab. S4 and S5, see also Section 3.1.1) were
area. similar to highly contaminated sediments from the outfalls of
paper-recycling plants in Japan (Terasaki et al., 2008).
3.1.2. Concentrations and distribution Concentrations of LABs and nonylphenol technical mixture
In terms of concentrations and detection frequencies, PAHs, were significantly higher at rivers mouths in central Jakarta (R2–
the detergent residues LABs and nonylphenols, DIPN as well R7) than at the other river stations (R1, R8–R16) in both years
as the synthetic fragrance HHCB were the most prevalent con- (LABs: H = 16.5, p = 0.024 for 2012, p = 0.034 for 2013; NTM: H
taminants in Jakarta river sediments (Table 1, Tab. S4 and S5). = 18.89, p = 0.009 for 2012, p = 0.015 for 2013) whereas those
The analytical method applied for this study also allows for the of HHCB and total PAHs only differed between stations in 2012
detection of PCBs, which were previously reported as pollutants (HHCB: H = 14.37, p = 0.019; PAHs: H = 11.14, p = 0.025). The
in Jakarta Bay sediments (Rinawati et al., 2012). However, PCBs concentrations of these four groups of contaminants were similar
were not found in Jakarta river sediments in the present study. in 2012 and 2013 (p > 0.05 each). Concentrations of DEET, AHTN
 L. Dsikowitzky, S.E. Crawford, I. Nordhaus et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 34 (2020) 101021 5

Fig. 2. Comparison of the concentrations of municipal sewage constituents detected in Jakarta river sediments to results from previous studies (Nonylphenol: Soares
et al., 2008 and references therein; HHCB: Zeng et al., 2005, 2008; Wang et al., 2018). The data used for comparison are the maximum pollutant concentrations
detected in the sample materials. Concentrations of nonylphenols and HHCB in sewage sludge samples are data from studies conducted in Europe, the US and China
that were reviewed by Soares et al. (2008) and Zeng et al. (2005), respectively. Number of samples considered for this comparison: Jakarta: n = 32, Seoul: n = 10,
China urban lake: n = 15, nonylphenol in sewage sludge Germany and Switzerland: n = 179, Shanghai: n = 74, Guangzhou: n = 3, HHCB in sewage sludge: n =
60; Please note the logarithmic scale of the x-axis.

and methyltriclosan neither differed between river stations (R2– those in highly contaminated sediments from industrial outfalls.
R7 vs. all other stations) nor between the two years (p > 0.05 This high degree of contamination may lead to potential risks to
each). benthic communities.
These results reflect the input of high loads of LABs, technical
nonylphenol mixture and HHCB into the rivers in the central 3.2. Potential risks of sediment contamination to benthic inverte-
city area, and their progressive accumulation in the sedimentary brates
particulate matter along the river courses. DIPN and phenyl-
methoxynaphthalene, the educts of paper manufacturing, have Sediment Quality Guidelines (SQGs) or similar benchmark val-
a different distribution pattern, with highest concentrations at ues are used in many countries as a screening tool to determine
the stations receiving paper industry discharges (stations R10 if concentrations of contaminants in the sediment are a po-
and R12, Tab. S4 and S5). These results clearly show the en- tential risk to the benthic community. SQGs are scientifically
vironmental impact of the paper industry in the southeastern derived thresholds that are often based on empirical analysis
Jakarta metropolitan area. The high contamination of the rivers of co-occurring chemical and biological effects data (Long et al.,
receiving industrial effluents with educts of paper manufacturing 1995). Concentrations of contaminants in the sediment are com-
calls for the improvement of the industrial wastewater treatment pared to the respective threshold values and those that exceed
infrastructure. the threshold are more likely to cause adverse effects, whereas
Overall, the high concentrations of the municipal sewage con- adverse effects rarely occur for concentrations below the lower
stituents LABs and HHCB accumulated in the Jakarta river sed- threshold. Mechanistic data in the form of spiked sediment toxi-
iments reflect the relatively limited implementation of sewage city tests can also be used to complement the derivatization of
treatment infrastructure, of which around 25 million inhabitants SQGs. Acute and chronic toxicity tests are typically conducted
of the greater metropolitan area (UN-Habitat, 2009) contribute with a variety of organisms (e.g., different functional feeding
towards via the production of household wastewaters. In the cen- groups, trophic levels) at different life stages, including partial
tral Jakarta city area, only ∼4% of the households are connected to and full-life cycle tests.
a centralized and effective wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), In order to assess the risks of the sediment contamination in
as compared to 2% from the prior decade. In order to improve the Jakarta rivers, the chemical concentrations from the current work
wastewater treatment infrastructure in the city, two new WWTP (Tab. S4 and S5) were compared to SQGs (Table 2 and Fig. 3).
were put into operation in 2016. It is planned that a total number Table 2 provides an overview of the percentage of samples from
of fifteen new WWTP will be constructed by 2022 (Ministry of Jakarta river locations in three ranges of chemical concentrations
Public Works and Housing, 2018). where adverse effects on the benthic community are expected
The presence and concentrations of the above mentioned pol- rarely (<ERL/TEL), occasionally (≥ERL/TEL and <ERM/PEL), and
lutants demonstrate the high degree of contamination accumu- frequently (≥ERM/PEL). There is an indication of ecotoxicological
lating in the river stretches of the central urban area of Jakarta. risk from PAHs in the Jakarta area as upper limits (e.g., ERM and
The maximum concentrations of municipal pollutants recorded PEL values) were exceeded in 6 to 13% of the stations (i.e., stations
in the river sediments (i.e., HHCB in the present study was as R3 and R4, Fig. 3). Exceedances depended on the thresholds
high as in sewage sludge), exceeded values that were previously considered (i.e., PEL values are lower than ERM values), where
reported from urban areas of other world regions. Maximum PEL values were slightly more conservative as all PAHs detected
concentrations of paper manufacturing educts were similar to exceeded the PEL values, except for benz(a)anthracene in 2013.
6 L. Dsikowitzky, S.E. Crawford, I. Nordhaus et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 34 (2020) 101021

For the organochlorine compounds, most locations (>94%) had Toxic effects of the well-known priority pollutants PAHs and
total DDT concentrations that were low or not detected, and thus, DDT on aquatic wildlife were recently reviewed in Pampanin and
present in the minimal effects-range with exceedance of the ERM Sydnes (2017) and Miyagawa et al. (2015). Specific nonylphenol
only for DDT in 6% of the locations (i.e., R7 station in 2012). isomers were discovered to interfere with the endocrine system
SQGs were not available in the literature for all detected pol- of aquatic invertebrates and fishes (e.g. Soares et al., 2008). Liber
lutants (e.g., nonyphenols, HHCB), so relevant sediment toxicity et al. (1999) evaluated the effects of 4-nonylphenol on the aquatic
data were compiled (Table 3), when available, for the evalua- community composition in a 20-d freshwater littoral exposure,
tion of ecotoxicological risk. To the best of our knowledge, no concluding that the most sensitive benthic macroinvertebrate
sediment toxicity data are available for the paper manufactur- was Pisidium (Bivalvia). The freshwater mesocosm experiments
ing educts DIPN and phenylmethoxynaphthalene. When using considered for the risk assessment of this study (Table 3, Fig. 3)
the most conservative threshold values (i.e., lowest concentra- revealed a change of the nematode community composition after
tions; PNEC of 2000 ng g−1 ), adverse effects on the benthic application of technical nonylphenol. Additionally, a study by
community would be expected to occur from HHCB concentra- Bettinetti et al. (2002) found that mean wet weight of Chironomus
tions present at 38% and 19% of the locations in 2012 and 2013, riparius larvae exposed to concentrations of 60,000 to 290,000 ng
respectively (Fig. 3). For the threshold of 30,000 ng g−1 for HHCB, g−1 4-nonylphenol in spiked sediment were similar to the control
adverse effects are likely to occur at 6% of the locations (station treatment in a 10-d spiked sediment toxicity test depending on
R7 and R5 for 2012 and 2013, respectively). With regard to the different field populations of larvae examined.
technical nonylphenol mixtures, 25% and 56% of the locations ex- Reported effects of HHCB on benthic macroinvertebrates in-
ceeded the more conservative threshold (3370 ng g−1 ) in 2012 to clude the inhibition of multi-xenobiotic defences in marine mus-
2013, respectively (Fig. 3). Adverse effects on benthic community sels and the induction of oxidative and genetic damage in fresh-
were still expected in 6% of locations even if using the higher water mussels (Luckenbach et al., 2004; Parolini et al., 2015).
60,000 ng g−1 threshold value for technical nonylphenol mixtures A previously derived probable no effect concentration (PNEC)
(i.e., station R7 in 2012 and R3 in 2013). for HHCB in freshwater sediment of 2000 ng g−1 was based on
It is evident that the concentrations of nonylphenols and HHCB three tests with the midge larvae, amphipoda and worms (EC,
exceeded the thresholds at many sampling stations located at the 2008). For saltwater conditions, two of the studies on sediment
river mouths in central Jakarta (stations R2–R9) and in some cases toxicity considered for the current risk assessment (Table 3)
also at the upstream regions of these rivers (R14–R16). Total PAHs demonstrated that exposure to HHCB affected the growth rate
and total DDT only occasionally exceeded the thresholds that
of juvenile gastropods and egg production rates of polychaetes
were considered for this comparison (Fig. 3). Sediments from R3,
(Pedersen et al., 2009; Ramskov et al., 2009). The authors of both
R4, R5 and R7 were highest in pollutant concentrations for both
studies stated that the HHCB concentrations at which the effects
sampling campaigns, with a number of threshold values exceeded
were recorded (26,000 and 30,000 ng g−1 dw) were not in the
for PAHs, HHCB and nonylphenol mixtures. Overall, the great-
range of the concentrations that are usually detected in the envi-
est risks of sediment contamination for the benthic community
ronment. This holds true for environmental HHCB concentrations
were found at the river mouths in the middle of central Jakarta
in countries with pollution source control and implementation of
(R2–R7). At these river stretches, adverse effects on the benthic
efficient sewage treatment infrastructure. However, our results
community can be expected.
show that the concentrations of HHCB in heavily polluted urban
However, interpretation of the sediment concentrations
areas of emerging countries, such as Jakarta (up to 43,800 ng
should still be considered with caution since SGQ values were
g−1 dw), can reach the levels at which adverse effects on benthic
not available for all compounds and for those without established
invertebrates may occur.
threshold values, only a limited number of spiked sediment tox-
The actual effects of the sediment contamination with
icity data were available. No sediment toxicity experiments have
been published to date that examine the toxicity of the identified nonylphenols, HHCB, PAHs and DDT on the biology of the benthic
pollutants to tropical macroinvertebrates or the different salinity community in Jakarta should be subject to future detailed in-
regimes, which would be more environmentally relevant for the vestigations. Traditionally, weight of evidence approaches, which
assessment of the Jakarta coastal ecosystem. Threshold values act combine different lines of evidence as well as chemical and
as predictive tools for risk assessment and should incorporate biological effect data are used to assess sediment contamination.
site-specific conditions, sediment physicochemical characteristics Ideally, several lines of evidence would be used in an integrated
(e.g., organic carbon content) and knowledge about native benthic approach to fully assess the risk of the sediment contamination
community populations as these factors can alter the bioavail- (Chapman and Hollert, 2006).
ability of contaminants (USEPA, 2003). Differences in bioavail-
ability can affect the expected biological effects on the benthic 3.3. Other risks from sediment contamination
community such that low or unmeasured concentrations of a
contaminant can cause unexpected biological effects. Mixture Indirect effects can also arise from the impact of benthic com-
toxicity is also not explicitly considered when using the toxicity munities from exposure to contaminated sediments. Ecosystem
thresholds or the SQGs. For example at some stations, such as function can be altered by the disruption in species diversity
R3, R4, R5 and R7 (Fig. 3), the concentrations of more than and abundance. The benthic community serves as a major food
one pollutant group exceeded the toxicity thresholds. Mixtures source in aquatic food webs and, as such, adverse effects on
of contaminants can have synergistic, antagonistic or additive the benthic community can have detrimental impacts on upper
effects, altering the expected toxicity to the benthic community. trophic predators that depend on them as food sources. Addition-
Thus, the ecotoxicological risk assessment based on the above ally, bioaccumulation of contaminants in the benthic community
mentioned data can only be used as an initial screening tool to can also lead to biomagnification in the food web as well as
evaluate those chemicals that were analysed and have thresholds secondary poisoning (i.e. toxic dose through consumption of con-
and toxicity data available in the literature. Regardless of the taminated food sources) (Nendza et al., 1997). An assessment
uncertainty and inconsistency of the data, the current preliminary of the fishery resources from Jakarta Bay revealed a contami-
ecotoxicological assessment suggests that the concentrations of nation with PAHs, LABs, DIPN and phenylmethoxynaphthalene
many of the pollutants in Jakarta river sediments pose a risk to (Dwiyitno et al., 2016). This illustrates that risks for food safety
the benthic community. are associated with the riverine transport of particle-associated
 L. Dsikowitzky, S.E. Crawford, I. Nordhaus et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 34 (2020) 101021 7

Table 2
Threshold values (Long et al., 1995; Macdonald et al., 1996) and relative percentage of samples amongst ranges of SQGs for Jakarta river locations in October 2012
and October 2013.
Chemical Thresholds (ng g−1 dry weight) % of sampling locations (2012) % of sampling locations (2013)
ERL ERM TEL PEL <ERL ERL- >ERM <TEL TEL- >PEL <ERL ERL- >ERM <TEL TEL- >PEL
ERM PEL ERM PEL
Phenanthrene 240 1500 87 544 69 25 6 63 25 13 88 6 6 69 25 6
Anthracene 85 1100 47 245 94 0 6 94 0 6 81 13 6 81 13 6
Fluorene 19 540 21 144 69 31 0 81 13 6 31 63 6 38 56 6
Fluoranthene 600 5100 113 1494 94 6 0 88 6 6 94 6 0 88 6 6
Pyrene 665 2600 153 1398 88 6 6 69 25 6 94 0 6 88 6 6
Benz(a)anthracene 261 1600 75 693 94 0 6 94 0 6 94 6 0 88 13 0
Chrysene 384 2800 108 846 94 0 6 81 13 6 94 6 0 88 6 6
/Triphenylene
Total PAHs 4022 44 792 655 6676 88 6 6 50 38 13 94 6 0 88 6 6
Total DDT 1.6 46 – – 94 0 6 – – – 100 0 0 – – –

ERL: effect range low, ERM: effect range medium, TEL: threshold effect level, PEL: probable effect level.

Fig. 3. Concentrations (ng g−1 dry weight) of nonylphenol technical mixture, total PAHs and the synthetic fragrance HHCB in sediment at the 16 river sampling
sites. Stations R2–R9 were located at river mouths in the Jakarta City center (Fig. 1). Total PAHs include phenanthrene, anthracene, fluorene, fluoranthene, pyrene,
benz(a)anthracene, chrysene and triphenylene (see Table 3). The red stars indicate the sites at which the detected pollutant concentrations exceeded toxicity thresholds
for benthic macroinvertebrates. The most conservative thresholds were considered, as listed in Table 3. At these stations, adverse effects on the benthic community
can be expected.
8 L. Dsikowitzky, S.E. Crawford, I. Nordhaus et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 34 (2020) 101021

Table 3
Available sediment toxicity data or sediment quality guidelines from the literature with respect to the organic pollutants identified in surface sediments from Jakarta
City, Indonesia.
Organic pollutant Threshold Threshold type Experimental species Exposure Effect Reference
[ng g−1 time
dry weight] [days]
HHCB 26,000 Experiments with Capitella capitata, coastal 120 Decrease of total number Ramskov
spiked wet sediments marine and estuarine of eggs produced et al. (2009)
benthic polychaete
30,000 Experiments with Potamopyrgus Juveniles Reduction of juvenile Pedersen
spiked wet sediments antipodarum, freshwater were exposed growth et al. (2009)
and estuarine gastropod from birth to
first
reproduction
7100 Experiments with Hyalella azteca, 28 Reduction of growth (Egeler,
spiked sediments freshwater amphipoda 2004)
2000a Calculated predicted Three taxonomic groups – Based on growth NOEC EC (2008)
no effect with assessment factor and Egeler
concentration (PNEC) of 10 (2004)
sediment
Technical nonlyphenol 3370a Freshwater mesocosm Freshwater nematode 42 Alteration of species Höss et al.
mixture experiments communities composition (2004)
60,000 Experiments with Chironomus riparius, 10 Reduction of larval growth Bettinetti
spiked sediments freshwater midge larvae et al. (2002)
Phenanthrene 87 Threshold effect level Benthic – Concentrations Macdonald
(TEL) for coastal macroinvertebrates occasionally associated et al. (1996)
sediments with adverse effects on
the benthic community
Anthracene 47
Fluorene 21
Fluoranthene 113
Pyrene 153
Benz(a)anthracene 75
Chrysene/Triphenylene 108
Total PAHs 655a
Total DDT 1.6a Effects range low Benthic – Percent incidence of Long et al.
(ERL) for estuarine macroinvertebrates observed adverse effects (1995)
and marine sediments on the benthic community
a
Indicates the thresholds used for Fig. 3.

pollutants such as PAHs and DIPN from the urban area into Jakarta the rivers flowing through Jakarta City. A comparison of the
Bay. current chemical analysis from Jakarta river sediments with those
Adverse effects of the urban sediment contamination on the in other urban Asian areas demonstrates that Jakarta sediments
coastal ecosystem will be amplified during flooding events. Such are among the most heavily polluted in coastal urban areas. The
events strongly enhance the fluvial transport of particle environmental risks from Jakarta river sediments were not only
-associated pollutants into the coastal area. In Jakarta for instance, associated with well-known priority pollutants including PAHs
flooding of the urban area is a regular annual event occurring in and the organochlorine pesticide DDT, but also with additional
the monsoon season, which sweeps the contaminants retained in pollutants. These unexpected risks concern: (i) compounds that
the urban rivers during the dry period into Jakarta Bay. are commonly used in other countries, but which occurred at ex-
Despite the potential risks to the ecosystem functions and traordinarily high concentrations (the synthetic fragrance HHCB),
services described above, direct risks for human health might (ii) compounds that are banned in industrialized countries but
be associated with the sediment contamination. Currently, about are obviously still being used in high quantities in Indonesia
40% of Jakarta is located below sea level, and the city is vulner- (nonylphenols/nonylphenol ethoxylates), and (iii) emerging pol-
able to the climate change-related impacts of river floods and lutants from industrial sources that are unregulated (DIPN and
rising sea level (Firman et al., 2011). During severe flood events, phenylmethoxynaphthalene).
rivers and canals burst their banks and remobilized sediment The presence of contaminants that are not often a problem
loads are transported into the residential areas. As concluded in industrialized countries was a result of inadequate sewage
in Section 3.1.2, heavy loads of insufficiently treated municipal treatment infrastructure and different standards of environmen-
sewage are contaminating the river sediments in Jakarta. Because tal regulations between industrialized and emerging countries.
such contamination also contains pathogenic germs, flooding of For example, the environmental legislation of Indonesia allows
houses in Jakarta is significantly associated with increased risk of for the usage of compounds that are typically prohibited in other
paratyphoid fever, as reported by Vollaard et al. (2004), as well regions of the world. The detected educts for paper manufac-
as other waterborne diseases. turing might also occur in other areas with a flourishing paper
industry but are rarely considered in scientific investigations.
4. Conclusions The risk from sediment contamination for macrobenthic in-
vertebrates, as demonstrated in this study, was associated with
High concentrations of municipal sewage constituents were priority pollutants (e.g., PAHs) and, moreover, with compounds
detected in Jakarta river sediments, suggesting that large loads that are prohibited in other countries or that occurred in un-
of only partially treated municipal sewage are transported by expectedly high concentrations. Sediment quality guidelines or
 L. Dsikowitzky, S.E. Crawford, I. Nordhaus et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 34 (2020) 101021 9

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