Next Energy 2 (2024) 100050

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Next Energy
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/next-energy

Research article

Enhancing solar heater performance: A comprehensive study on hybrid

nanofluids and angled-rib turbulators for improved heat transfer and
reduced irreversibility
Ebrahim Barati *, 1, Amir Sarviha, Mohammad Amin Karamad
Mechanical Engineering, Khayyam University, Mashhad, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This research investigates the performance of hybrid nanofluids in solar heating systems, focusing on heat
Nanofluid transfer effectiveness and thermodynamic irreversibility. Solar energy is widely favored for its eco-friendly na­
Numerical study ture, but traditional operating fluids in solar heaters lack sufficient thermal conductivity. To address this issue,
Solar heater
modified fluids called nanofluids have been developed. This study proposes a novel approach that combines
Heat efficiency
nanofluids and turbulators to evaluate solar system performance. ANSYS FLUENT 18.0 solver is employed,
utilizing the iterative time advancement technique for solving the set of equations. Entropy generation analysis is
employed as a promising methodology. Aluminum-oxide nanoparticles are examined for their impact on heat
transfer, pressure drop, and entropy generation in a rib channel at Re= 20,000. To enhance heat transfer, the
effects of angled-ribs are assessed using the thermal enhancement factor, which considers heat transfer rate and
friction factor. Results indicate that triangular-shaped ribs exhibit superior thermal performance. Furthermore,
the study investigates the influence of nanofluid volume fraction and heat flux distribution on Nusselt number,
pressure drop, thermal performance factor, and entropy generation. Increasing the nanofluid fraction enhances
the Nusselt number, pressure drop, and performance evaluation criterion (PEC). Based on the results of a
quantitative analysis, it can be concluded that 4% nanoparticle volume fraction results in an increase of 4.6%,
11.63%, and 18.5% in Nusselt number in triangular and rectangular channels without teeth and with teeth,
respectively. Additionally, a positive heat flux gradient improves heat transfer and reduces entropy generation,
suggesting that adjusting the boundary condition can enhance energy and exergy efficiency. Overall, this study
demonstrates the benefits of entropy generation analysis for assessing thermal systems and implementing hybrid
nanofluids with turbulators in solar heating, contributing valuable insights to sustainable energy technologies.

nature and negligible ecological ramifications [5]. It has emerged as the

principal contender for supplanting conventional fossil fuel-dependent
1. Introduction systems and resolving associated predicaments [6,7]. Intensive
research efforts are currently underway to enhance the efficacy of solar
Throughout the twenty-first century, there has been a pronounced energy capture [8–10]. Notably, solar thermal energy has attained
emphasis on the domains of energy, economic progress, and environ­ widespread implementation across critical sectors encompassing solar
mental preservation. The engineering community faces a formidable water heaters [11,12], solar air heaters, space conditioning, refrigera­
task in devising systems that simultaneously exhibit energy efficiency, tion, industrial processes, desalination, and power generation [13].
economic viability, and ecological compatibility [1]. Consequently, These thermal collectors rely on fluid dynamics to absorb solar energy
recent advancements in the realm of energy technology have centered via a receiver, which is subsequently transferred to an energy storage
on the exploitation of renewable energy sources as a means to combat tank or directly utilized to power designated apparatus or facilities. To
the perils of global warming, climate change, and the dwindling reser­ optimize the heat transfer to the working fluid, diverse methodologies
voirs of fossil fuels [2–4]. Among the array of renewable energy options, are employed, encompassing the integration of fins [14], turbulators
solar energy garners particular attention due to its readily accessible

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: e.barati@khayyam.ac.ir (E. Barati).
1
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1796-678X

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxener.2023.100050
Received 4 June 2023; Received in revised form 21 July 2023; Accepted 17 August 2023
Available online 19 December 2023
2949-821X/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
E. Barati et al. Next Energy 2 (2024) 100050

cylindrical system filled with Cu-Al2O3 nanofluid by using Finite

Nomenclature element simulations solve the governing equations. They showed that
higher heat transfer corresponds to higher entropy production, and
Latin alphabet stronger magnetic fields reduce heat transfer and irreversibility. Ekiciler
C Heat capacity ، J/kg.K. et al. [29] explored numerically and experimentally the flow and heat
Cp Specific heat capacity at constant pressure ، J/kg.K. transfer characteristics of nanofluid flow in a parabolic trough solar
D Channel width ، m. collector at different flow rates and nanoparticle volume fractions. They
h convective heat transfer coefficient ، W/m2.K. showed that compared to traditional fluid, utilizing nanofluid results in
H Tooth length ، m. significantly improved thermal performance. Several challenges can be
K thermal conductivity of the fluid ، m2/s2. arose by fluids containing particles of various sizes, including nano­
Nu Nusselt number. particles, including channel blockage, pipeline erosion, and pressure
P Pressure ، Pa. drop increases [30]. Even with their well-known drawbacks, nanofluids
PEC Thermal efficiency coefficient. are useful in thermal systems due to their positive impact on convective
Pr Prandtl number. heat transfer. Consequently, a large number of experimental studies
Re Reynolds number. have been conducted to investigate their properties and applications
t Time، s. [31].
T Temperature، K. Prior research has shown limited exploration of the combined utili­
zation of turbulators and nanofluids to enhance the effectiveness of solar
Geek alphabet thermal collectors. Given the increasing interest in employing nano­
φ Volume fraction. fluids within such collectors and their associated applications, this
μ dynamic viscosity of the fluid, (Pa s). current study holds importance in investigating, discussing, and high­
ρ density of the fluid, (kg/m2) ، Kg/m3. lighting the significance of synergistically harnessing the impact of
α Fluid thermal conductivity ، m2/s. nanofluids and turbulence generators in solar collectors. The primary
β Bejan number. objective is to improve thermal performance and maximize the utiliza­
λ Thermal conductivity ، W/m.K. tion of solar energy, with the assistance of entropy generation analysis.
According to the background of the presented research, triangular and
rectangular tooth geometry is introduced as the optimal geometry in
Manca et al. [32]’s studies, and triangular tooth geometry with the
[15], and the utilization of nanofluids [16].
Taguchi method is introduced as the optimal geometry in Aghaei et al.
Numerous recent investigations have been carried out involving
[33], but the effect of other methods of increasing heat transfer was not
nanofluids due to their remarkable thermal characteristics, which
investigated in these studies. In this work, the ideal shape is chosen
greatly augment the efficiency of collectors [17]. Nevertheless, limited
among triangular and rectangular teeth geometry using thermal
attention has been given to exploring the potential of turbulators in
improvement coefficient analysis, and the influence of the presence of
enhancing heat transfer. Furthermore, the combined utilization of
nanoparticles as well as the change in volume fraction of nanoparticles
nanofluids and turbulators has received relatively little research atten­
on Nusselt and pressure drop is explored. Another novel aspect of this
tion [18,19].
work is the investigation of entropy generation and the identification of
With regard to turbulator, Keklikcioglu and Ozceyhan [20] investi­
the optimal point. In fact, the maximization of efficiency and effec­
gated two distinct triangular shapes that demonstrated the ability to
tiveness in devices and systems is directly linked to the crucial objective
create an interfacial gap between the tube and its turbulator. This was
of minimizing entropy [34,35]. Consequently, the pursuit of entropy
done at different Reynolds airflow numbers. As the Reynolds number
generation minimization becomes an essential strategy for achieving
increased, entropy production increased, while a decrease in diameter
thermal energy storage systems with the highest thermodynamic
resulted in a reduction. To enhance the thermal efficiency of a tube-type
efficiencies.
solar air heater, Afshari et al. [21] conducted experiments with various
The proposed hybrid nanofluid-turbulator approach has promising
turbulator designs and placements. Alam et al. [22] conducted a
real-world applications in industrial solar heating systems. Conventional
comprehensive literature review focusing on different turbulator tech­
fluids in such systems exhibit limited heat transfer performance,
niques employed to improve heat transfer and minimize friction in solar
resulting in lower efficiency and thermal output. The developed
air heaters and heat exchangers. A thorough compilation of studies on
nanofluid-enhanced approach can offer significant benefits for various
turbulators can be found in Ref. [23], where the authors extensively
industrial processes that utilize solar heating, including water heating
investigated a solar cooling collector utilizing wire matrix and twisted
for municipal and commercial use, agriculture (solar drying of crops and
tape variants. They also conducted simulations under highly
livestock watering), industrial process heating (rubber and plastic
non-uniform sunlight irradiation in an indoor test rig.
curing, metals temperine, textile drying), and solar cooking.
As far as nanofluid is concerned, a conventional heat transfer fluid,
such as water, has a low thermal conductivity and therefore exhibits a
2. Numerical model
limited heat transfer efficiency. Due to these characteristics, numerous
approaches have been developed in order to improve the convective
To solve the governing partial differential equations numerically, we
heat transfer capabilities of these working fluids. Metallic or non-
utilize a finite volume method. Before starting the simulation, the fluid
metallic nanoparticles with sizes less than 100 nm can be incorporated
domain and boundary conditions are initialized. Then, the numerical
into the base fluids as one method of achieving this [24]. A variety of
solution of the governing equations is performed using an iterative
nanofluids can be created using this technique. Nanofluids, however,
approach. The algorithm iterates through the grid cells, updating the
present a number of advantages that deserve careful examination and
variables at each cell until the solution converges to a steady-state or a
thorough discussion [25,26]. For instance, Hong et al. [27] examined
predetermined convergence criterion is met. In our simulations, the
the thermal and flow characteristics of a parabolic-trough solar collector
ANSYS FLUENT 18.0 solver is employed, utilizing the iterative time
using Cu-water nanofluids, showing that increasing Cu nanoparticle
advancement technique for solving the set of equations, as documented
concentration enhances the Nusselt number and thermal efficiency,
in references [36]. The set of governing equations undergoes dis­
while also slightly increasing pressure drop. In addition, Chatterjee et al.
cretization using the finite-volume technique, with the variables u, v, p,
[28] analyzed four heater-cooler positions on a magneto-thermal
and T being stored at the cell centers. The relationship between pressure

2
E. Barati et al. Next Energy 2 (2024) 100050

and velocity is addressed by the utilization of the SIMPLE algorithm. To 2.2. Governing equations
expedite the computation of the pressure correction, a V-cycle multigrid
method is employed. Additionally, for the discretization of advection Prior to presenting the governing equations, the basic assumptions of
terms, a second-order upwind scheme is utilized, while a central dif­ the solution is presented.
ference scheme is employed for the discretization of diffusion terms. In
order to ensure accurate results, the pressure values at the faces are 1. Steady Flow: The flow is assumed to be steady, meaning it does not
interpolated using a second-order scheme [37]. By incorporating these change with time.
advanced techniques and algorithms into our simulation approach, a 2. Turbulent Flow: The flow is turbulent, which is characterized by
comprehensive analysis of the heat transfer phenomenon under inves­ irregular fluctuations in velocity and pressure.
tigation is enabled. Convergence is achieved when a stringent criterion 3. Incompressible Fluid: The fluid is considered incompressible,
of 10− 6 is reached for the residuals. To validate the accuracy of the meaning its density remains constant during the flow.
findings, a thorough mesh sensitivity test is conducted, with a primary 4. Newtonian Fluid: The fluid is assumed to follow Newton’s law of
focus on the flow over a single circular cylinder. Through this analysis, a viscosity, where the shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear
meticulous assessment and confirmation of the obtained results are strain.
facilitated. 5. K-Omega Turbulence Model: The K-Omega model is used to simulate
turbulent flow, which is found to be suitable for rotational flow and
2.1. Physical model geometries with reverse flow [39].
6. Single-phase Model: The nanofluid is treated as a single-phase,
The representation of the computational domain and coordinate meaning the nanoparticles are well-dispersed and uniformly
system can be observed in Fig. 1. The investigated geometry is a two- distributed in the base fluid.
dimensional channel with a width of D=H, which is serrated in the 7. Nanofluid Effects: The model considers the influence of Brownian
middle of the lower wall channel. The first case tooth to be shaped as a motion of nanoparticles on the nanofluid’s viscosity and thermal
right-angled triangle with a height of 0.2 H and a base of H and the conductivity.
second case teeth are rectangular with a length of H and a width of
0.2 H. To ensure a fully developed flow, the area prior to entering the According to the above assumptions, Eqs. (5) to (7) express conti­
toothed part is 16 H, and the length of the exit region is also extended so nuity, momentum and energy, respectively are presented [40,41]:
that the condition of development at the exit is established.
∂
In the numerical simulation, the known velocity boundary condition (u ) = 0, i = 1, 2 (5)
∂x i
is used for the channel entrance.
[ ( )]
u=U , V = 0, T = 300 (1) ∂ ( ) ∂P ∂ ∂ui ∂uj 2 ∂ui ∂ ( )
ρ uu = − + μ + − δ + − ρ ́ ́
∂xj eff i j ∂xi ∂xi eff ∂xi ∂xi 3 ij ∂xi ∂xj eff ui uj
In exiting from the boundary condition, the output pressure is used (6)
(∂∂xp = 0). The x-direction is specifically aligned with the direction of the
( )
freestream flow, while the y-direction is orthogonal to it on the lower D [( )] ∂ c ∂T
ρeff E + P = [ λeff + p,eff + ui (τij )eff ] (7)
wall at the beginning [38]. Dt ∂xj prt ∂xi
The no-slip boundary condition is also applied for the channel walls.
It should be noted that the continuity equation represents the prin­
u = 0, v = 0 (2) ciple of mass conservation, and Eq. (6) accounts for the acceleration and
convective terms of the fluid’s momentum, as well as the pressure
In the energy equation, the toothed wall has a constant heat flux.
gradient forces and viscous forces. The terms in this equation describe
q = 1000
w
(3) how the fluid velocity changes due to the pressure distribution and in­
m2 ternal friction (viscosity) within the fluid, and finally Eq. (7) represents
For the rest of the walls, the insulation boundary condition is the conservation of energy in the fluid. It takes into account the con­
employed. vection of thermal energy, the conductive heat transfer within the fluid,
and the work done by viscous forces. In this particular case, the model
∂T also includes the effects of nanofluid, considering the impact of Brow­
=0 (4)
∂y nian motion of nanoparticles on the fluid’s viscosity and thermal con­
ductivity. Due to turbulent flow, the last term of the momentum
equation enters the equation and is known as Reynolds stress. With
respect to energy, Pr, T, λeff and CP,eff respectively represent the Perantel
number, the temperature, the thermal conductivity of the nanofluid, and
the specific heat capacity of the nanofluid [42], and Table 1 presents the
properties of working fluid in this investigation.
As a function of temperature, particle diameter (dp =30 nm), mass
fraction of nanoparticles and their density, and the properties of the base
fluid, this relationship is used to model the effect of Brownian motion on

Table 1
the properties of working fluid.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Properties kg kg J W
ρ μ cp κ
m3 m.s kg.K m.K
4
the base fluid (water) 997.1 8.93 × 10− 4179 0.6
nanoparticles (aluminum 3970 - 765 40
oxide)
Fig. 1. Computational domain and coordinate system for a) triangular and b)
rectangular teeth.

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E. Barati et al. Next Energy 2 (2024) 100050

viscosity. In the current study, the thermophysical properties of the

Aluminum-oxide-water nanofluid are determined through the applica­
tion of the following equations [43]:
i. Density:
ρeff = ∅ρp + (1 − ∅)ρf (8)

ii. Heat capacity:

(1 − ∅)ρf cf + ∅ρp cp
ceff = (9)
ρeff
iii. Dynamic viscosity [26]:
μf
μnf = (10)
(1 − ∅)2.5
Given the interplay of coupled phenomena within the examined
physical system, the emergence of irreversibilities is unavoidable.
Consequently, the entropy generation encompasses two distinct irre­
versible elements: local temperature gradients and viscous dissipation.
Fig. 3. Effects on cell numbers on Nusselt number along the wall.
In accordance with the principles of local thermodynamic equilibrium
and linear transport theory, the entropy production can be dissected into
extensive grid refinement ascertains that the outcomes of this study are
two components: viscous entropy, influenced by velocity gradients, and
invariant of the mesh sizes employed. Additionally, Fig. 4 illustrates the
thermal entropy, influenced by temperature gradients [44].
changes in the y + index along the triangular toothed channel. In gen­
[( ) ( ) ]
́ k ∂T 2 ∂T 2 eral, y + values are less than 5, which indicates the quality and accuracy
sgen,t = 2 + (11) of gridding in the geometry of the solution.
T ∂X ∂Y
In order to verify that the numerical results are accurate, it is
{ [( ) ( ) ] [( ) ( ) ] } necessary to compare them with analytical and experimental results
́ μ ∂u 2 ∂v 2 ∂u ∂v 2
sgen,Y = 2 + + + (12) from previous research. For this purpose, two validations are presented
T ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
by changing the Reynolds number and calculating the average Nusselt
by using analytical solutions. This study is validated by comparing its
́ ́ ́
sgen,total = sgen,v + sgen,t (13) results with the analytical results whose equations for the smooth
channel are shown below.
2.3. Grid testing and code validation
Nus = 0.24Re0.8
d pr
0.4
(14)

Fig. 2 shows the meshing of the triangular and rectangular toothed

Red pr 8f
channel. There is a triangular mesh in the triangular area of the solution Nus = ( )12 (15)
( 2 )
area, and a regular square mesh in the rest of the solution area. The mesh 1.07 + 12.7 8f pr3 − 1
in this area is finer due to the higher gradient near the wall. To ensure
that the aspect ratio is within a reasonable range and the value of y+ is
less than 5 [45]. As shown in Fig. 2, the rectangular toothed channel fs = (1.84log10 Red − 1.64)− 2
(16)
meshes perfectly with a regular pattern. The complexity of triangular
f
geometry makes its meshing more important than rectangular geometry. Nus = 8
(Red− 1000)pr
(17)
( )12
The independence of the grid has been investigated for this purpose, as ( 2 )
1 + 12.7 8f pr3 − 1
well as determining the optimal grid size in this geometry. This com­
parison is illustrated in Fig. 3, where the numbers of nodes are 2283294,
1175000, and 444128, respectively. After a comprehensive comparison fs = (0.79log10 Red − 1.64)− 2
(18)
of the three cases, it can be inferred that the coarse mesh exhibits distinct
deviations from the other two cases. In contrast, the results obtained Our study compared two turbulence models, K-Epsilon and K-
from the third meshing closely resemble those of the second meshing, Omega, for predicting friction factor in turbulent flow. Analytical so­
with a maximum discrepancy of less than 4%. In order to reduce the lutions by Petukhov, Gnielinski, and McAdams were used as benchmarks
computational cost, the second mesh size is used. Therefore, having an (Eqs. 14–18). Fig. 5 shows the results. K-Omega performed better,
closely matching Gnielinski’s solution. K-Epsilon overpredicted the
friction factor, indicating limitations. Validating CFD results against
experimental data is crucial for model selection and confidence in pre­
dictions. In conclusion, K-Omega is a more suitable choice for accurate
simulations in turbulent flows.
As shown in Fig. 6, the average Nusselt number changes with the
Reynolds number in three numerical simulations and two analytical
models. It is apparent that the K-Omega model is very close to the
analytical model in terms of the Nusselt number.

3. Results and discussion

This section introduces a model that encompasses both right triangle

and rectangular teeth within a channel. The model is constructed based
Fig. 2. Triangular and rectangular tooth domains and coordinate systems. on the validation process, ensuring a robust match between numerical

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E. Barati et al. Next Energy 2 (2024) 100050

Fig. 4. Variations of the y + index along the triangular tooth channel.

Fig. 5. Comparison of numerical average pressure drop coefficient in terms of Reynolds number with previous analytical solution.

simulation results and experimental data. The primary focus of this wall. In this context, the parameters of entropy production and heat
study revolves around investigating heat transfer characteristics in transfer improvement coefficient are considered essential factors for
aluminum-oxide nanofluid suspended in water under conditions of high evaluation. The Reynolds number is 20,000, the selection of Re= 20,000
Reynolds numbers and turbulent flow. The effects of nanoparticle vol­ allowed the study to strike a balance between representing real-world
ume fraction on Nusselt number, pressure drop, and thermal efficiency conditions in solar heating systems and maximizing heat transfer im­
are also examined. To comprehensively analyze the entropy production provements. This choice provides valuable insights into implementing
system, the investigation is divided into two key aspects: thermal and hybrid nanofluids with turbulators, advancing sustainable and efficient
frictional entropy. Moreover, the effect of nanoparticle volume fraction solar heating technologies.
on entropy generation is explored. Additionally, the study compares two
scenarios: variable flux with a positive gradient and variable flux with a
negative gradient, both subjected to a constant heat flux on the toothed

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E. Barati et al. Next Energy 2 (2024) 100050

rectangular channels, and without rib. Based on Fig. 7, two impressions

can be drawn. Firstly, as the volume fraction of nanoparticles increases,
the pressure drop increases in both cases of the channel without teeth
and those with teeth. It is also apparent that the presence of teeth yields
a rise in pressure loss.
Fig. 8 illustrates the change in the relationship between the Nusselt
number and the nanoparticle volume fraction in three states of a trian­
gular channel, a rectangular channel, and a non-serrated channel.
Nanofluids exhibit a greater Nusselt in comparison to pure water due to
the increase in thermal conductivity, particle collisions, Brownian mo­
tion, and also the high surface-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles.
Increasing the nanoparticle volume fraction increases both the thermal
conductivity coefficient and viscosity. Therefore, according to the rela­
tionship between the Nusselt number, which contains the thermal con­
ductivity coefficient, an augmentation in nanoparticle volume fraction
resulted in a rise in temperature gradients, displacement coefficients,
and conductive heat transfer coefficients, and as a result, Nusselt
numbers, a dimensionless number that represents heat transfer, are no
Fig. 6. Comparison of numerical average Nusselt number in terms of Reynolds
longer suitable numbers to present, and in order to accurately evaluate
number with previous analytical solution.
Nusselt numbers, pure water must be conducted in order to make them
dimensionless.
Based on the results of a quantitative analysis, it can be concluded
that 4% nanoparticle volume fraction results in an increase of 4.6%,
11.63%, and 18.5% in Nusselt number in triangular and rectangular
channels without teeth and with teeth, respectively. Due to this, the
effect of nanofluid in a triangular serrated channel is much greater than
in a flat channel, and even greater than in a rectangular serrated chan­
nel. In addition, the presence of teeth increases the Nusselt number
significantly, which is observed in triangular teeth in pure water by
196%, and in nanoparticle volume fractions of 4% by 230%. According
to the results, the presence of nanoparticles enhances the effect of teeth
in improving heat transfer. Additionally, a triangular tooth has a better
heat transfer than a rectangular tooth.
However, a system with an elevated Nusselt number and a reduced
pressure loss is always desirable. As nanofluid is used, the increased heat
transfer encourages the use of nanoparticles. However, the increased
pressure drop of nanofluid as compared to the base fluid, along with the
necessity of compensating for pumping, as a negative parameter, en­
Fig. 7. Variation of pressure drop coefficient with nanoparticle volume fraction courages the introduction of a variable that will influence these two
in three cases with triangular and rectangular, and a channel without ribs. cases. As a result, it is possible to find optimal conditions in practical
applications. Consequently, a variable is defined with a Nusselt ratio in
the numerator and a pressure drop coefficient ratio in the denominator.
The coefficient of thermal efficiency is defined as follows.

Fig. 8. Average Nusselt in terms of volume fraction of nanoparticles in three

cases of triangular and rectangular, and without ribs channel.

3.1. Effect of nanoparticles

Fig. 9. Thermal efficiency of triangular and rectangular teeth in terms of
Fig. 7 illustrates the pressure drop coefficient in terms of the volume nanoparticle volume fraction relative to the reference state of flat channel and
fraction of nanoparticles in three cases of triangular channels and pure water as fluid.

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E. Barati et al. Next Energy 2 (2024) 100050

Nu/Nu0 confounding factors introduced by varying channel geometries. Ulti­

η= (19)
(f /f0 )1/3 mately, the rigor and reliability of the findings are enhanced, facilitating
a more nuanced understanding of the nanofluid’s direct role in
As shown in Fig. 9, the triangular and rectangular toothed channels bolstering thermal efficiency. These insights hold profound significance
are compared to the flat channel with pure water in terms of their in the pursuit of optimized heat transfer systems, with potential impli­
thermal efficiency. Upon careful analysis of the results, it is evident that cations spanning a broad spectrum of engineering applications and in­
increasing the volume fraction of nanoparticles up to a critical level of dustrial domains.
4% has a substantial impact on the thermal efficiency of both the Fig. 11 illustrates the distribution of velocity, pressure and temper­
triangular and rectangular toothed channels. Specifically, the efficiency ature in a triangular toothed channel with a volume fraction of 4%. As it
coefficient exhibits a notable improvement of 10% for the triangular is revealed, the cross-sectional area of the tooth area has been reduced,
toothed channel and 6% for the rectangular toothed channel under these resulting in an increase in the speed of the flow. Based on the relative
conditions. Furthermore, in our study, we introduce a quantitative pitch value, only one vortex may be generated or the tooth spacing may
metric to evaluate the heat transfer performance from the toothed be large enough to allow the flow to rejoin after separation. This causes a
channels to the flat channel. Remarkably, when this metric surpasses a change in the flow’s thermohydraulic properties. Fig. 11 illustrates how
value of one, it indicates a significant enhancement in heat transfer from the presence of a wall results in the stagnation of the flow and the in­
the toothed channels to the flat channel. crease in pressure. In the direction of the flow, the speed decreases until
These findings collectively suggest that the incorporation of nano­ a vortex-shaped flow is created in the lower area, and this vortex shape is
particles into the flow within triangular and rectangular toothed chan­ repeated in every tooth.
nels contributes positively to heat transfer performance. The inherent Fig. 12 illustrates the pressure changes in the computational domain
toothed structure of the channels facilitates enhanced mixing and with a volume fraction of 4% along the length of the triangular-toothed
dispersion of nanoparticles, thereby leading to the observed improve­ channel. Due to the creation of vortices in the fluid flow, the pressure in
ments in thermal efficiency compared to the flat channel with pure the toothed area is variable, while in the entrance and exit areas, it is
water. In other words, our study highlights the promising potential of observed to be constant.
utilizing triangular and rectangular toothed channels with nanoparticle
suspensions for applications requiring efficient thermal management. 3.2. Entropy generation
The considerable enhancements in thermal efficiency and heat transfer
underscore the viability of these toothed channels as viable candidates Fig. 13 illustrates that enhancing the volume fraction of nano­
in various engineering and industrial contexts. particles reduces both thermal and viscosity-related entropy pro­
In Fig. 10, a comprehensive comparison is made between the thermal ductions by 4%. However, the production of viscous entropy is
efficiency of the triangular toothed channel and a reference state of pure considerably higher than that of thermal entropy. This could be attrib­
water within the same toothed channel, with a particular focus on uted to the low heat flux on the tooth, as reported by Mahian et al. [46],
varying the volume fraction of nanoparticles within the nanofluid me­ who observed that at low flux, viscous entropy generation surpasses
dium. By adopting this well-defined approach, the discernible effect of thermal entropy generation. Nonetheless, as heat flux on the wall rises,
the nanofluid in isolation on enhancing thermal efficiency is estimated, thermal entropy generation takes over. It is also worth noting that tur­
utilizing the triangular channel as a reference baseline. Through the bulent flows produce more entropy through viscous entropy than ther­
utilization of the triangular channel with pure water as the reference mal entropy. Based on the available evidence, it is expected that viscous
state, a rigorous basis is established for assessing the pure nanofluid’s entropy would play a more significant role in entropy generation than
thermal enhancement capabilities. This approach effectively decouples thermal entropy.
the contributions stemming from channel geometry effects, allowing the Fig. 14 displays the variations in the Bejan number as the volume
isolation and precise quantification of the thermal efficiency improve­ fraction of nanoparticles undergoes alterations. The distribution of
ments solely attributable to the introduction of nanoparticles within the irreversibility globally relative to the average Bejan number can be
nanofluid medium. evaluated through this parameter. The utilization of the Bejan number
By means of this meticulous analysis, insights are sought into the serves as a metric to measure the dispersion of entropy generation,
inherent thermal behavior of the nanofluid itself, untethered from the which is obtained using Eq. (20):
ṡgen,thermal
β= (20)
ṡgen,thermal + ṡgen,viscous

Through the implementation of the Bejan number as a measurement,

the study reveals a decrease in both thermal and viscous entropy pro­
duction as the volume fraction increases, as indicated by the ratio of
thermal to total entropy generation. Notably, while both the numerator
and denominator of this fraction experience a reduction, the decline in
thermal entropy production outweighs that of viscous entropy produc­
tion. This occurrence can be attributed to the heightened volume frac­
tion of nanoparticles. Consequently, the Bejan number displays a
downward trend with increasing nanoparticle volume fractions, result­
ing in a substantial decrease of 58.3% at a volume fraction of 4%.

3.3. effect of non-uniform heat flux in a channel with triangular teeth

The objective of this section is to analyze the impact of modifying the

heat flux distribution on both heat transfer and entropy generation.
Fig. 15 illustrates three distinct distributions of flux, including heat flux
Fig. 10. Thermal efficiency of triangular teeth in terms of nanoparticle volume with a positive gradient, constant heat flux, and heat flux with a negative
fraction relative to the reference state of triangular channel with pure water gradient. It is assumed that the total heat content inside the domain is
as fluid. identical. Consequently, the magnitude of the area under the flux curve

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Fig. 11. Distribution of velocity, pressure and temperature in volume fraction of 4%.

along the wall is uniform in all three instances and equals qL. This dis­ end. In case (c), the flux distribution is the opposite of case (a). Part (b)
tribution can be mathematically defined by the following Eq. (21). of the figure also illustrates the temperature distribution in a state of
⎧ ( ) constant flux, as discussed previously.
⎪ q ¨
0.64
⎪
⎪
⎨ *x − *q→positive gradient
l 0.6
q = ∝ + βx→ ( ) (21)
⎪ ( q ) 1.24 3.4. Examination of Nusselt number and thermal efficiency coefficient
⎪
⎪
⎩ − *x − *q→negative gradient
l 0.6
Based on the information depicted in Fig. 17, the average Nusselt
In Fig. 16, the temperature distribution is shown for three different number is depicted as a function of the volume fraction of nanoparticles
heat fluxes. Evidently, the amount of heat flux in case (a) is greater in the in three distinct modes of heat flux distribution. The previous sections
initial teeth and, thus, according to Fourier’s principle, in a constant have discussed how the Nusselt number varies with a change in volume
temperature gradient, the temperature gradient increases in the initial fraction. The data in Fig. 17 demonstrates that the Nusselt number is
teeth, and diminishes towards the lower teeth until it reaches zero at the highest when the flux gradient is positive and lowest when the flux

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Fig. 12. Pressure changes along the triangular toothed channel at a volume fraction of 4%.

Fig. 15. Schematic of the flux distribution along the toothed wall.

a volume fraction of 4%.

Fig. 13. Changes of thermal entropy and viscous entropy generation according
The thermal efficiency coefficient in relation to the volume fractions
to volume fraction of nanoparticles.
of nanoparticles in three distinct states of flux distribution, is depicted in
Fig. 18. In comparison to pure water with constant heat flux, a modifi­
cation in the flux distribution (positive gradient) leads to a considerable
enhancement of 84% in thermal efficiency. Similarly, a flux distribution
with a negative gradient results in a 76% increase in thermal efficiency,
in a volume fraction of 4%, in contrast to pure water in a channel
without teeth. Additionally, the thermal efficiency of the fluid with a
volume fraction of 4% is 15% better with a variable flux that has a
positive gradient compared to a constant flux.

3.5. Investigating entropy generation

Fig. 19 exhibits the thermal entropy generation as it varies with the

volume fraction of nanoparticles in three distinct heat flux distribution
modes. The figure indicates a substantial reduction in entropy genera­
tion for the positive gradient mode when compared to the constant flux
mode. As discussed earlier in this section, heat flux distributions with
positive gradients have demonstrated the highest thermal efficiency.
Moreover, the positive gradient mode exhibits the lowest entropy gen­
Fig. 14. Changes in the Bejan number according to the volume fraction of eration, signifying that the wall flux is optimal for variable flux distri­
nanoparticles. butions with positive gradients from both energy and exergy
perspectives.
gradient is negative. The results show that altering the heat flux distri­
bution from a negative to a positive gradient results in an increase of
11.1% and 14.5% in Nusselt numbers for pure water and nanofluid with

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E. Barati et al. Next Energy 2 (2024) 100050

Fig. 16. Temperature distribution in three heat flux distributions on the wall.

Fig. 17. Variation of Average Nusselt Number with Nanoparticle Volume

Fig. 19. Variation of entropy production with nanoparticle volume fraction in
Fraction in three states of heat flux distribution.
three modes of heat flux distribution.

of nanofluids on heat transfer performance and thermal efficiency.

Through meticulous analysis and experimentation, the following key
conclusions can be drawn:

1. Heat Flux Distribution: Changing the heat flux distribution from a

negative to a positive gradient resulted in substantial enhancements
in heat transfer. The Nusselt numbers increased by 11.1% for pure
water and 14.5% for a 4% volume fraction nanofluid. Moreover,
modifying the flux distribution had a remarkable impact on thermal
efficiency. The use of a positive gradient flux distribution led to an
impressive 84% improvement compared to pure water with a con­
stant heat flux.
2. Nanofluid Performance: The incorporation of nanofluids, particu­
larly with a volume fraction of up to 4%, exhibited enhanced heat
transfer characteristics. The nanofluid-based system demonstrated
increased Nusselt numbers, contributing to improved overall heat
Fig. 18. Efficiency coefficient in terms of volume fraction of nanoparticles in transfer performance. However, it is important to note that with the
three states of heat flux distribution compared to the reference state of a flat increase in nanoparticle concentration, a corresponding increase in
channel with pure water fluid. pressure drop was observed.
3. Channel Configuration: The presence of teeth in the channel design
influenced heat transfer performance. Among the investigated tooth
4. Conclusion geometries, the triangular tooth configuration displayed superior
heat transfer characteristics. The teeth structures resulted in
The research findings presented in this study demonstrate the sig­ augmented Nusselt numbers and pressure loss, ultimately contrib­
nificant impact of altering the heat flux distribution and the utilization uting to increased thermal efficiency.

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E. Barati et al. Next Energy 2 (2024) 100050

4. Exergy Analysis: The exergy analysis revealed valuable insights into [16] M. Ghadiri, O. Haghani, E. Emam-jomeh, E. Barati, Experimental investigation on
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optimization a novel of ARS-CPVT with the effect of inserting a turbulator in the
writing process solar collector, Renewable Energy, 2023,
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ative AI and AI-assisted technologies, authors take full responsibility for [25] H.K. Pazarlıoğlu, R. Ekiciler, K. Arslan, N.A.M. Mohammed, Exergetic, Energetic,
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system, Int. J. Numer. Methods Heat. Fluid Flow. 33 (2) (2023) 510–544, https://
doi.org/10.1108/HFF-03-2022-0163;
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial (b) K. Hong, Y. Yang, S. Rashidi, et al., Numerical simulations of a Cu–water
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