International Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 21:507–522

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40999-022-00786-1 (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().
,- volV)

RESEARCH PAPER

Evaluation of Concrete Bulk Resistivity as the Key Performance Index

for Chloride Transport in Concrete and Rate of Hydration
Parviz Ghoddousi1 • Amir Masoud Salehi2 • Ali Akbar Shirzadi Javid1 • Mohammad Ali Etebari Ghasbeh3 •

Seyedehtina Sajjadi4

Received: 28 April 2022 / Revised: 22 October 2022 / Accepted: 9 November 2022 / Published online: 14 December 2022
Ó Iran University of Science and Technology 2022

Abstract
In the last decades, various test methods have been developed to evaluate the resistance of concrete against chloride
penetration. This study investigated twelve types of concrete to determine which test method is reliable for ranking
concretes. The concrete evaluation included different water to binder ratios (w/b) of 0.4, 0.45, and 0.50 with and
without supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), zeolite, and silica fume. The test methods used included the
rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT), rapid chloride migration test (RCMT), salt ponding test (chloride profile), and
bulk electrical resistivity. The test results revealed that all test methods are appropriate for diagnosing chloride
penetration resistance grading of concrete and can be used as a performance indicator. This result indicates a proper
correlation between the results of the tests. The finding showed that the limitation on the w/b ratio is inadequate to
ensure high chloride penetration resistance, and the lowest chloride penetration was recorded for concrete with binary
SCMs zeolite and silica fume. Results revealed that the increase in concrete electrical resistivity due to the
replacement of pozzolans is much more significant than the w/b ratio effect. Also, it was found that electrical
resistance is a function of pore structure and chemical composition of concrete pores, which is used as a performance
index to save testing time and cost effectiveness.

Keywords SCMs  Bulk electrical resistivity  Chloride ion  Ponding  RCMT  RCPT  Thermogravimetric analysis

1 Introduction simple and reliable with minimum time-consuming without

delay in the construction stage.
Determining a highly reliable indicator or test method to The chloride ingress into concrete is a complex phe-
predict the performance of concrete in extreme environ- nomenon involving multiple mechanisms. As such, a wide
mental conditions has been a main area of research in the array of tests have been developed and used to evaluate the
last four decades. Preventing damage to structures due to chloride resistance of concrete [1]. However, there is no
corrosion of reinforcement in concrete is much less strict way to categorize the existing methods [2]. Some
expensive than repair. But it depends on proposing a types of methods that commonly used: the ponding test (or
method of evaluating the performance of concrete that is chloride penetration depth or profile) according to ASTM
C 1543 [3], AASHTO T259 [4] and NT build 443 [5], rapid
& Parviz Ghoddousi chloride permeability test (RCPT) standardized as
Ghoddousi@iust.ac.ir AASHTO T27 [6] and ASTM C1202 [7], and the rapid
1
migration test according to NT build 492 [8]. All these
School of Civil Engineering, Iran University of Science and methods are non-steady-state tests. Regardless of the
Technology, P.O. Box 16765-163, Narmak, Tehran, Iran
2
advantages and disadvantages of each test method, the
Faculty of Engineering, Kharazmi University of Tehran, relationship between the results of the methods has been
Tehran, Iran
3
studied by researchers.
School of Civil Engineering, Iran University of Science and According to the RILEM report [9], experimental test-
Technology, P.O. Box 16765-163, Narmak, Tehran, Iran
4
ing shows a good correlation between NT build 433, NT
University of Guilan, Rasht, Guilan, Iran

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508 International Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 21:507–522

build 492, and ASTM C 1202. But, Obla et al. [10] 2 Research Method
reported that results from the chloride ponding test had
been shown to not always correlate well with ASTM 2.1 Materials
C1202 test results. Hino junior et al. [11] found that the
correlation between ASTM C 1543 (ponding test) results This study used an ASTM C150 type II Portland cement,
were strong with the NT Build 492 test. Also, the two test silica fume, and zeolite as supplementary cementitious
methods, ASTM C 1202 and NT Build 492, have effects materials. The chemical compositions and physical prop-
that follow the same trend in concrete quality. erties of cement and SCMs are presented in Table 1.
The concrete’s mechanical and durability properties Crushed limestone aggregate was used as coarse
can be improved by supplemental cementitious materials aggregate with a nominal maximum size of 19.5 mm. The
(SCMs) such as fly ash, silica fume, metakaolin, blast specific gravity and water absorption of coarse aggregate
furnace slag, and ternary blends [9, 12–14]. Silva et al. 2.55 and 1.8%, respectively, were measured according to
[14] conducted a literature review to identify the relative ASTM C 127. As a fine aggregate, sand with a nominal
importance of the variables in the chloride diffusion size of 4.75 mm was used. The specific gravity and water
coefficient. They concluded that the type of SCMs is the absorption of sand, 2.60 and 3.9%, respectively, were
most relevant variable in reducing chloride diffusion and measured according to ASTM C 128–12 [25]. The particle
migration. Significant resistance against chloride ion size distribution of both fine and coarse aggregates falls
penetration in concrete by incorporation SCMs and within the permissible limits based on ASTM C33/C33M-
reduction water/binder (w/b) ratio reported by other 18 [26]. The grading curves of aggregates are presented in
researchers such as Park et al. [15]. They demonstrated Fig. 1.
that the vast majority of concretes with SCMs at the A third-generation polycarboxylate-based superplasti-
same age and w/b showed a reduced diffusion coefficient cizer (SP) was used. It was a brown solution with a specific
for chloride ions. Riberio et al. [16] reported that the gravity of 1.1. As a third-generation SP, it improves the
service life of concrete structures could not be associated workability of a concrete mix by electrostatic repulsion and
with simple parameters such as the water/cement ratio. steric hindrance [27].
The chemical composition of cement, mineral additions,
and the distribution of pore sizes affect the chloride 2.2 Mix Proportions
fixation capacity and its ion mobility more significantly.
From about three decades ago until recently, many In the present study, Iran’s national mix design method has
research efforts have been invested in determining been used to determine the initial mix design of ordinary
durability indicators based on concrete electrical resis- concretes. After making the test specimens, the proportions
tivity [17–20]. Electrical resistivity is a fundamental of the initial mixtures were determined based on the
property that describes the rate of ionic transport in desired properties of fresh and hardened concrete. Normal
concrete [21] and is related to the corrosion and pro- concretes were made in three ratios of w/b 0.4, 0.45, and
tection of steel reinforcement [20]. The chloride diffu- 0.5 with a binder content of 375 kg m-3. A mixture of 8%
sion of concrete is associated with the electrical silica fume and 15% zeolite was prepared to evaluate the
resistivity of concrete [21]. Concrete electrical resistivity
is a function of total porosity, distribution of pores, and
Table 1 Characteristics of cement and SCMs
chemical composition of the solution in the pores
[22, 23]. Components Cement Silica fume Zeolite
Moreover, electrical resistivity can be used in place of SiO2 20.74 94 74.35
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) to predict concrete Al2O3 4.90 1 10.32
properties and durability. Ghoddousi and Adelzade [24] Fe2O3 3.50 0.1 0.81
found a correlation between Ca(OH)2 content and the CaO 62.95 1 1.37
electrical resistivity of concrete over time. MgO 1.2 0.6 0.61
This paper is part of an extensive research study that
SO3 3.00 1.2 –
examines the electrical resistivity of concrete as a reli-
LOI (%) 1.56 – –
able key performance index (KPI) of concrete. The
SG 3.150 – –
relationship between the concrete electrical resistivity
Na2O – – 1.22
and three different diffusion and migration test methods
K2O – – 1.13
is presented.
LOI Loss on ignition, SG Specific gravity

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electrical resistivity, and diffusion coefficient, based on the

ponding test.
Cylindrical specimens with a diameter of 100 mm and a
height of 200 mm were prepared for RCPT and RCMT
tests.

2.4 Tests Procedure

The workability of concretes was determined by the slump

test based on ASTM C143 [30]. According to BS 1881
[31], cubic samples (100 mm) were molded for the com-
pressive strength test. After 24 h of curing specimens in the
Fig. 1 Particle size distribution of sand and gravel laboratory with temperature-controlled 18 ± 2 Celsius,
these samples were removed from the mold, cured, and
effect of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). exposed to purpose conditions. After 28 days, the samples’
The amount of 8% and 15% for silica fume and zeolite are compressive strength was measured by the hydraulic jack
chosen as the optimal amounts of replacement for cement with a maximum loading capacity of 2000 KN. Also, the
according to Hassan et al. [28] and Najimi et al. [29]. tests performed to evaluate the durability of concrete, and
Concretes were made with a slump target of 80–120 mm. the degree of hydration are described below.
Superplasticizer was used to achieve this workability level.
The proportions of the concrete mix design are given in 2.4.1 Ponding Test
Table 2.
The ponding test was performed according to NT build 443
2.3 Preparation and Casting of Test Specimens standards. This Nordtest method specifies a method for
determining the penetration parameters to estimate chloride
After the mixing procedure, a slump test is performed on penetration resistance to hardened concrete. All the speci-
the mixtures. Then the mixture is molded for hardened men surfaces except the exposed surface are coated with
tests. Specimens were stored until their test ages in three epoxy resin. A sample of water-saturated concrete is
different exposure conditions, including standard curing, exposed to water containing sodium chloride. After
water containing 5% NaCl solution, and 20% NaCl solu- 60 days of exposure, at least six powder samples were
tion. 100 mm cubic specimens were prepared for com- obtained by drilled core from the exposed surface to cover
pressive strength test, the density of hardened concrete, the chloride profile between the exposed surface and the
depth where the penetrated chloride content has fallen to

Table 2 Proportioning of concrete mixtures

Mix Code w/b Water Cement SF Ze Sand Gravel SP Slump
Kg/m3 % (of binder content) cm

C0.4 0.4 150 375 0 0 1095.9 730.6 0.51 9

SF0.4 0.4 150 345 30 0 1089.5 726.3 0.67 12
ZE0.4 0.4 150 319 0 56.25 1082.9 722 0.86 8
SZ0.4 0.4 150 289 30 56.25 1076.5 717.7 1.25 10
C0.45 0.45 168.8 375 0 0 1067 711.3 0.39 11
SF0.45 0.45 168.8 345 30 0 1060.6 707.1 0.52 13
ZE0.45 0.45 168.8 319 0 56.25 1054 702.6 0.73 12
SZ0.45 0.45 168.8 289 30 56.25 1047.6 698.4 0.96 11
C0.5 0.5 187.5 375 0 0 1038 692 0.19 12
SF0.5 0.5 187.5 345 30 0 1031.7 687.8 0.21 9
ZE0.5 0.5 187.5 319 0 56.25 1025.1 683.4 0.22 7
SZ0.5 0.5 187.5 289 30 56.25 1018.7 679.1 0.33 10

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0.03% of the mass of the sample. The chloride diffusion where Dnssm is the non-steady-state migration coefficient
coefficient, De , is obtained by curve-fitting the chloride (in 9 10–12 m2 s-1), T is the average value of the initial
penetration profile to Fick’s second law: and final temperatures in the anolyte solution (°C), L is the
 
x thickness of the specimen (mm), t is the test duration (h),
C ð x; yÞ ¼ Cs ðCs  C i Þ:erf pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; ð1Þ
4:De :t Xd the average value of the penetration depths (mm) and
U is the absolute value of the applied voltage (V).
where erf is the error function, x is the depth below the
exposed surface (m), and t is the exposure time (t). C(x,y) is
2.4.4 Electrical Resistivity
the chloride concentration (mass %), measured at the depth
x at the exposure time t, Cs is the boundary condition at the
This study utilized the bulk electrical resistivity method.
exposed surface (mass %), and Ci is the initial chloride
An electrical resistance reading device fitted with a 1 Hz
concentration measured on the concrete slice (mass %). De
frequency was employed for this purpose. Then, 100 mm
is the effective chloride transport coefficient (m2 s-1Þ.
saturated cubic specimens with a dry surface were prepared
after 28 days. Two brass plates were used to connect the
2.4.2 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT)
two ends of the samples to the device. A conductive
material is required to correctly connect brass plates to the
Cylindrical specimens with a diameter of 100 mm and a
concrete surface. Cement paste was used for this purpose.
thickness of 50 mm were tested at 28 days. Placing the
Each of the wires of the device connected to one of the
sample specimens in a vacuum pump drained the samples’
brass plates, and the frequency of the device was set to
water, which was saturated with deionized water for 24 h.
1 Hz. The specific electrical resistance of concrete is cal-
The specimens were subjected to 60 V between two cells
culated using Eq. 3. In this equation, R is the electrical
containing 3% sodium chloride (NaCl) solution and 0.3 N
resistivity in ohms (X), q is the electrical resistivity in ohm
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution for 6 h. The total
meter (X.m), L is the test length in meters (m), and A is the
charge passed through the concrete specimens was deter-
test cross-section in square meters (m2).
mined according to ASTM C1202.
RA
q¼ ð3Þ
2.4.3 Rapid Chloride Migration Test (RCMT) L

Cylindrical specimens with a 100 mm diameter and a 2.4.5 Thermogravimetric Analysis

50 mm thickness were removed from the water after
28 days of curing, and excess water was wiped off from the The thermal analysis technique investigates the hydration
surfaces of the samples. Specimens were placed in silicone product phases in cement-based materials. In this method,
cylindrical containers. The catholyte and anolyte reservoirs the calcium hydroxide of mixtures is measured over time.
were filled with 12 L of 10% NaCl and 300 ml sodium The amount of Ca (OH)2 shows a fraction volume of
hydroxide solution (0.3 M NaOH). The anode and cathode unreacted calcium hydroxide. In the cement and water
were connected to the power supply positive and negative reaction process, hydration is initiated, and different phases
poles, respectively, with a capacity of 0–60 V. According are produced. In the pozzolanic reaction, calcium
to NT build 492, the required voltage is set, and the initial
current and temperature are recorded. The appropriate time
for the test is selected, and the proper voltage is applied
during this period. At the end of the trial, the final current
and temperature of the specimens are recorded. Then
samples were split axially into two pieces, and 0.1 M silver
nitrate solution was sprayed on the freshly split sec-
tion. The chloride penetration depth is measured according
to the white silver chloride precipitation. Finally, the
chloride ion migration coefficient is calculated using Eq. 2.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
0:0239ð273 þ T ÞL ð273 þ T ÞLX d
Dnssm ¼ ðX d  0:0238 ;
ðU  2Þt ðU  2Þ
ð2Þ

Fig. 2 Results of compressive strength in different concrete

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hydroxide (CH), made in the hydration reaction, is required Comparing C-0.40 specimens with 0.5 ratio specimens
to react with the SiO2 of SCMs. containing pozzolans shows that the compressive strength
of C-0.40 is higher than SF-0.50 and ZE-0.50 and equal to
SZ-0.50. Therefore, it can be concluded that by con-
3 Results and Discussion structing concretes with a lower w/b ratio without replacing
part of the binder with SCMs, a higher 28-day compressive
3.1 Compressive Strength strength can be achieved compared to concretes containing
SCMs but with a higher ratio of w/b. C-0.40 has 44 MPa,
Since compressive strength is one of the indicators for and SF-0.50 and ZE-0.50 have 42 and 39 MPa compressive
evaluating the overall quality of concrete, this test was strength, respectively.
performed on 100 mm cubic specimens at 28 days.
As expected, in all specimens, the 28-day compressive 3.2 Ponding Test
strength decreased with increasing w/b ratio. Figure 2
shows that both silica fume and zeolite pozzolans have Figure 3 shows diagrams of the amount of diffusion
increased the compressive strength of concrete in all w/ coefficient based on ponding for different w/b ratios at
b ratios, whether used alone or together. According to different depths. The results show that reducing the ratio of
Madhuri et al. [32], by replacing part of the cement with w/b minimizes the amount of chloride penetration in the
zeolite up to 30%, the compressive strength of the concrete concrete surface, but in the lower depths of concrete, there
increases. are no significant changes. SCMs also have a considerable
In all ratios of w/b, silica fume with zeolite and control effect on the penetration of chloride ions. Among SCMs,
specimen (without SCMs) has the highest and lowest the replacement of zeolite and silica fume combination
compressive strength, respectively. SZ-0.40 with 63 MPa causes further improved the quality of concrete against the
showed the most increase, and C-0.50 with 35 MPa penetration of chloride ions.
showed the most down compressive strength at 28 days.
According to Fig. 2, one of the notable points that can 3.2.1 Diffusion Coefficient Based on Ponding Test
be mentioned is that the effect of replacing SCMs in the
lower ratio of w/b is more significant. The difference The ponding test is one of the best and most accurate tests
between concrete containing SCMs and control specimens in the field of chloride ion penetration, and the results of
with a w/b ratio of 0.40 varies between 18 and 45%. the test are in the form of chloride ion profile and diffusion
However, in samples with the 0.50 ratio, these figures are coefficient. The procedure for performing this test based on
only between 12 and 27%. the ASTM C1152M [33] standard is described in
A great point in comparing specimens with silica fume Sect. 2.4.1. The values of the diffusion coefficient in dif-
and specimens containing zeolite is the difference in ferent concrete are shown in Table 3. Dp is a short form for
compressive strength between these specimens at different diffusion based on the ponding test. The results of the
w/b ratios. diffusion coefficient show that in concrete without cement
As shown in Fig. 2, in the w/b ratio of 0.40, the 28-day substitute, reducing the w/b ratio reduces the diffusion
compressive strength of the ZE-0.40 specimen is 58 MPa coefficient.
and about 12% higher than the specimen containing silica Also, using SCMs reduces the diffusion coefficient in all
fume (SF-0.40). But when the w/b ratio increased to 0.50, ratios of w/b, as mentioned in previous studies [32]. The
silica fume performed better than zeolite. SF-0.50 achieved best alternative is the combination of silica fume and
42 MPa and was about 8% higher than ZE-0.50. At lower zeolite.
w/b ratios, zeolite performs better than silica fume at In the study of the effect of SCMs on the diffusion
28-day compressive strength and vice versa in higher w/ coefficient, it is observed that the silica fume substitution
b ratios. The compressive strength of these specimens in has caused a greater reduction in the diffusion coefficient
the ratio of 0.45 is approximately equal. than the zeolite. Zeolite replacement reduces the diffusion
A notable point is in SZ-0.45 specimens; the simulta- coefficient by 22 to 30%, whereas silica fume replacement
neous presence of silica fume and zeolite in the w/b ratio of raises the diffusion coefficient by 29 to 38%. The combi-
0.45 at the age of 28-day did not make much difference nation of silica fume and zeolite has had the most signifi-
compared to when each of these pozzolans was present in cant decrease in diffusion coefficient, causing diffusion
concrete alone. For compressive strength in the 0.45 ratio, coefficient to increase by 41, 36, and 30% at 0.5, 0.45, and
the simultaneous use of these two pozzolans has no justi- 0.4 w/b ratios. These results show that the most remarkable
fication for strength. improvement in concrete quality against corrosion occurs

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Fig. 3 Chloride penetration in concrete with a w/b = 0.5, b w/b = 0.45, c w/b = 0.4

in the ratio of w/b 0.4, and the most negligible improve- As Park et al. and Yu et al. [15, 34] showed, increasing
ment in the ratio of w/b occurs at 0.5. the w/b ratio increases the diffusion coefficient. An over-
Reducing the w/b ratio in concrete with different SCMs view of Table 3 shows increasing the w/b ratio in all
has had different effects. In concrete without replacement, concrete (with and without SCMs) reduces the strength of
reducing the w/b ratio from 0.5 to 0.4 has increased the concrete against chloride penetration.
diffusion coefficient by 25%. On the other hand, in con- The resistance to chloride ion penetration depends on
crete containing different pozzolans, this amount of the binder, and the highest resistance is related to the
improvement (by reducing the ratio of w/b) decreases. In combination of silica fume and zeolite. Also, silica fume
concrete containing zeolite, reducing the w/b ratio from 0.5 has reduced the diffusion coefficient more than the
to 0.4 improved the diffusion coefficient by 17%. In con- replacement of zeolite.
crete containing silica fume and both silica fume and In the study of the effect of SCMs replacement on the
zeolite, this amount was 15% and 17%, respectively. RCMT test, it is observed that zeolite causes minor
improvement by decreasing the w/b ratio. The amount of
3.3 Rapid Chloride Migration Test (RCMT) reduction of DRCM by replacement of zeolite in w/b 0.5,
0.45, and 0.4 are 42, 36, and 67%, respectively. But with
Rapid chloride migration test (RCMT), according to NT the silica fume replacement in these three ratios of w/b, the
BUILD 492 standard, is a non-steady-state simulation that resistance to chloride ion penetration has increased by 60,
evaluates concrete’s resistance to chloride penetration. The 49, and 72%. However, the highest increase in chloride ion
process of performing this test is described in Sect. 2.4.3. permeability is related to the combination of silica fume
The diffusion coefficient based on RCMT results in con- and zeolite, which caused a 70, 66, and 83% increase in
cretes is presented in Table 3. RCMT in three ratios of w/b 0.5, 0.45, and 0.4, respec-
tively. These results show that the most significant

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Table 3 Results of concrete diffusion coefficient based on ponding test, Rapid Chloride Migration Test (RCMT), and Rapid Chloride Perme-
ability Test (RCPT)
Mix code Diffusion coefficient based RCMT test result RCPT test result
on ponding test
Dp (m2/s 9 10–12) DRCMT (m2/ Charge passed (coulomb)
s 9 10–12)

C-0.4 7.84 10.62 3449

SF-0.4 5.58 3.00 791
ZE-0.4 6.13 3.56 1007
SZ-0.4 5.55 1.78 359
C-0.45 8.94 13.08 4743
SF-0.45 6.04 6.67 1060
ZE-0.45 6.53 8.38 1296
SZ-0.45 5.73 4.44 647
C-0.5 10.54 18.71 6359
SF-0.5 6.58 7.44 2210
ZE-0.5 7.40 10.87 2589
SZ-0.5 6.22 5.60 1348

improvement in concrete quality against corrosion occurs of 28 days, C-0.45 and C-0.40 specimens were corroded 36
in the ratio of w/b 0.4 and little progress in the proportion and 53% less than C-0.50, respectively, in the presence of
of 0.45. chloride ions. C-0.50 with 6350 coulombs passed charge
Reducing the w/b ratio in concrete with different SCMs showed the highest penetration rate among all specimens in
has had other effects. In concrete without SCMs, reducing this study.
the w/b ratio from 0.5 to 0.45 increased the chloride ion According to Table 3, the presence of SCMs has been
permeability resistance by about 30%, and reducing the w/ very effective in preventing chloride penetration into
b ratio from 0.5 to 0.4 increased the chloride ion perme- concrete and corrosion of reinforcement. The difference
ability resistance by about 43%. Improving the quality of between the passing charge rate in the concrete containing
concrete by lowering the w/b ratio from 0.5 to 0.45 in SCMs and control specimens is quite remarkable.
concrete containing silica fume has been 10%. This Generally, it seems that the performance of silica fume
improvement in concrete contains zeolite, and the combi- in preventing the penetration of chloride ions into concrete
nation of zeolite and silica fume is above 20%, but has been better than zeolite. Specimens containing silica
reducing the w/b ratio from 0.5 to 0.4, has improved con- fume in all three w/b ratios performed 75% better than their
crete resistance against chloride ion penetration by more control specimens on average. This number was 69% for
than 60%. These results show that the w/b ratio of 0.4 samples with zeolite.
significantly enhances the quality of all concretes. Also, in w/b ratios of 0.5, 0.45, and 0.40, specimens with
silica fume passed 15, 18, and 21 percent less charge than
3.4 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT) specimens containing zeolite. It seems that the lower the w/
b ratio, the silica fume has a better resistance against the
The rapid chloride permeability test is used to evaluate and penetration of chloride in comparison to the zeolite.
estimate durability in concrete. The results of the RCPT The best result in the RCPT test among all specimens
test are shown in Table 3. According to ASTM C1202 was observed in the SZ mixture containing silica fume and
standard, four charge passing ranges of less than 1000, zeolite. SZ-0.50, SZ-0.45, and SZ-0.40 had 82%, 86%, and
1000–2000, 2000–4000, and more than 4000 coulombs 90% less passing charge than their control specimens,
indicate the very low, low, medium, and high penetration respectively. SZ-0.40 showed the best resistance against
of chloride ions in concrete, respectively. It can be chloride ions among all mixtures, with a passing amount of
observed obviously in Table 3 that specimens without 359 coulombs.
SCMs had bad performance against corrosion. In mixtures In w/b ratios of 0.45 and 0.40, the chloride ion pene-
with w/b ratios of 0.50 and 0.45, the chloride diffusion rate trability based on charge passed is less than 1000 coulombs
is in the high zone, and the 0.40 ratio has located in the (very low penetration zone). In w/b ratios of 0.50 with less
medium zone. As expected, the resistance of concrete to than 2000 coulombs (low penetration zone), this combi-
chloride ions increased with decreasing w/b ratio; at the age nation performs acceptably against corrosion.

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Fig. 5 Comparison of RCPT and RCMT test of all specimens

Fig. 4 Electrical resistivity of concrete in different curing conditions

containing SCMs is the significant effect of the w/b ratio on

The difference in chloride penetration between the
electrical resistivity. Reducing the w/b ratio significantly
specimens containing each silica fume and zeolite, alone or
increases the electrical resistivity in concretes containing
simultaneously, compared with the control sample, is quite
silica fume or zeolite.
apparent. This difference is more significant in the lower w/
Curing concrete in water containing chloride with dif-
b ratio. As seen in Table 3, by replacing part of the binder
ferent concentrations reduces the electrical resistivity of all
with each of the SCMs, the resistance of concrete to
concretes without SCMs and with SCMs. Increasing the
chloride ion corrosion can be significantly increased. For
chloride concentration from 5 to 20% further reduces the
instance, the passing charge through SF0.50 and ZE0.50
electrical resistivity. The least effect of chloride solution
was 70% and 65% lower than C0.50, respectively.
exposure is related to concretes containing zeolite.
In classifying specimens according to ASTM C1202
Replacement of zeolite in concrete reduces the electrical
standard, it can be concluded that to prevent intensive
resistivity in all w/b ratios, and the impact of chloride
corrosion of concrete, either the ratio of w/b should be
solution exposure is almost the same as that of concrete
reduced, or SCMs should be used. As seen from the results,
without SCMs. The effect of chloride on electrical resis-
reducing the w/b ratio can prevent corrosion of the rein-
tivity in concrete containing silica fume is insignificant at a
forcement to a limited and insufficient extent. Therefore,
w/b ratio of 0.5. However, by decreasing the ratio of w/b,
the better option is to use SCMs.
chlorine significantly affects electrical resistance and cau-
As shown in Table 3, concrete corrosion was shifted
ses it to be greatly reduced. In these concretes, increasing
from the ‘‘high’’ to the ‘‘medium’’ penetration zone by
the concentration has little effect on changes in electrical
replacing part of the cement with silica fume or zeolite
resistivity.
pozzolans in a w/b ratio of 0.5. The penetration zone
In concrete containing a combination of silica fume and
changed to the ‘‘low’’ zone by replacing the cement by
zeolite, in different ratios of w/b, the effect of chloride is
combining these two pozzolans.
significant, and with increasing chloride concentration, the
In the w/b ratio of 0.45, the shift was from the ‘‘high’’ to
electrical resistivity decreases sharply.
‘‘low’’ and ‘‘very low’’ zone, and the ratio of 0.4 was from
the ‘‘medium’’ to the ‘‘very low’’ penetration zone.

3.5 Electrical Resistivity

Figure 4 shows the electrical resistivity of different mix-

tures in three types of curing conditions. According to the
results, the lowest electrical resistivity values are related to
concrete without SCMs. In these concretes, reducing the w/
b ratio causes to decrease in the electrical resistivity very
little. SCMS replacement significantly increases electrical
resistivity. Among the SCMs, silica fume has increased the
electrical resistivity more than zeolite. But the combination
of silica fume and zeolite causes the greatest increase in
electrical resistivity. A noteworthy point in concretes Fig. 6 Comparison of RCPT and RCMT test results based on
pozzolans

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International Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 21:507–522 515

drops from 0.50 to 0.45 than when it declines from 0.45 to

0.40. This trend is reversed in the case of specimens con-
taining each of the silica fume and zeolite alone or
simultaneously; the slope of diagrams from 0.45 to 0.40 is
much higher than the 0.50 to 0.45 ratios.
The control sample observed the most significant
reduction in chloride ion penetration by reducing the w/
b ratio from 0.50 to 0.45. In the process of lowering the w/
b ratio from 0.45 to 0.40, the slope of the specimens con-
taining SCMs is relatively steep. This indicates that the
ratio of the reduction in migration coefficient rate to the
decrease in passed charge rate has been higher. The chlo-
Fig. 7 Comparison of ponding and RCPT tests ride migration coefficient in this range has decreased by an
average of 57%.

3.6 Relationship Between RCPT and RCMT Tests 3.7 Relationship Between Ponding and RCPT
Tests
To compare and evaluate the results of the rapid chloride
permeability test and the rapid chloride migration test, The ponding test is the most accurate test to determine the
Fig. 5 is presented. This comparison seems important since penetration of chloride ions in concrete. However, because
both tests are based on the resistance of concrete against performing this test is difficult, time-consuming, and
chloride ion penetration. expensive, accelerated tests such as RCPT have been used
According to Fig. 5, as shown in the results of each instead of that test. As a result, a comparison between the
experiment separately, by reducing the ratio of w/b, the results of these two tests was conducted to verify the
resistance of concrete to chloride ion penetration increased. accuracy of the accelerated chloride ion test in concrete,
Reduction of passed charge rate and chloride migration which is discussed below.
coefficient in lower w/b ratios was observed in both control The first point observed in Fig. 7 is the linear relation-
specimens (without SCMs) and samples containing SCMs. ship between the results of the two tests. According to
It seems to be a linear relationship between these two Fig. 7, the RCPT and ponding tests are linearly related in
tests in concrete with an acceptable error. SCMs present or absent at all w/b ratios.
DRCMT ¼ 0:0025DRCPT þ 2:4221; ð4Þ Dp ¼ 0:0008DRCPT þ 5:1623; ð5Þ
2
R ¼ 0:9141; R2 ¼ 0:9836;
where DRCMT is the rapid chloride migration test coeffi- where Dp and DRCPT are diffusion based on ponding and
cient, and DRCPT is the rapid chloride permeability test passed charged, respectively, thus, it is concluded that
coefficient. despite the drawbacks of the RCPT test (rising specimen
A notable point is reducing the penetration of chloride in temperature), the results have acceptable accuracy.
the specimens. As can be seen in Fig. 6, the trend of It seems that using the result of the rapid chloride per-
increasing the resistance of concrete to chloride penetration meability test, the amount of penetrated chloride in con-
in concrete with different SCMs was almost the same and crete can be easily calculated at high speed and an
different from the control specimens. In concrete without acceptable error.
SCMs, the graph slope decreases more when the w/b ratio

Table 4 Chloride diffusion coefficient values obtained from the ponding test and rapid chloride migration test (RCMT) in different concrete
w/b Ponding RCMT Ponding RCMT Ponding RCMT Ponding RCMT
NC SF ZE SZ
(m2/s 9 10–12)

0.4 7.89 10.61 5.58 3.00 6.14 3.55 5.55 1.77

0.45 8.94 13.1 6.04 6.67 6.54 8.38 5.73 4.44
0.5 10.54 18.71 6.58 7.43 7.40 10.87 6.22 5.6

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Table 4 shows the chloride ion diffusion coefficient

values obtained from ponding and chloride ion migration
(RCMT) tests. A comparison of values shows that in
concrete without cement substitute, the amount of diffusion
coefficient obtained from RCMT is significantly higher
than the diffusion coefficient-based ponding test. This
difference is between 5 and 8 units. But with the replace-
ment of cementitious materials, this difference is not the
same and varies in different ratios of w/b. For the w/b ratio
of 0.5, the value obtained from the RCMT test is generally
less than that obtained from the ponding. In concrete
containing silica fume-zeolite composition, the amount
Fig. 8 Comparison of ponding and RCMT tests received from ponding is generally higher than that
obtained from RCMT.
3.8 Relationship Between Ponding and RCMT Figure 8 shows the relationship between the ponding
Tests test’s diffusion coefficients and the RCMT test results.
Based on the drawn linear fit, there is a good synchro-
In this section, the values of diffusion coefficient obtained nization between these two experiments, and the R2
from ponding and RCMT test in different concrete are coefficient is about 0.93.
investigated.

Fig. 9 Relationship between electrical resistivity and Ponding test

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International Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 21:507–522 517

curing leads to changes in the relationship. Curing in water

causes the highest constant coefficient, and increasing the
salt concentration reduces the constant coefficient. The
relationship’s power is negative, indicating a decrease in
the diffusion coefficient of chloride ions with an increase in
electrical resistivity. The model’s power in water curing is
less than in conditions with different salt concentrations.
The results of the power equation fitting between the
electrical resistivity test and the diffusion coefficient of all
specimens do not have a suitable approximation. By sep-
arating the results in different ratios of w/b and fitting the
power equation from them, the relationship with much
Fig. 10 Relationship between electrical resistivity and Ponding test in higher accuracy is obtained (Fig. 10). The details of the
different w/b ratios power equation are given in Table 5. The values of these
equations show that decreasing the w/b ratio causes an
Table 5 The equation between electrical resistivity and Ponding test overall increase in the diffusion coefficient level. On the
other hand, based on the power of the equation, increasing
w/b ratio Power equation R2
the electrical resistivity in concretes with a high w/b ratio
0.4 14.675x-0.164 0.956 significantly reduces the diffusion coefficient of chloride
0.45 18.358x-0.198 0.948 ions.
-0.228
0.5 22.314x 0.881
3.10 Relationship Between Electrical Resistivity
and RCPT

Dp ¼ 0:3032DRCMT þ 4:5453; ð6Þ As shown in the previous sections, the pondering test is
closely related to accelerated chloride ion tests such as
R2 ¼ 0:9359; RCPT and RCMT. As expected, the relationship between
where Dp and DRCMT are diffusions based on ponding these two tests and the electrical resistance test is similar to
and RCMT tests, respectively. Ru He et al. and Rilem that between reflection and electrical resistance tests. As
TC211-PAE [35, 36] studies observed a relatively similar can be seen in Fig. 11, in all three curing conditions, the
relationship. Although Rui He et al. [36] equations were relationship between the rapid chloride permeability test
calculated for mortar and paste, results showed a good and electrical resistivity test is exponential. With increas-
trend and coordination with previous studies. ing electrical resistivity, the penetration of chloride ions in
concrete has decreased. As mentioned in the previous
3.9 Relationship Between Electrical Resistivity section, the reduction of the w/b ratio and the use of SCMs
and Ponding Test has increased the resistance of concrete to the penetration
of chloride ions and its electrical resistivity. Thus, it seems
Figure 9 shows the relationship between electrical resis- that using the 28-day electrical resistivity of concrete, it is
tance results and the diffusion coefficient obtained from the possible to estimate the penetration of chloride ions in
Ponding test. According to previous research, the rela- concrete with a suitable approximation through the rela-
tionship between electrical resistivity and diffusion coef- tionships presented in Fig. 11.
ficient is exponential [15, 37]. The fitting of the exponential By separating the results in different ratios of w/b and
model of the results is presented in Fig. 9. As can be seen, fitting the power equation from the RCPT-Electrical
the relation between electrical resistivity and diffusion Resistivity test results, the relationship with much higher
coefficient of the ponding test change in different curing accuracy is obtained (Fig. 12). The details of the power
conditions, and most of the accuracy is related to the curing equation are given in Table 6. The values of these equa-
condition in 20% chloride concentration. Changing the tions show that the charge passed by concretes with a

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Fig. 11 Relationship between electrical resistivity and RCPT test

Table 6 The equation between electrical resistivity and the RCPT test
w/b Power equation R2

0.4 153168X-0.961 0.9665

0.45 114728X-0.861 0.972
0.5 63433X-0.664 0.9645

w/b ratio has a greater effect on reducing the permeability

of chloride ions.

Fig. 12 Relationship between electrical resistivity and RCPT test in 3.11 Relationship Between Electrical Resistivity
different w/b ratio and RCMT

higher w/b ratio is more elevated. Decreasing the w/b ratio According to Fig. 13, the relationship between the results
leads to an overall reduction in the passing charge level. On of the chloride ion migration test and the electrical resis-
the other hand, based on the power of the equation, tivity test of the specimens is exponential. Still, the cor-
increasing the electrical resistivity in concretes with a high

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International Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 21:507–522 519

Fig. 13 Relationship between electrical resistivity and RCMT test

Table 7 The equation between electrical resistivity and RCMT test Table 8 The amount of Ca (OH)2 at the ages of 28, 140, 250, and
2 365 days in different concretes
w/b Power equation R
Mix code 28 day 140 day 250 day 365 day 365–28
-0.772
0.4 214.24X 0.9676 Ca(OH)2 (%)
0.45 79.132X-0.462 0.9888
C-0.4 15.21 16.62 17.80 19.25 4.04
0.5 117.88X-0.525 0.9253
SF-0.4 13.99 16.83 18.25 19.06 5.07
Ze-0.4 12.30 12.94 14.75 15.85 3.55
SZ-0.4 11.87 13.81 14.66 15.91 4.04
relation between the results of this test and the electrical C-0.45 18.89 20.46 21.89 23.24 4.35
resistivity is less than the previous two tests. SF-0.45 16.68 19.27 20.31 21.00 4.32
The exact relationship is established in the results of the Ze-0.45 13.52 14.50 16.04 17.02 3.5
RCMT test as in the previous sections. The diffusion of SZ-0.45 12.74 15.01 15.79 17.03 4.29
concretes with a higher w/b ratio is more elevated, and C-0.5 19.54 21.89 23.89 25.27 5.73
decreasing the w/b ratio causes an overall decrease in the SF-0.5 18.53 21.67 22.82 23.52 4.99
diffusion level. The details of the power equation are given Ze-0.5 14.25 15.29 16.74 17.62 3.37
in Table 7. SZ-0.5 11.92 14.50 15.17 16.37 4.45

3.12 Thermogravimetric Analysis

be considered an estimate of the hydration cement and
Table 8 presents the amount of Ca (OH)2 at 28, 140, 250, cementitious supplementary materials (SCMs). These
and 365 days. The amount of Ca (OH)2 and its increase can results are shown in Fig. 14 in all ratios of w/b. The results

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Fig. 14 The amount of Ca (OH)2 in different w/b ratio contain SCMs

show that the amount of Ca (OH)2 in concrete without 4 Conclusion

SCMs increases over time (growth of hydration). Also, in
concrete without SCMs, the growth rate decreases over This research evaluated 12 mix designs with three w/b ra-
time as the w/b ratio decreases. In addition, the total tios and two types of SCMs based on compressive strength,
amount of Ca (OH)2 in concrete with low w/b is less, and Ponding, RCPT, RCMT, electrical resistivity, and TG tests.
the difference in the amount of Ca (OH)2 from 28 to The results of this research are as follows:
365 days is greater for concretes with higher w/b.
1. In all experiments which have been performed in this
After the correction, the amount of Ca(OH)2 in con-
study, the reduction of the w/b ratio and use of SCMs
cretes containing different SCMs increases over time
lead to improvement in concrete properties (increase in
[24, 38]. The growth rate of Ca (OH)2 with time in SZ, SF,
compressive strength and electrical resistivity, decrease
and Ze is rising, respectively. The total amount of Ca
in penetration of chloride ion). However, using SCMs
(OH)2 is reduced by replacing SCMs at 365 days. The
was more effective than reducing the w/b ratio.
reduction is proportional to the amount of replacement so
2. In concrete without SCMs, reducing the w/b ratio from
that the total amount of Ca (OH)2 is the lowest in SZ
0.5 to 0.4 has decreased the chloride diffusion coef-
concretes and the highest in SF mixes.
ficient by about 25%. In concrete containing zeolite,

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International Journal of Civil Engineering (2023) 21:507–522 521

reducing the w/b ratio from 0.5 to 0.4 improved the Funding No funding was received for this research.
diffusion coefficient by about 17%. In concrete
containing silica fume and zeolite-silica fume combi-
Declarations
nation, this amount was 15% and 17%, respectively.
The best SCM is replacing the binary combination of Conflict of interest The authors of the study certify that they have NO
zeolite-silica fume. affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any
3. In the RCPT test, replacing part of the cement with financial interest (such as honoraria; educational grants; participation
in speakers’ bureaus; membership, employment, consultancies, stock
SCMs greatly reduced the passing charge of concrete.
ownership, or other equity interest; and expert testimony or patent-
The best result belonged to the combination of silica licensing arrangements), or non-financial interest (such as personal or
fume and zeolite. Specimens containing SF and SZ professional relationships, affiliations, knowledge or beliefs) in the
improved the results of the RCPT test between 82 to 90 subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.
percent in comparison to standard concrete in different
w/b ratios. This caused a shift from the ‘‘high’’ and
‘‘medium’’ zone to the ‘‘low’’ and ‘‘very low’’ pene-
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