Unit-ll

Teaching practice
By
Hidayat Khan
Lecturer KMU
 Define teaching?
 Describe the purpose of teaching?
 Understand the process of teaching?
 List the types of teaching?
 Discuss various teaching methods?
 Enlist the qualities of good teaching?
 Teaching is a process intended for learning by
inducing a BEHAVIORAL CHANGE in the
student.
 It is an art of communicating a message with
impact on audience.

WHY TEACHING
Teaching creates knowledge awareness and feelings in
the student and brings about behavioral change.
Teacher Student Message

Well prepared CLEAR

Sensitized SPECIFIC
Receptive BRIEF
No Communication barriers ACCURATE
COGNITIVE PSYCHOMOTOR AFFECTIVE
DOMAIN DOMAIN DOMAIN

KNOWING
DOING being

KNOWLEDGE ATTITUDE PRACTICE

TEACHING
 Teacher learns
while teaching
 Teaching equips

• Cognitive domain with knowledge and psychomotor

domain with feelings and interest.
• Both these domains affect the affective domain to do
or practice.
• If this practicing of teaching is done on regular basis
with positive feeling ,liking for the subject , subject
will be internally absorbed and retained
(internalization)
• Whenever the it is needed, the cognitive domain
provides or recalls the stored facts and concepts
automatically( automatism)
• Then one can profess about the subject.
• Once the affective domain is enriched with
knowledge and positive attitude Internalization of the
subject ( subject will be assimilated) will occur.
• Internalization will lead to development of
automatism( recalling the concepts and the facts about
subject automatically) and command over the subject.
• Then he can profess about that subject (becomes a
professor)
 ACTIVE
 PASSIVE
 LEARNER ORIENTED
 TEACHER ORIENTED
1. Lecture
2. Lecture discussion
3. Seminar
4. Symposium (Symposium a conference or meting
to discuss particular subject )
5. Panel discussion
6. Group discussion
7. Tutorials
8. Role play
9. Integrated teaching (horizontal and vertical)
10. Workshops
11. Conferences
QUALITIES OF GOOD
TEACHING
 Good Concept ( thorough preparation)
 Organized Content ( lesson planning)
 Good Quality and optimum quantity
 Sequence
 Relevance
 Learner oriented
1. Set induction
2. Introducing topic
3. Topic organization
4. Reinforcing or stimulating
5. Summarizing
• Bringing the mood of the audience into the topic.
• Make sure that your audience is ready to receive the
message you are going to deliver by appropriate
means which will make them attentive and receptive
like:
1. Verbal questioning
2. Handouts
3. Problem/exercises
 Introduce the topic to the students by means of
1. Title
2. Learning objectives
3. Performance objectives
 Prepare lesson plan keeping in mind
1. Relevance
2. Sequence
3. Editing
4. Time management
 Make the lesson both comprehensive and
interesting by Reinforcing with
1. Facts and figures
2. Problems/exercises
3. Giving Examples
4. Making it a two way lecture discussion by asking
few questions( particularly the students who are
not attentive.
• Make it more interesting and LIVELY by
1. Repetition of the main points
2. Stressing the important ones
3. Pauses to make something more effective
4. Relevant personal experiences
5. Purposeful body movements, gestures, voice
modulations, eye contact etc.
 Teacher teaches
( not the black board, OHP or PPT)
 Teaching is a flow of thoughts ( stream of
thoughts).
 It is a continuous process , hence there should be no
unwanted interruptions.
• Summarize your lecture
• By checking whether you have explained all the
learning objectives you have chosen.
• Just repeat your learning objectives giving stress on
main points.

• Please note that summarization is not evaluation

or assessment of impact of your lecture. It completes
just delivery of lecture, but does not measure the
impact of lecture on the audience.
• Can be done in several ways
• One sided (by teacher himself)
• Two sided (teacher and student)
• Third party assessment
• Self designed using the understanding of the
learning objectives of the lecture as criteria.
Or
• Basing on the basics of any lecture like the content,
quality of presentation etc
• You can give points to components of lecture
and grade yourself or get it done by the student
or third party.
• Example: 10 marks score
• 1 mark each for Set induction, Organizing
lesson, Reinforcement, Stimulation, Vocal
clarity, Expressions , Relevance, Sequence,
Preparation of slides, Usefulness to the student,

Excellent lecture= scored 8-10 points; good

lecture=6-8 points; average lecture=4-6 points;
poor lecture=<4 points
 Worthy points to
remember regarding
teaching
 Teaching is an art not just reading from a book
and reproducing in the class room

TEACHING DIMENSIONS
 Teacher development is mutual with the student
development and vice versa.
 Don’t throw the blame on the students for your
failure to create an impact with your lecture.
Students are immature, less skilled, emotional and
teachers are mature, more skilled and composed.

Best way to control the students is by giving them

best lectures.
FROM MY OWN KNOWLEDGE AND 23
YEARS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE

THANK YOU
Stages in Learning, Physical
Environment and well being
Teaching and Learning Principles

Dr. Najma Naz

Assistant Professor
INS, KMU
 Objectives
By the end of this unit, the learners will be able to:
 Identify Developmental stages, learning, and experiential learning.

 Discuss the impact of physical and emotional health on learning.

 Discuss physical environment conducive to learning in addition to

well being and learning including behavioral, cognitive, humanistic

and dialectical (interactive) learning theories.
 Conducive: making a certain situation or outcome likely or possibl

e.
 Key Terms
 Learning: The process in which changes occur in knowledge, skills and behavi
or as a result of experience.
 Active Learning: Active learning is a process whereby students engage in activ
ities, such as reading, writing, discussion, or problem solving that promote anal
ysis, synthesis, and evaluation of class content.
 Cooperative learning, problem-based learning, and the use of case methods and
simulations are some approaches that promote active learning.
 Developmental Stages: Milestones marking changes in the physical, cognitive

and psychosocial growth of an individual over time from infancy to old age.
 A developmental stage must be used to meet the health-related educational need
s of the learners.
 Pedagogy, andragogy, and geragogy are three different orientations to learnin
g.
 Role of physical and emotional health in learning
 Physical Health: A state of physical wellbeing in which a per
son is physically fit to perform their daily activities without re
strictions.
 Emotional Health: The sense of wellbeing that enables a pers
on to have cognitive and emotional capabilities to function in
society and meets the demands of everyday life.
 An emotionally healthy person is:
 Open minded
 Open hearted
 Assertive
 Proactive
 Expresses emotions appropriately

Terms cont..
Emotional Health: A state of emotional and psychological well-being in which
the individual is able to cope with the normal stresses of life, work productively
, and to make a contribution to his or her community.
 Cognition is the set of all mental abilities related to attention, memory, evaluat
ion, reasoning, problem solving, decision making & computation, etc
 Working Memory: the part of short-term memory that is concerned with imme
diate conscious perceptual and linguistic processing.
 Computing an area of high-speed memory used to store programs or data curren
tly in use.
 Memory is the process in which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.
 Reasoning: the process of drawing conclusions to inform how people solve pro
blems and make decisions.

Terms .....
Dialectical Method of Learning:
 Learning that occurs through discussion between two or more people.
 Dialectical method of learning allows adult learners to exchange their ideas, conce
pts, personal and professional experiences.
 Didactic Method: Instructive
 Didactic Method of Learning:
This is an Instructive method that provides students with the required theoretical knowledg
e.
 It is an effective method used to teach students who are unable to organize their work and
depend on the teachers for instructions. It is also used to teach basic skills of reading an wr
iting
 The teacher or the literate is the source of knowledge and the knowledge is transmitted to t
he students through didactic method.
Stages of Learning
Stages of Learning
 STAGE 1: Unconscious Incompetence
 This is the stage of blissful ignorance. We do not know what we do not know.
 In this stage:
 Our Confidence exceeds our ability
 We have little experience or skill
 We are unaware of a deficiency in the subject/skill.
 We must become conscious of our incompetence before learning can begin an
d the new skill develope.
 STAGE 2: Conscious Incompetence
 As our awareness evolves into this stage, we begin to realize how little we know.
 In this stage:
 Confidence drops as we realize our ability is limited
 We feel uncomfortable.
 We become aware of the existence and relevance of the skill, as well as our deficiency in thi
s area
 We begin to realize how much we don’t know
 Practicing the skill takes all our concentration
 Much learning occurs
 Stage 2 Cont....
 We realize that by improving our skill or ability in this area our effectiveness wi
ll improve. We must make a commitment to learn and practice the new skill, a
nd to move to the ‘conscious competence’ stage.
 STAGE 3: Conscious Competence
 We achieve ‘conscious competence’ in a skill when we can pe
rform it consistently at will. We can perform the skill, but it t
akes attention and concentration.
 In this stage:
 Our confidence increases with our ability
 We need to concentrate and think in order to perform the skill.
 We can perform the skill without assistance
 We realize how much we have learned
 This is the stage where many choose to remain. However, true
mastery is not attained until the fourth stage of learning.
 STAGE 4: Unconscious Competence
 In the final stage, the skill becomes so practiced that it enters the unconscious
parts of the brain and it becomes ‘second nature’. This is where we can do
something effortlessly and without thinking about it.
 In this stage:

 Our confidence and ability have peaked

 We no longer have to concentrate on what we know/do

 We can do, but don’t necessarily know how we do

 Stage 4 cont.....
 We blend the skills together and they become habits.
 We can then do them while our mind is on other things.

 This is the stage when the skill becomes almost a habit, we are able to be succ
essful without concentration and our conscious mind is
free to take on other things.
 Factors Affecting Learning
There are many factors that influence learning including ability,
motivation and desire to learn. Let’s categorize these factors
as follow.
 Environmental Factors
 Temperature, Light, Noise, Silence, Design, etc.
 Emotional Factors
 Motivation, Persistence, Attention, likes and dislikes,
responsibility, fear and anxiety
 Social Factors
 Self, peers, and teams
 Factors Affecting Learning cont….
 Physiological Factors
Perceptual (learning style), Intake (food, drink), Time,
Mobility, etc.
 Cognitive Factors
Cognitive factors refer to characteristics of the person
that affect performance and learning. These factors serve to
modulate performance such that it may improve or decline.
These factors involve cognitive functions like attention,
memory, and reasoning.
 Developmental Stages
 An individual’s developmental stage significantly influences the ability to learn.
 Three different orientations to learning are Pedagogy, andragogy, and gerogogy.
 To meet the health related educational needs of learners, a developmental appro
ach must be used---- physical, cognitive, and psychosocial maturation must be t
aken into account in each developmental period.
 Cognitive and Psychosocial
Development
 Refer to the handout given to the students in the class for cognitive and psycho
social development.
 Pedagogy
 Pedagogy and its Forms: Pedagogy refers to the “interactions between teachers, students, a
nd the learning environment and the learning tasks.”(6, p. 35) This broad term includes how
teachers and students relate together as well as the instructional approaches implemented in
the classroom.
Andragogy
 Andragogy
(Malcolm Knowles) Knowles' theory of
andragogy is an attempt to develop a theory specifically for adult learning.
Knowles emphasizes that adults are self-directed and expect to take
responsibility for decisions. Adult learning programs must accommodate this
fundamental aspect.
 Andragogy cont.,

 Pedagogy mainly focuses on the methods applied by the teac

hers in transferring ideas and knowledge to the learners who
are considered to be dependent on the methods of the teach
ers for understanding.
 Andragogy is a self-directed, independent and cooperative w
ay of learning amongst the adults.
 Geragogy

 Geragogy refers to the manageme

nt of teaching and learning for old
er adults and has become a well-k
nown term applied to teaching an
d learning in later life.
Geragogy
 Key distinctions between traditional pedagogy and geragogy include o
ffering "opportunities for older adult learners to set the curriculum the
mselves and to learn through activities of personal relevance" as well
as recognition of age-related issues which may affect learning, such as
reduced sensory perception, limited motor capabilities and changes i
n cognitive processes, especially memory.
Sensory Perception
Perception simply implies the use of the to gain a better
understanding of the world around us.
Cognition is "the mental action or process of acquiring
knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and
the senses". ... Cognitive processes use existing knowledge and
generate new knowledge.
Memory
is the process in which information is encoded, stored, and
retrieved.
Reasoning
the process of drawing conclusions to inform how people
solve problems and make decisions.
Physical and emotional health in learning
 Physical Health: A state of physical wellbeing in which a
person is physically fit to perform his daily activities without restrictions.
 Emotional Health: A state of emotional and psychological well-being in which

the individual is able to cope with the normal stresses of life, work productively, an
d to make a contribution to his or her community.
 Cognition is the set of all mental abilities related to attention, memory,

evaluation, reasoning, problem solving, decision making & computation, etc.

 Physical and emotional health in learning
 An emotionally healthy person is:
 Open minded
 Open hearted
 Assertive
 Proactive
 Expresses emotions appropriately
ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOR
is “Behavior which enables a person to act in his
own best interests, to stand up for himself without
undue anxiety, to express his honest feeling
comfortably, or to exercise his own rights without
denying the rights of others.”
Acting in advance to deal with an expected change
or difficulty.
 Dialectical Learning
Dialectical Learning:
Learning that occurs through discussion between two or more
people.
Dialectical method of learning allows adult learners to exchan
ge their ideas, concepts, personal and professional experience
s.
Dialectical thinking:
The ability of adult learners to find a variety of solutions to any
given situation.
Dialectical : relating to the logical discussion of ideas and opinions.
Dialectical thinking refers to the ability to view issues from multiple perspectives
Didactic Method: Instructive
 Didactic Learning: This is an Instructive method that pr
ovides students with the required theoretical knowledg
e.
 It is an effective method used to teach students who ar
e unable to organize their work and depend on the tea
chers for instructions. It is also used to teach basic skills
of reading and writing.
 The teacher or the literate is the source of knowledge a
nd the knowledge is transmitted to the students throug
h didactic method.
Factors Affecting Learning
There are many factors that influence learning
including ability, motivation and desire to learn.
Let’s categorize these factors as follow.
 Environmental Factors

 Temperature, Light, Noise, etc.

 Emotional Factors

 Motivation, Persistence, Attention, likes and

dislikes, responsibility, fear and anxiety
 Social Factors

 Self, peers, and teams

The major social influencing factors included: language of
feedback and communication, facilitator interpersonal skills, degree
of participation of the facilitator, gender stereotyping and
individualization of feedback.
Factors Affecting Learning cont….

 Physiological Factors
Perceptual (learning style), Intake (food, drink), etc.
 Cognitive Factors
 Cognitive factors refer to characteristics of the person that affect
performance and learning. These factors serve to modulate
performance such that it may improve or decline. These factors
involve cognitive functions like attention, memory, and
reasoning.
Cognitive Factors:
Cognitive factors refer to characteristics of the
person that affect performance and learning. These factors serve to
modulate performance such that it may improve or decline. These
factors involve cognitive functions like attention, memory, and
reasoning (Danili & Reid, 2006).
 Developmental Stages
The individual’s developmental stage significantly influences the
ability to learn.
•Three different orientations to learning are Pedagogy, andragogy,
and gerogogy.
•To meet the health related educational needs of learners, a develo
pmental approach must be used---- physical, cognitive, and psycho
social maturation must be taken into account in each development
al period.
• Andragogy (in young and middle adulthood): the art or science
of teaching adults.
• Gerogogy in old adulthood
Cognitive and Psychosocial
Development
Cognitive theory seeks to describe and explain the
development of thought processes and mental states.
It also looks at how these thought processes influence
the way we understand and interact with the world.
Study guide reference
 Nurse as Educator: Principles of Teaching
and Learning for Nursing Practice, 4th ed.
written by Susan B. Bastable
 website for Nurse as Educator book Gloss
ary
 http://nursing.jbpub.com/nursingeducati
on/interactive_glossary.cfm?Chapter=1&
step=4&resource=glossary
 http://samples.jbpub.com/97807637576
87/57687_CH02_DiZazzo.pdf
Learning Cycle, Styles and Kolb
Model
kmu
objectives
 By the end of this presentation, the students will be ab
le to:

 Define learning
 Identify different learning cycles
 Discuss the types of learning styles
 Discuss Kolb model of learning style
 Explain Learning styles based on clinical scenario
Learning:
 Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the tr
ansformation of experience. [ Kolb ,1984]
Learning Styles:
 Information enters your brain three main ways: sight, hearing and touch
, which one you use the most is called your Learning Style
Or
 Refers to the ways and conditions under

which learners most efficiently and effectively perceive, process, store,

and recall what they are attempting to learn.
Knowledge results from the combination of grasping experience and tra
nsforming it. - Kolb (1984, 41)
Learning Cycle
 The learning cycle is a research-supported method fo
r education.
 It is ongoing learning process that ensures learning p
roficiently.
Theory Behind the kolb Model:
 Some learning style categories focus only on th
e environmental aspects of learning (auditory, v
isual, kinesthetic, and tactile
 Kolb’s learning styles include perception and pr
ocessing .
 According to Kolb, learners perceive and proces
s information in a continuum from concrete exp
erience, reflective observation, abstract concep
tualization, and active experimentation.
Cont...
 Kolb's experiential learning style theory is typically repre
sented by a four-stage learning cycle in which the learn
er 'touches all the bases.
 Each ends of the continuums (modes) provide a step in t
he learning process.
Experiential Learning

 In 1984, David Kolb, a management expert, proposed th

at adult learning is more effective (i.e., processed at muc
h deeper levels) when learners are more directly involve
d rather passively receiving knowledge transmitted by t
eachers.
 Kolb developed what he called the “experiential learning
cycle” in which there are four distinct stages of learning.
Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model

 Kolb’s model has four modes/abilities of learning that r

eflect two major dimensions as perception and proces
sing.
 This model has four learning styles
Kolb Model
Four Modes or Abilities of Learning

 Concrete Experience (CE)

 Reflective Observation (RO)
 Abstract Conceptualization (AC)
 Active Experimentation (AE)
Four Modes of Kolb Model
 Concrete Experience (feeling):
active learning as opposed to passive learning (i.e., learn a
bout something directly by being involved with the materia
l.) Sensitive to other's feelings.
 Reflective Observation (watching):
Learning by observing others. Looks for the meaning of thi
ngs.
 Abstract Conceptualization (thinking):
Logical analysis of ideas and acting on intellectual underst
anding of a situation.
 Active Experimentation (doing):
testing out one’s learning in new situations. Using theorie
s to solve poroblems.
Cont….
 Depending upon the situation or environment, the le
arners may enter the learning cycle at any point and
will best learn the new task if they practice all four m
odes.
Cycle
Kolb's Experiential Learning Cycle:
 David Kolb published his learning styles model i
n 1984.
 Kolb called this Experiential Learning since expe
rience is the source of learning and developmen
t (1984).
 A typical presentation of Kolb's two continuu
ms is that the east-west axis is called the Pro
cessing Continuum (how we approach a task
), and the north-south axis is called the Perce
ption Continuum (our emotional response, o
r how we think or feel about it).
Modes of learning:
 1) Concrete Experience :

 Kolb's cycle starts with a concrete experience.

 learning by EXPERIENCING when a new experience or situation i

s encountered, or a reinterpretation of existing experience

 Personal involvement with people in everyday situations.

2) Reflective Observation
(watching)
 Observing before making a judgment by viewing the
environment from different perspectives.
 This means taking time-out from "doing
and stepping back from the task and
reviewing what has been done and
experienced.
 discussion, brainstorming, thoughts
and questions are main components
of RO
3) Abstract Conceptualization:
(thinking)
 In this stage, learning involves theories, logic and ide
as, rather than feelings, to understand problems or s
ituations.
 Create concepts that integrate their observations in
to logically sound theories
4) Active Experimentation: Okay, I
(DOING) get it
 now.
The final stage of the learning cycle is when the learner
considers how they are going to put what the have lear
nt into practice.
 Ability to get things done through action.
 It Includes risk-taking.
 the learner applies their idea(s) to the world around th
em to see what happens.
Summary:
 Effective learning is seen when a person progresses thr
ough a cycle of four stages: of
 (1) having a concrete experience followed by
 (2) observation of and reflection on that experience w
hich leads to
 (3) the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and g
eneralizations (conclusions) which are then
 (4) used to test hypothesis in future situations, resulti
ng in new experiences.
Two Dimensions
 The dimension of perception has two opposite percept
ual view points: some learners perceive through CE, w
hile others perceive through AC.
 At the CE stage, the learners tend to rely more on feeli
ngs rather than a systematic approach to problems an
d situations. Such learners learn from feeling and speci
fic experience. They are sensitive to others.
Two Dimensions cont...

 At the AC stage, the learners rely on logic and ideas rath

er than on feelings to deal with problems or situations. T
hey learn by thinking.
 The process dimension also has two opposing orientatio
ns: Some learners process information via RO, where as
others process information via AE.
 At RO stage, the learners rely on objectivity, careful judg
ment, personal thoughts and feelings to form opinions.
People who fall into this category look for the meaning o
f things by viewing them from different perspectives. Th
ey learn by watching and listening.
Two Dimensions cont...

 At the AE stage of the learning cycle, the learners tend

to actively involve and to experiment to get things don
e. They are risk takers.
 Kolb learning style:
 Kolb's (1984) learning theory sets out four dist
inct learning styles (or preferences), which are
based on a four-stage learning cycle
Four Learning Styles

 Diverger (CE & RO) – Feels and watches

 Emphasizes the innovative and imaginative approach to
doing things. He/She is feeling people oriented and likes
working in groups.
 Assimilator (RO & AC) – Thinks and watches
 Pulls a number of different observations and thoughts int
o an integrated whole. Likes to reason inductively and cr
eate models and theories. Likes to design projects and ex
periments.
Four Learning Styles Cont…
 Convergers (AC & AE)- Think and do
 Emphasizes the practical application of ideas and solving p
roblems. Likes decision-making, problem-solving, and likes
dealing with practical work rather than interpersonal relati
onships.
 Eg: Nurse, Engineer etc.
 Accommodator (AE & CE) - Uses trial and error method rat
her than thought and reflection. Good at adapting to chan
ging circumstances. Solves problems in an intuitive, trial-a
nd-error manner, prefers to act first then reforms such as
discovery learning.
 Eg: Teacher
VARK Learning Styles
Information enters your brain via four main ways: sight, hear
ing read/write and touch, which one you use the most is c
alled your Learning Style

 V = Visual Learners learn by sight

 A = Aural Learners learn by hearing
 R = Read/Write Learners
 K = Kinesthetic Learners learn by touch
1) Diverging (feeling and watching - CE/RO)
 They prefer to watch rather than do,
 Approach is to observe rather than take action.
 Interested in people and tends to be feeling-oriented
 They perform better in “brainstorming” sessions, or situa
tions that call for looking at things from many angles.
 Prefer to work in teams to gather information. Listen with
an open mind and receive feedback.
2) Assimilating: ( theoritical/basic scientist )
(watching and thinking - AC/RO)
 They are less focused on people and more interested in
ideas, concepts and logically sound theories.
 Theoretical interests
 Combine diverse ideas
 Create models
 Prefer lectures, reading, exploring analytical models.
 Need time to think things through.
3) Converging (thinking and doing - AC/AE)
 Likes decision-making, problem-solving, and likes d
ealing with practical work
 They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned
with people
 Like hands-on experiences
 Want answers quickly
 Asks: “How does this work?”
 A converging learning style enables specialist such
as doctors and nurses.
4) Accommodating (doing and feeling - CE/A
E)
 Uses trial and error method rather than thought and ref
lection.
 Prefer to take a practical. They are attracted
to new challenges and experiences, and to
carrying out plans.
 They commonly act on 'gut' instinct rather than logical a
nalysis.
Summary of learning style:
 Converger
 Decision-making, problem-solving, hands-on work
 Diverger
 Cooperative groups, brainstorming
 Assimilator
 Model/theory creation
 Design projects/experiments
 Accommodator
 Discovery learning Activities, projects
CliniCal scenario
DIVERGING(feeling and watching):
 Once while attending clinical in medical ward, I obs
erved IV line passing to a patient by a charge nurse. I n
oted she started the procedure without handwashing. I
felt worried as it was not according to the authentic an
d hygienic ways.
Cont..
ASSIMILATING(watching and thinking):
 When I came back to hostel, I review the whole pr
ocedure. I relate it with the exact scientific methods. I t
hought about some sound and logical things about IV li
ne.
Cont..
CONVERGING(thinking and doing):
 On the next clinical I got the opportunity to pass IV
line . I started it with the standard steps while thinking
logically . As I took proper start with handwashing and
throughout the procedure I was thinking about each st
ep to do it in a proper way. Finally I did it without any e
rror.
CONT…
ACCOMODATING(doing and feeling):
 While performing clinical in ER, a patient with RTA
came. Doctor advised me to pass IV line as soon as pos
sible. As it was critical situation I started it immediatel
y. I passed IV line even though with many errors which
made me feel bad.
How to Learn Effectively

 What I hear, I forget.

 What I see, I remember.
 What I do, I know.
Problem Solving

 To solve problems, the learner needs to have a clear id

ea of the problem or goal being sought and must be ab
le to recall and apply previously learned rules and princ
iples relate to the situation.
 A clinical situation ........for example, a nosocomial urin
ary infection in a patient with indwelling catheter.
Learning Theories and Ch
aracteristics of Adult Lear
ners
Unit IV
Teaching Learning

Hidayat khan
Lecturer
KMU
 Objectives
By the end of this unit, the learners will be able to:
 Define learning

 Discuss the concept of learning

 Discuss the characteristics of Adult Learners

 Identify factors that influence learning

 Discuss common learning theories.

 Discuss three domains of learning: cognitive psychomotor and affec

tive.
 Terms
 Learning: Learning refers to relatively permanent chang
e in mental processing, emotional functioning, skill and
behavior resulting from practice or experience.
 Learning is life long and dynamic process by which indivi
duals acquire new knowledge or skills and alter their fee
lings, thoughts, attitudes and actions.
 Theory: A set of statements or principles devised to exp
lain a group of facts or phenomena, especially one that
has been repeatedly tested or is widely accepted and ca
n be used to make predictions about natural phenomen
a.
 Terms cont...
 Motivation: is an internal process that makes a person m
ove toward a goal.

 Motivation: Desire to reduce some drive (drive reduction

)

 It may be intrinsic or extrinsic

Terms cont...

 Cognition: the mental action or process of acquiring kn

owledge and understanding through thought, experienc
e, and the senses.
 Metacognition: awareness and understanding of one's
own thought processes.
Terms cont….
 Andragogy:

 Pedagogy:

 Autodidactism:
Autodidactism(also Autodidacticism) or self-education is the act of teaching oneself about a
subject
.

Pedagogy
 the method and practice of teaching, especially as an acad
emic subject or theoretical concept.
Andragogy
 he method and practice of teaching adult learners; adult ed
ucation
 Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) or self-education is t
he act of learning about a subject or subjects in which one
has had little to no formal education. Many notable contrib
utions have been made by autodidacts. Self-directed learni
ng is an unrelated concept
Learning ways

Formal Learning:
 Madrasa, Schools and Universities

Informal Learning:
 From everyday interactions and experience.

 Reflect!!!!!!

 Education is not the process of filling empty minds with knowl

edge.
 Adult Learning
 Studies in adult learning theory show that adults prefer courses tha
t focus heavily on application of concepts to relevant issues.
 To retain and use new information they need to be able to integrat
e the information with what they already know.
 Adults prefer a personalized learning environment with focused eff
ort on concept application where they can solve problems and take
personal responsibility.
Active Learning
 Numerous research studies have shown the value of acti
ve learning, particularly in improving the achievement le
vel of the lowest-performing students. (Johnson & Holub
ec, 1992).
Active Learning Strategies
 There are a variety of active learning teaching strate
gies as:
 cooperative learning, learning styles theory, multiple
intelligences theory, project-based learning, and pro
blem based learning.
Cont…..
 Cooperative learning is a structured experience in which
students work together to achieve a common goal. The
basic elements of cooperative learning are positive inter
dependence, individual accountability, equal participati
on, and simultaneous interaction (Kagan, 1994).
 Benefits of Active Learning
 Active learning in the classroom allows students to take responsi
bility for their own learning. Teachers become facilitators rather t
han repositories of knowledge. Active learning has many benefits
:
 Allows each learner to be recognized and rewarded for special str
engths;
 Provides opportunities for learners to adapt their studies to their
interests and learning preferences;
 Reduces the chances of boredom by offering a variety of activitie
s; and
 Provides a teaching/learning methodology that works.
People’s knowledge and attitude Influences w
hat they do

 Adult learning is seen as:

 Change in knowledge
 Change in attitude
 Change in behavior
 Change in skills
 Change in thinking
 Change in productivity
Characteristics of Adult Learners

 Adult learners are autonomous and self-directed

 Adult learners have a foundation of life experiences
and knowledge
 Adult learners are goal-oriented
 Adult learners are relevancy-oriented
 Adult learners are practical
 Adult learners need to be respected
 Comparison
Child Learner Adult Learner

Independent
Dependent
 Can share responsibility for th
 The teacher is responsible for l
eir own learning b/c they kno
earning process.
w their own needs
 Taught in direct way
 Active learners
 Passive learners
Experience
Inexperience
 They bring experience into ed
 Children have little experience
ucational setting
 Knowledge delivery one fashion
Participate
Learn Blindly  Weigh pros and cons reflect a
 Learning is information based a nd participate.
nd prospective Motivation
Motivation  Is internal driven by real life n
 Is external via pressure, fear, pr eeds.
aise
Learning Theories

There are a number of Learning Theories but Common

learning theories are:

1. Behaviorism

2. Cognitivism

3. Social Learning Theory

Behaviorism
 This theory focuses on what is directly observed.
 Behaviorists view learning as the product of the stimulus co
ndition(S) and Response (R).
 Application in Clinical psychology and education along with
other learning theories.
Classical Conditioning Theory
 Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which respo
nse is elicited by a stimulus through associative learning.
 it is sometimes called “reflexive learning”
or “respondent conditioning”
 The Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, experimented on hi
s dogs in 1905
◦ discovered classical conditioning
◦ received the Nobel Prize in science for discovery
Pavlov’s Experiment
Analysis of Pavlov’s Study
 Classical Conditioning
 Terminology of Classical Conditioning
◦ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):
any stimulus that always and naturally elicits a response.
◦ Unconditioned Response (UCR):
any response that always and naturally occurs at the present
ation of the UCS
◦ Neutral Stimulus (NS):
any stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response associat
ed with the UCR
A neutral stimulus is a stimulus which initially produces no specific response other
than focusing attention. In classical conditioning, when used together with an
unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus.
Classical Conditioning cont…

 Conditioned Stimulus (CS):

any stimulus that will, after association with an
UCS, cause a conditioned response (CR) when p
resent to a subject by itself.
 Conditioned Response (CR):
any response that occurs upon the presentation
of the CS.
 Classical Conditioning
 Certain stimuli can elicit a reflexive response
◦ Air puff produces an eye-blink
◦ Smelling a grilled steak can produce salivation
 The reflexive stimulus (UCS) and response (UCR) are
unconditioned
 In classical conditioning, the CS is repeatedly paired
with the reflexive stimulus (UCS)
◦ Conditioning is best when the CS precedes the UCS
 Eventually the CS will produce a response (CR) similar
to that produced by the UCS
 Importance of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is involved in many of our behavior
s
◦ wherever stimuli are paired together over time we come to r
eact to one of them as if the other were present
e.g: a particular sound you hear and you immediately think of a
particular person.
Application in Class and health care settings
 In the area of classroom learning, classical conditioning
primarily influences emotional behavior.
 For example, if a particular academic subject or remem
bering a particular teacher produces emotional feelings
in you, those emotions are probably a result of classical
conditioning.
 Rewards and punishments….operant conditioning
 Hospital visit……first time
Cognitive Learning Theory
 Behaviorists generally ignore the internal dynamics o
f learning.
 Cognitive learning theorists stress the importance of
what goes on inside the learner.
 Cognitive theory is widely used in education and co
unselling.
 According to cognitive theory, the key to learning is t
he individual’s cognition (perception, though, memo
ry, and ways of processing and structuring informat
ion)
Cognitive cont...
 Cognitive learning theory is based on gestalt perspectiv
e or theory.
 According to Gestalt theory, the whole of an object or s
cene is more important than its individual parts.
 It means the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
 The principal assumption is that each individual perceiv
es, interprets, and responds to any situation in his or he
r own way.
 Cognitive cont...
 Simplicity is key to learning.
 For example, reading the bewildered face of a patient list
ening to a complex detailed explanation about his diseas
e.
 What actually he desires most is a simple and clear expla
nation to settle his uncertainty and stress.
 Perception is selective..... No one can attend to all possib
le surrounding stimuli at a given time.
 For example, a patient who is in pain or worried about hi
s bill may not attend to patient education information.
Cognitive cont...
 Assessing Patients’ internal and external has a direct b
earing on how a health educator approaches any learni
ng situation with an individual or group.
 So, they will perceive, interpret, and respond to the sa
me event in different ways.
 It shows us why an approach that is effective with one
client or individual may not work with another individu
al.......all are not alike.
 How information is incorporated and retrieved is impo
rtant for nurses.
Cognitive cont...

 Cognition is based on how external events are conce

ptualized, organized, and represented within each p
erson’s mental framework or schema, which is partia
lly dependant on the individual’s stage of developme
nt in perception, reasoning, readiness to learn.
Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction

 Gain the learner’s attention.

 Inform learners of objectives.
 Stimulate recall of prior learning.
 Present the content.
 Provide “learning guidance”
 Elicit performance (practice)
 Provide feedback (reinforcement).
 Assess performance (retrieval).
Social Learning Theory

 Social learning theory is largely based on the work of

Albert Bandura.
 He considers learning to be based on learner’s perso
nal characteristics, behavior patterns and environme
nt.
 Learning is a social process.....taking note of others
 Role modeling is a key concept of social learning the
ory.
Social Learning Theory Cont....
Example: a more experienced nurse who demonstrates d
esirable professional attitudes and behavior sometimes
is used as a mentor for less experience nurse, while me
dical students, interns, and residents are mentored by
attending physicians.
Human mind is generative, creative and reflective, and n
ot just reactive
Four-step process that directs to Social learning

1. Attention Phase- observation of role model.

2. Retention Phase- storage and retrieval of what was observ
ed
3. Reproduction Phase- learner copies the observed behavio
r.
4. Motivational Phase- which focuses on whether the learne
r is motivated to perform certain type of behavior.
Theories of learning

kmu
Left-brain thinking
 Left-brain thinking was described as
analytic, logical, linear, and rule-bou
nd. It calls upon mathematical and v
erbal skills, focuses on parts more so
than wholes, and allows us to discri
minate and be explicit.
Right-brain thinking
 Right-brain thinking is described as artisti
c, holistic, and integrative. It involves feel
ings, intuition, and insight, and does not
necessarily require verbal or math skills.
The right brain allows us to integrate ide
as into wholes, which are seen as more i
mportant than individual parts, and to lo
ok for tacit understanding of situations.
John Dewey
 Learners are motivated by intrinsic goals and the oppo
rtunity to learn through discovery
Learning Styles By Kolb
 Kolb (1984), identified four learning styles
 Convergent learners
Prefer problem solving and practical application;
They are the thinkers and doers.
 Divergent learners
Prefer to organize specific relationships into a meaningful whole and g
enerate alternative ideas; they are the feelers and watchers.
 Assimilative learners
Prefer to reason, create models, and “play” with ideas; they are the w
atchers and thinkers.

Accommodative learners
Prefer to do things, take risks, and rely on others for specific informati
on; they are the doers and feelers.
Theories of Learning
Constructivism
Behaviorism
Behaviorism
Behaviorism Theories
 Classical conditioning theory also called refelexive lear
ning or respondent learning .

 Operant conditioning theory also called Reinforcem

ent Theory and Reward & Punishment theory
Conditioning Theory by Iva Pavolov
Operant Conditioning By Skinner
Operant Conditioning By Skinner
Cognitivism
 . Cognitivism works on the theory of conscious thought
, conversation, decision-making and emotion and focus
es on the mental processes that are essential to cogniti
ve development. ...
Cognitivism
 The idea is that if we "understand" learning, we are m
ore likely to find meaning and consistency when we se
arch for new knowledge and align it with previous kno
wledge.
Constructivism.
 Constructivism emphasizes the importance of social inf
luences, free will and human consciousness. ...
Operant conditioning
 Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occu
rs through rewards and punishments for behavior.

Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant

Conditioning, but his work was based on
Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect.
Operant conditioning
 Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by provi
ding a consequence an individual finds rewarding.

 For example, if your teacher gives you Rupees 100 eac

h time you complete your homework (i.e., a reward) y
ou will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the fut
ure, thus strengthening the behavior of completing yo
ur homework.
Operant Conditioning

Negative Reinforcement
 The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthe
n behavior. This is known as negative reinforcement becau
se it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewardi
ng’ to the animal or person. Negative reinforcement streng
thens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant
experience.
 For example, if you do not complete your homework, you
give your teacher Rupees 100. You will complete your hom
ework to avoid paying Rupees 100, thus strengthening the
behavior of completing your homework.
negative reinforcement
 negative reinforcement is when a person's behavior c
auses something to be taken away

 Negative reinforcement is all about subtraction.

 When the students listen quietly to the lesson, reward

them by canceling the homework assignment for that
night. In the future, the students may listen quietly bec
ause it has previously resulted in their homework assig
nment being canceled.
 Punishment (weakens behavior)
 Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcemen
t since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response
rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decr
eases the behavior that it follows.
Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

 Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a

specified number of times. e.g., one reinforcement is g
iven after every so many correct responses, e.g., after
every 5th response. For example, a child receives a star
for every five words spelled correctly.
Variable Ratio Reinforcement

 Behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number o

f times.
Reinforcers:
 Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that inc
rease the probability of a behavior being repeated. Rei
nforcers can be either positive or negative.
Punishers:
 • Responses from the environment that decrease the li
kelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment we
akens behavior
Implications of Operant Theory in Classroo
m
Cognitive Learning Theories
 Discovery Learning theory by Bruner
The Difference Between Positive And Nega
tive Reinforcement
 In behavioral psychology, a reinforcement is the introd
uction of a favorable condition that will make a desire
d behavior more likely to happen, continue or strengt
hen in the future.
 Because the favorable condition acts as a reward, reinf
orcement is a reward-based conditioning.
Positive Reinforcement

 Positive reinforcement is adding a pleasant stimulus t

o enhance a behavior
 Because of the negative side effects of punishment, p
arents should try to discipline by using reinforcement i
nstead if possible.
 However, parents should also be careful not to overus
e reinforcements because too much of a good thing ca
n be a bad thing.
Operant Conditioning
 Consequences occur after the "target" behavior occu
rs, when either positive or negative reinforcement
may be given. Positive reinforcement is presentation
of a stimulus that increases the probability of a respo
nse.
 This type of reinforcement occurs frequently in the cl
assroom. Teachers may provide positive reinforceme
nt by:
 Smiling at students after a correct response; Comm
ending students for their work; Selecting them for a
special project; and praising students' ability to pare
nts.
Cognitive Learning Theories
Multiple Intelligence Theory by Gardener
. Connectivism
 . Connectivism is a relatively new learning theory, dev
eloped and based upon the idea that people process in
formation by forming connections. This theory has dev
eloped with the digital and technology age, adapting t
o advances in these arenas. This new theory suggests t
hat people no longer stop learning after formal educati
on and continue to gain knowledge from other avenue
s such as job skills, networking, experience and access
to information with new tools in technology.
Honey and Mumford Learning Styles
 activist, pragmatist, reflector and theorist:
Activists
 respond most positively to learning situations offering
challenge, to include new experiences and problems, e
xcitement and freedom in their learning.
 Reflectors
 respond most positively to structured learning activities where t
hey are provided with time to observe, reflect and think, and all
owed to work in a detailed manner. Theorists respond well to lo
gical, rational structure and clear aims, where they are given tim
e for methodical exploration and opportunities to question and
stretch their intellect.

Pragmatists
 respond most positively to practically based, immediately releva
nt
learning activities, which allow scope for practice and using th
eory.
Meta-cognition
HEALTH EDUCATION/HEALTH PROM
OTION

Teaching & Learning

Muhammad Iqbal
KMU
 Objectives
At the end of this unit; the learners would be able to:
 Define key terms

 Discuss the basic goals of health education, and factors influenci

ng on health education
 Utilize the health belief model and health promotion model and
relate to cognitive and behaviorist theories
 Discuss the steps in developing the health education program

 Utilize effectively a variety of teaching aids and creative applicati

on of teaching strategies
 Plan patient and family education session
What is Health?

Health is an individual’s capacity, relative to

his or her aspiration and potential for living
fully in the social, economic, and political
environment.
 What is health education?
Process which affects changes in the health practices of p
eople and in the knowledge and attitude related to s
uch changes.
OR
Teaching process providing basic knowledge and practice
of health, so as to be interpreted into proper health
behavior.
 Aims of Health education
1. Health promotion
2. Disease prevention.
3. Early diagnosis and management.
4. Utilization of available health services.
Specific objectives of health education

1. To make health an asset valued by the community.

2. To increase knowledge of the factors that affect health.
3. To encourage behavior which promotes and maintains hea
lth.
4. To encourage appropriate use of health services especially p
reventive services.
5. To inform the public about medical advances, their uses and
their limitations.
 Stages for health education
 Stage of Sensitization
 Stage of Education
 Stage of Attitude change
 Stage of Motivation and Action
 Stage of Community Transformation (social change)
Contents of health education
1. Personal hygiene
2. Proper health habits
3. Nutrition education
4. Personal preventive measures
5. Safety rules
6. Proper use of health services
7. Mental health
8. Special education (occupation, mothers, etc.)
Principles of Health education
1. Interest.
2. Participation.
3. Proceed from known to unknown.
4. Comprehension.
5. Reinforcement by repetition.
6. Motivation
7. Learning by doing
8. Good human relations
Communication
 Communicator: the person or the team give the mess
age (Educator).
 Message: the contents/materials of health education
 Channel: method of carrying the message
 Audience: the receivers (users or targets) of the messa
ge
Good communication technique
 Source credibility.
 Clear message.
 Good channel: individual, group & mass education.
 Receiver: ready, interested, not occupied.
 Feedback.
 Observe non-verbal cues.
 Active listening.
 Establishing good relationship.
 Communication Barriers
 Social and cultural gap between the sender and the recei
ver
 Limited receptiveness of receiver
 Limited understanding and memory
 Negative attitude of the sender
 Insufficient emphasis by the sender (health professional)
 Contradictory messages
 Health education without identifying the “needs "of the c
ommunity
Educator
 Personnel of health services.
 Nursing and medical students, & social workers.
 School personnel.
 Community leaders & influential.
Requirements:
 Personality: popular, influential and interested in work.
 Efficiency trained and prepared for the job.
 Must show good examples.
Message
 What information to be communicated.
 Simple, at the level of understanding.
 Culturally accepted.
 Interested.
 Meet a felt need.
 Avoid verbiage.
 Use audiovisual aids if needed.
 Health Belief Model
Individual Perception Modifying Factors Likelihood of Actions

Demographic variables Perceived benefits of

(age, sex, race, ethnicity). preventive actions
Socio-Psychological Minus
variables (personality, Perceived barriers to
Perceived social class, peer and preventive actions
Susceptibility of reference group pressure).
disease

Perceived Perceived threat of

Seriousness disease Likelihood of
(Severity) of taking
disease recommended
preventive
Cues to actions health actions
Mass media campaigns
Advice from others
Reminder postcard from physician or dentist
Illness of a family member or a friend
Newspaper or magazine articles 23
M. Iqbal, KMU 1
Components of Health Belief Model

 Perceived Susceptibility: A family history of a certain disease like d

iabetes or heart disease may make the individual feel at risk.
 Perceived Seriousness: If the output of a disease is serious the pe
rson will be more alert as in the case of AIDS.
 Perceived Threat: The combination of perceived susceptibility and
seriousness determines the total perceived threat of an illness.
 For example, a person who perceives that many individuals in the
community have lung cancer may not necessarily perceive a threat
of the disease. But if the suffered individuals are smokers , then th
e perceived threat of the disease will likely to increase because of t
he combination.

23
M. Iqbal, KMU 2
 Modifying Factors
The following factors modify a person’s perceptions.
 Demographic variables: age, sex, race, etc.

 E.g, toddler vs adolescent (regarding the importance of diet).

 Family vs peers.

 Sociopsychologic variables: Social groups may encourage or motiv

ate others’ preventive behaviors.
 Structural variables: Knowledge and prior contact with a disease i
nfluence health and treatment behavior

23
M. Iqbal, KMU 3
Modifying Factors cont…

 Cues to action: may be external or internal.

 Internal cues are fatigue, uncomfortable symptoms, or tho
ught of others who are ill.
 External cues are mass media, advice from others, etc.

 The health belief model suggests that modifying variables a

ffect health-related behaviors indirectly by affecting percei
ved seriousness, susceptibility, benefits, and barriers.

23
M. Iqbal, KMU 4
 Likelihood of Action
 The likelihood of a person’s taking recommended preventiv
e health action depends on the perceived benefits of the act
ion to prevent lung cancer minus the perceived barriers to t
he action.
 Perceived benefits of the action include, for example, refrai
ning from smoking to prevent lung cancer or eating nutritio
us food and avoiding snacks to maintain weight.
 Perceived barriers to action include cost, inconvenience, un
pleasantness, and life-style changes.

23
M. Iqbal, KMU 5
 Organize And Prioritize

 Develop a purpose
 Size of the problem
 Seriousness of the problem
 Effectiveness of interventions
 Community involvement and contribution
 Support of leadership
 Model mutual respect
 Encourage people to think and act for themselves
 Characteristics of good health
• The person has capability to do work.
• The person feels himself efficient to take
decisions and work accordingly .
• The person remains in sound mental
condition.
• The person remain free from any disease.
• The person does not suffer from mental
tension.
 Requirements of good
health

For maintaining a good health

following conditions are essential.
1. Nutrition
2. Exercise and rest
3. Good habits
 Factors affecting Health:-
1. Social and economic factors
2. Environmental factors
3. Personal factors
4. Hereditary factors
 Social and economic factors
There are many social factors which
affects our health.
For example, superstition, religious and
social beliefs etc.
In the absence of proper treatment and
care, effect of disease can make the
patient serious.
Need assessment

kmu
Objectives
• Introduction
• Types of learning need assessment
• Differentiate between Formative and summa
tive need assessment
• Steps in learning Needs Assessment
NEED ASSESSMENT

INTRODUCTION
 Needs assessment process is a series of activities conducted t
o identify problems or other issues .
 The needs assessment /analysis is usually the first step taken
to cause a change.
 This is mainly because a need assessment specifically define
s the gap between the current and the desired level of an in
dividual.
www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needs_s
sessment
Learning Needs Assessment

 Learning needs assessment process is a series of activities c

onducted to identify learning needs
 In an educational setting , a learning needs assessment hel
ps students identify where they are in terms of their knowl
edge, skills and competencies,versus where they wish to be
, what are their learning goals.
 By assisting the learner to identify the gaps in his/her own l
earning ,the provider will be better able to support the stu
dents.
Types of Need Assessment

 There are two type of need assessment

1. Formative assessment
2. Summative assessment
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
 Formative assessment is used to monitor students learning to
provide ongoing feedback that can be used by instructor or te
achers to improve their teaching and by students to improve t
heir learning.
 Formative assessment includes little content areas.

www.cmu.ed
u
Formative assessment

 The evaluation takes place during the learning process not jus
t one time , but several times .

 With formative assessments you try to figure out whether a st

udents doing well or needs help by monitoring the learning pr
ocess

 Formative assessment considers evaluation as a process.

www.cmu.ed
u
FORMATIVE EVALUATION
 Occurs before implementation

 Determines the weaknesses in the instruction so that revision

s can be made.

 Make instruction more effective and efficient

Guyot, W.M.
(1978)
.

For example
 Revision
 Test
 Asking questions from students during lecture
 Discussions

Guyot, W.M.
(1978)
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
 Summative assessment is used to evaluate students learning at t
he end of an instructional unit by comparing it against some sta
ndard or benchmark.

 A summative evaluation takes place at a complete other time no

t during the process but after it.

 The evaluation takes place after a course or units completion.

Guyot, W.M.
(1978)
 When you use summative assessment ,you assign gr
ades.

 The grades tell you whether the students achieved t

he learning goal or not.

 Summative assessment includes complete chapters

or content areas.

Guyot, W.M.
(1978)
For Example
 Evaluation at the end of a chapter .
 The lesson material package is much larger now.
 Summative assessments are:
1. Midterm exams
2. End of unit or chapter tests
3. Final projects or papers

Guyot, W.M.
(1978)
 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE
ASSESSMENT
 Formative assessments g  Summative assessments
oal is to monitor students goal is to evaluate studen
learning to provide ongoi ts learning at the end of a
ng feedback that can be u
n instructional unit by co
sed by instructors to impr
ove their teaching and by mparing it against some s
students to improve their tandard or bench mark
learning .
www.keydifference
s.com
Difference between formative and summative assess
ment:

 Evaluation during the le  Evaluation after the course compl

arning process etion
 Monitor the learning pr  Assign grades
ocess  The purpose is to evaluate student
 The purpose is to impro s achievement
ve student learning  Evaluations include complete chap
 Evaluations include littl ters or content areas
e content areas  Consider evaluation as a product

www.keydifference
s.com
.

Why conduct Learning need assessment?

A learning need assessment will help
 Identify what skills and knowledge the learners already have
 Highlight skills /knowledge/competencies that need developing
 Identify clearly what students wish to achieve
 Outline and define expectations and goals
 Establish need and demand for the course you have in mind
 Determine what can realistically be achieved in the available res
ources
 Identify any obstacles or difficulties which may arise
 Increase the involvement of students
 Identify the content that best suits students needs
.

Steps in Learning Needs

Assessment
There are three steps in learning needs assessment
1. Design
2. Conduct
3. Analyze
Design

When designing the learning needs assessment, the aim

is to:
 Assess the current situation
 Define the problem-what gaps exist?
 Determine if there is a need for learning
 Assess the possible learning solutions
Conduct

The following methods ,or a combination of these metho

ds,
can be used :
 Interviews
 Questionnaires/tests
 Observation
Analyze

 Gather the information and sort it into categories that

help you
identify themes/topics that need to be addressed

 What topics/issues can be prioritized

lessonon planning

Teaching and learning practice

Kmu
LESSON PLANING

.
Objectives:
 Define Lesson Plan.
 Identify and analyze main components of a lesson plan.
 Discuss the purposes of creating a lesson plan.
 Discuss basic principles of lesson planning.
Lesson Planning

 Definition
 lesson plan as : “Outline of the important points of a lesson arranged
in the order in which they are to be presented to students by the teacher.”
 For a successful and effective teaching, lesson planning is the first and the most im
portant.
 Lesson plan is a plan prepared by a teacher to teach a lesson in an organized manne
r.
 a lesson plan is actually a plan of action or action plan
 Lesson plan is a pre-plan prepared by a teacher to teach a lesson in an organized ma
nner before the lesson starts.
The lesson plan is to be used as a guide rather than as a
rule of thumb to be obeyed blindly .
Lesson Planning

 A teacher’s detailed description of a class.

 A lesson plan is a written guide for a trainer made by self in order to achieve
intended learning objectives.
 The teacher should know beforehand what to teach and how to teach .
 He should have the clear aim of the lesson before and should plan according
ly.
 He should know how he should introduce and present the lesson and the aids
he will make use of.
 He should also know how to evaluate the lesson in the light of the aim set.

)
Lesson Planning

 It tells us about;
 The pre-assessment

 Planning of the session

 Time of the lesson and duration

 Learning outcomes

 Strategies used for delivering the message

Key Components of Lesson Planning…
 Profile/Subject details
 Objectives/Goals
 Content
 Teaching Aids/ Equipment
 Teaching strategies
 Take home Task
Components of Lesson Plan…
Profile / Subject Details:

In this section a teacher put information related to the class level,

subject name, lesson title and duration of that specific lesson.
Components of Lesson Plan…
Lesson Objectives / Goal:

This section will tell the reader about the goal of the course and your spec
ific objectives which are made for the lesson and you want to achieve the
m at the end of lesson. May be short term as well as long term.
Components of Lesson Plan…
Content:
What you are going to teach. Writing the whole detailed content i
s not necessary just put a summarized info.
Components of Lesson Plan…

Teaching Aids / Equipment :

What items you are going to use in this specific lesson or session. Mat be y
ou plan to use the multimedia /projector or simply a white board.
Components of Lesson Plan…
Teaching Strategies :
What strategy you are going to choose may be a one sided lectur
e,denate,demostration or a group work.
Components of Lesson Plan…

Take home task:

What are you planning to give as a home work or

assignment.
Why is Lesson Planning Important??

 Makes it clear what exactly you intend to teach.

 Makes a teacher ready to cope with whatever unexpe
cted happens during the lesson.
 Give your teaching a framework and overall shape.
 A reminder for teacher when he/she get distracted.

(https://www.eln.io/blog/importance-of-lesson-planning)
Purpose of Lesson Planning…

 It keeps the teacher on the track, ensures steady progress and a definite outcomes of t
eaching and learning procedures.
 It helps the teacher in effective teaching.
 It helps the teacher to carry out the teaching activity in a systematic and orderly fas
hion.
 It demands adequate consideration of goals and objectives, the selection of subject m
atter, teaching methods, teaching aids and activities, and the planning of evaluation d
evices.
 It helps the teacher in effective teaching.
Purpose of Lesson Planning…
 It ensures that the teacher does not 'dry up' or forget a vital point.
 It provides a framework to carry out the teaching at a suitable rate
.
A lesson plan, in the word of Laster B. Stands, “is actually a plan of
action. It, therefore includes
• The working philosophy of the teacher.
• His knowledge of philosophy.
• His information about and understanding of his pupils.
• His comprehension of the objectives of education.
• His knowledge of the material to be taught.
• His abilities to utilize effective materials.
Principles of Lesson Planning…
 The teacher should prepare a careful but flexible plan.
 The teacher must have adequate training in the topic from which the subject matter
has been selected for a certain lesson.
 The teacher must be fully equipped with new methods and techniques of teaching.
 The teacher must know his students thoroughly and organize the materials
Principles of Lesson Planning…

 The teacher must ensure active student participation.

 Used as a guide rather than as a rule of thumb
 Must ensure active student participation.
 Should use different teaching learning methods.
 Since monotony is a defect, different teaching learning methods h
ave to be employed while teaching instead of adhering to single m
ethod.
 Needs to organize the material in an organized rather than a logica
l fashion .
Principles of lesson planning...

 A lesson plan should be related to the previous lessons.

 The materials of instruction or subject matter should be well selected, well a
nalyzed into various kinds and systematically organized.
 Objectives should be clearly stated.
 The plan should indicate the learning experience to be provided.
 The teacher should prepare a careful but flexible plan.
 The teacher must have mastery of and adequate training in the topic from w
hich the subject matter has been selected for a certain lesson.
 The teacher must be fully equipped with new methods and techniques of tea
ching.
 The teacher must know his students thoroughly and organize the materials
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD LESSON
PLAN
• Should have clearly stated objectives.
• To be linked with previous knowledge of students.
• Should show and specify illustrative aids.
• Should contain suitable organized subject matter.
• Should be divided into units.
• It should not make the students passive learner.
• There should be flexibility in changing lesson plan.
• Should include the summary of the whole lesson.
• The lesson plan should be in such a way that it should provide full justification to all
students.
• Should plan for student assignment.
• Must have plan for self –criticisms and self evaluation of the lesson.
STEPS INVOLVED IN LESSON PLA
NNING HERBARTIAN STEPS
1. Preparation or Introduction
2. Presentation
3. Comparison or Association
4. Generalization
5. Application
6. Recapitulation
 1.Preparation:
The teacher must prepare the students to receive new knowledge. Knowledge is
to be linked with the previous knowledge of the students.
Preparation in fact, means the exploration of the pupil’s knowledge, which leads
to the aim of the lesson.
Teacher’s skill lies in leading the pupils/students to see that their knowledge is
incomplete and that to conquer lies before them. This can be done:
•By testing of the previous knowledge of students and introducing the lesson with
an explanation.
•By asking questions that may reveal their ignorance, arouse interest and
curiosity to learn the new matter.
•Through the use of chart, maps or pictures.
•Through skillful conversation. It should be noted that this step should not in any
case take more than five minutes.
 2.Presentation :

•Before the presentation of the subject matter , the aim of the lesson should
be clearly stated.
•By this teacher as well as the students are engaged upon a common
pursuit. In the presentation step , the students must get some new ideas and
they should be the active participant in the teaching – learning process.
•The teacher should try to introduce everything from the learner.
•A sort of heuristic attitude should prevail the whole teaching.
Questioning
should form an important device of this step. Other aids should also be used to
make the lesson more interesting and comprehensive. Black board summary
should be developed along with.

3.Comparison or Association :
Some examples are given to the students and they are asked to observe carefully
and compare them with other set of the examples and facts.
This step is important where some definition or some generalization is to be
induced from the students.
 4.Generalization :
In this step the aim of the lesson is achieved.
This step involves reflective thinking because the whole knowledge learnt in
preparation is to be systematized which leads to generalization , formulae, rules
etc., through comparison or association. This step completes the enquiry by
providing the answer to the problem with which it began. Thus , the students get a
new knowledge which is ready for me.

5.Application :
At this stage , the students make use of the acquired knowledge in familiar and un familiar
situations. In this way , the new knowledge gained by the students become permanent in the
minds of the students and will not fade from consciousness soon.
 6.Recapitulation :
This is the last step. The understanding and comprehension of the subject-
matter taught by the teacher can be tested by putting some suitable questions
on the topics to the students. This will also help the teacher to find out whether
his method of teaching is effective and successful or not.

“ Nothing is so fatal for a teacher as unpreparedness” - Davis

 ADVANTAGES OF LESSON PLANNING
• It keeps the teacher to be systematic and orderly in the treatment of the subject matter.
• He proceeds on well-thought of and definite lines and does not follow haphazard and
thoughtless teaching.
• The teacher sets forth with some definite aims in view and is conscious of the interest,
attitudes, etc., that he is to develop in the students through certain activities or some other
means.
• Planning a lesson give confidence and self-reliance to the teacher which is of great value
for successful teaching.
• It saves time.
• Because the lesson is correlated with the social and physical environments of the students,
their interest is maintained throughout the lesson.
Kolb’s Learning styles
Kmu
 Objectives
By the end of this lecture the students will be able to:
 Define learning cycle
 Identify different learning cycles
 Discuss Models of Kolb and Taylor and how they impact on le
arning
 Discuss the types of Learning styles
Key Terms
 Learning: Learning is the process whereby knowledge i
s created through the transformation of experience.
 Knowledge results from the combination of grasping e
xperience and transforming it. - Kolb (1984, 41)
 Learning Style: Refers to the ways and conditions unde
r which learners most efficiently and effectively percei
ve, process, store, and recall what they are attempting
to learn (James & Gardner, 1995)
Kolb’s Learning styles
 Kolb's(1984) learning theory sets out four disti
nct learning styles which are based on a four-st
age learning cycle.

 Kolb'smodel offers both a way to understand i

ndividual learning styles, and also an explanati
on of a cycle of experiential learning that appli
es to all learners
The Four Stage Learning Cycle
 Kolb proposed that an individual learner moves th
rough experience which lead to observations and r
eflections on the experience.

 These reflections are then absorbed and li

nked wit previous knowledge and translated i
nto abstract concepts or theories, which result in n
ew ways and action to adjust to the experience th
at can be tested and explored.
Experiential Learning
 In 1984, David Kolb, a management expert, proposed t
hat adult learning is more effective processed at much
deeper levels when learners are more directly involved
rather passively receiving knowledge transmitted by te
achers.

 Kolb developed what he called the “experiential learni

ng cycle” in which there are four distinct stages of lear
ning.
The Four Stage Learning Cycle
Kolb described the four stages in the cycle of
experiential learning as:
Concrete Experience (CE)
This stage of the learning cycle emphasizes personal involvemen
t with people in everyday situations.
•In this stage, the learner would tend to rely more on feelings
than on a systematic approach to problems and situations.
•In a learning situation, the learner relies on the ability to be
open-minded and adaptable to change.
• For example, a student performs an initial interview for the firs
t time.
Reflective Observation
In this stage of the learning cycle, people und
erstand ideas and situations from different
points of view.
• In a learning situation the learner would rely
on patience, objectivity, and careful judgment but
would not necessarily take any action.
• The learner would rely on their own thoughts a
nd feelings in forming opinions.
Abstract Conceptualisation (AC)
• In this stage, learning involves using theories, logic and ide
as, rather than feelings, to understand problems or situation
s.
• Typically, the learner relies on systematic planning and
develops theories and ideas to solve problems.
 In the example, the student then thinks about the inte
rview process and their performance and tries to make
links between previous experience of interviewing,
the client and what they heard, and any theories or knowl
edge they can apply.
Active Experimentation (AE)
 Learning in this stage takes an active
form - experimenting with changing
situations.
 The learner would take a practical
approach and be concerned with w
hat really works, as opposed to sim
ply watching a situation.
 In the example, the student consid
ers ways to improve, and tries o
ut methods and strategies based
on the previous stages of the cycle.
Cont.…
 One example of experiential learning is going to the zo
o and learning through observation and interaction wit
h the zoo environment, as opposed to reading about a
nimals from a book. Thus, one makes discoveries and e
xperiments with knowledge firsthand, instead of heari
ng or reading about others' experiences.
Cont.…
 Learning to ride a bicycle:
 Reflective observation –
Thinking about riding and watching another person ride a b
ike.
 Abstract conceptualization –
Understanding the theory and having a clear grasp of the bi
king concept.
 Concrete experience –
Receiving practical tips and techniques from a biking exper
t.
 Active experimentation –
Leaping on the bike and have a go at it.
The Four Stage Learning Cycle
 Kolb's learning styles
Kolb's (1984) learning theory sets out four distinct learning st
yles (or preferences), which are based on a four-stage l
earning cycle.

• Kolb's model offers both a way to understand individual lea

rning styles, and also an explanation of a cycle of experiential
learning that applies to all learners.
Kolb's learning styles
 Kolb proposed that learning is a combination of both
how we approach a task and how we respond to a
nd assimilate the experience.
 In approaching a task (processing) we have a preferen
ce for either doing or watching, and in responding
to the experience we have a preference for either fee
ling or thinking.
 The combination of these preferences creates four
main learning styles.
Four Learning Styles
 Divergers (CE & RO) – Feels and watches
 Emphasizes the innovative and imaginative approach
to doing things. He/She is feeling people oriented an
d likes working in groups.

 Assimilator (RO & AC) – Thinks and watches

 Pulls a number of different observations and thought
s into an integrated whole. Likes to reason inductivel
y and create models and theories. Likes to design pro
jects and experiments.
 Four Learning Styles Cont…
Convergers (AC & AE)- Think and do
 Emphasizes the practical application of ideas and solvi
ng problems. Likes decision-making, problem-solving,
and likes dealing with practical work rather than inter
personal relationships.
 Eg: Nurse, Engineer etc.

Accommodator (AE & CE) - Uses trial and error method r

ather than thought and reflection. Good at adapting to c
hanging circumstances. Solves problems, trial-and-error
manner, prefers to act first then reforms such as discove
ry learning.
Learning Styles
 Information enters your brain three main ways: sight,
hearing and touch, which one you use the most is calle
d your Learning Style

 Visual Learners learn by sight

 Auditory Learners learn by hearing
 Tactile Learners (kinesthetic) learn by physical activitie
s.
Visual Learners
 Prefer to see information such as pictures, diagrams, d
emonstrations
 Picture words and concepts they hear as images
 Easily distracted in lecture with no visual aids
 Benefit from using charts, maps, notes, and flash cards
when studying.
 Let me see it!
Auditory Learners
 Prefer to hear information spoken
 Can absorb a lecture with little effort
 May not need careful notes to learn.
 Often avoid eye contact in order to concentrate
 May read aloud to themselves
 Let me hear it
Tactile or Kinesthetic Learners
 Prefer touch as their primary mode for taking in inform
ation
 In traditional lecture situations, they should write out i
mportant facts
 Role-playing can help them learn and
remember important ideas
 Let me experience it
How to Learn Effectively

 What I hear, I forget.

 What I see, I remember.
 What I do, I know.
Problem Solving
 To solve problems, the learner needs to have a cl
ear idea of the problem or goal being sought and
must be able to recall and apply previously learne
d rules and principles relate to the situation.
 A clinical situation ........for example, a nosocomia
l urinary infection in a patient with indwelling cat
heter.
Diverger
 View concrete solutions from many different
points of view
 Like brainstorming, idea generation
 Observe rather than take action
Assimilator
Focus more on abstract ideas and concepts than p
eople. Can take a wide range of information and p
ut it into concise, logical form
Converger
People with this learning style have dominant abiliti
es in the areas of Abstract Conceptualization and A
ctive Experimentation. They are highly skilled in the
practical application of ideas
Accommodator
People with this learning style are strongest in Con
crete Experience and Active Experimentation. Out
of all four learning styles, Accommodators tend to
be the greatest risk-takers.