Mowing and wilting pastures and crops

Chapter 6
Mowing and wilting pastures and crops
In this chapter The authors

6.0 Introduction 144 F. J. Mickan1 and

J.W. Piltz2
6.1 Assessing likely weather conditions 145
6.2 Time of day to mow 146 1. Department of Primary
Industries, Dairy Research
6.3 Mowing 148 Institute, Ellinbank, Victoria
6.3.1 Height of cut 148 2. Department of Primary
Industries, Wagga Wagga
6.3.2 Types of mowers 150
Agricultural Institute, Wagga
6.4 Dry matter content 153 Wagga, NSW
6.4.1 Target DM matter content at harvest 153
6.4.2 How to determine DM content of forages 155
6.5 Wilting 157
6.5.1 How wilting occurs 157
6.5.2 The effect of wilting on animal production 160
6.6 Increasing wilting rate 162
6.7 Field losses 166
6.7.1 Plant respiration losses 167
6.7.2 Weather damage losses 167
6.7.3 Mechanical losses 169

The Key Issues

Crops and pastures are mown and wilted to increase the DM content of the ensiled forage. Wilting should occur as
rapidly as possible to minimise the loss of DM and quality in the field. Monitor weather forecasts to decide when to mow.
■ Mow in the morning after the dew has lifted, later if harvest is possible within 24 hours.
■ Ensure mower blades are sharp and set to cut at the correct height.
■ Ensure tractor power is sufficient to maximise mower output.
■ Wilt to the correct DM content as quickly as possible:
■ Low-yielding crops wilt more quickly than high-yielding crops.
■ Vegetative (leafy) plants wilt more rapidly than more mature (stemmy) plants.
■ Increase wilting rate by:
■ conditioning the plants at mowing,
■ maximising the surface area of the swath, leaving the mown swath as wide and thin as possible, OR
■ spreading or tedding immediately after mowing, AND
■ respreading or tedding when and if necessary after the dew lifts.
■ If possible, harvest no later than 48 hours after mowing.
■ The fastest wilt is achieved with a thin swath, warm temperatures, low humidity, long periods of sunshine,
and with a breeze.

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Section 6.0

Introduction

Most crops and pastures cut for silage good silage fermentation and to eliminate
have to be mown and windrowed so that effluent losses (see Chapter 2,
the forage can be harvested by machinery Section 2.1.1).
fitted with windrow pick-up attachments. Wilting occurs between mowing and
This includes all balers, most fine and harvest, and describes the process of plant
precision chop forage harvesters, and moisture loss prior to the forage being
double chop and flail harvesters operating harvested or baled. Crops and pastures
in Australia (see Chapter 8). Direct harvest should be wilted as quickly as possible to
(e.g. ‘Kemper’) fronts are available for the desired DM content, to minimise loss
some forage harvesters, but they are not of DM and quality.
common and are only suitable for
The period of wilting required will depend
harvesting certain crops when the DM
on the original DM content of the crop,
content of the standing crop is already at
extent of wilting required, quantity of
the desired level.
material (yield), time of day when cut,
The DM content of most standing crops prevailing weather conditions, wetness of
and pastures is low (<20%) when they are the ground surface and mechanical
at the growth stage recommended for treatments used to enhance the speed of
silage cutting (see Chapter 4, Table 4.1, wilt. These factors are discussed in this
and Chapter 5, Table 5.2). The forage must chapter.
be wilted prior to ensiling to ensure a

Safety First

➤ Operate all equipment to the specifications laid down in the

manufacturer’s manual and/or warning stickers on the machinery.
➤ Never approach machinery until all mechanical motion has
completely stopped.
➤ All PTO shafts, belts, chains, etc, must have strong, tamper-proof
coverings that are only removed for servicing and repair work after
machinery has been turned off and all moving parts are stationary.

What it means ...

➤ Swath – the material left by a mower or mower-conditioner.

➤ Tedded swath – mown material that has been spread or respread by a tedder.
➤ Windrow – the mown material that has been raked in preparation for harvest.
➤ Harvesting – the picking up and baling or forage harvesting of the mown material from a windrow.
➤ DM loss – the quantity of material lost during the conservation process, e.g. for every tonne of forage cut,
if DM loss is 10 %, then 100 kg of DM has been lost. DM loss is sometimes confused with DM content, which is the DM
present in each unit of forage.
➤ Quality loss – the reduction in the content of nutrients (e.g. ME, crude protein) during the conservation process.

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 Mowing and wilting pastures and crops 6.1

Section 6.1

Assessing likely weather conditions

Ideally, forage should be cut and harvested provides up-to-date forecasts. The
under good drying conditions, without risk Australian Bureau of Meteorology has a
of rain damage. website containing valuable weather
Before mowing, use weather forecasts to information <www.bom.gov.au>.
select a ‘harvest window’ when weather A number of other commercial and free
conditions are likely to be favourable for sites also exist, including:
silage making. As well as local and ➤ <www.myweather.com.au>
regional weather forecasts, the Internet
➤ <www.theweather.com.au>

Plate 6.1
Perennial ryegrass pasture
cut with a mower-
conditioner set to
produce a wide swath
(left of photograph) and a
narrow swath (right).

Photograph: F. Mickan

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Section 6.2

Time of day to mow

How WSC content varies How time of day of cut

during the day affects wilting rate
As discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.1.2, Cutting early in the day maximises the
the conversion of WSCs to lactic acid is amount of moisture loss that can be
essential for a good silage fermentation. achieved on the day the forage is mown.
High WSC content allows production of Cutting later in the day often results in the
more lactic acid, more quickly, thus forage requiring an extra day of wilting to
Photosynthesis is the increasing the chance of a rapid and reach the desired DM content, and can
process by which plants favourable fermentation. increase respiration loss of forage DM and
use solar radiation
Accumulation of WSC is greater than quality. The following points should be
(sunlight) to produce
WSCs. Respiration is the respiration during sunny periods, while considered:
process by which plants
respiration leads to a reduction in WSC ➤ Mowing should not begin until the dew
break down WSCs to
produce energy for content when it is overcast or at night. So, has lifted. This surface moisture
growth. It is the reverse WSC content is usually lowest in the evaporates much more rapidly from the
of photosynthesis. Under morning and accumulates during daylight standing crop than from mown material.
normal growing
conditions, both hours. On cool, overcast days WSC ➤ If the day of cutting is very hot, dry and
processes occur in plants. content may not vary much at all during windy, and similar conditions are
the day. expected the following day, it may be
Respiration continues after mowing if advisable to delay cutting until early to
plant moisture content is high and while mid-afternoon, to reduce the risk of the
WSCs are still available. For a short period forage becoming too dry by the
after cutting, a small accumulation of following morning.
WSC may occur at the top of the swath, ➤ Some forages, such as legumes and
which is exposed to sunlight, but this young, leafy crops or pastures, wilt
contribution to the WSC content is more rapidly (see Section 6.5), and
negligible. require a short wilting period,
It is not possible to provide general particularly if the yield is not high. For
guidelines to cover every silage-making these, cutting later in the day may
scenario as the effect of weather reduce the risk of over-drying, and
conditions on wilting rate is a major excessive mechanical damage and leaf
consideration. Although it is sometimes loss in subsequent operations.
suggested that mowing should start ➤ Where there is a definite risk of over-
mid-afternoon to maximise available drying, mowing may be staggered and
WSC, in all cases the primary aim should the swath width should be narrowed. It
be to achieve the target DM content (see is important to match mowing and
Chapter 4, Table 4.1, and Chapter 5, Table harvesting operations so that cut
5.2) with a rapid wilt. This, not the WSC material is not left too long.
content of the uncut forage, should
Extending the wilting period also increases
determine cutting time.
the risk of rain before harvesting. This can
be particularly important in coastal areas
that are prone to unpredictable, afternoon
rain during the summer silage-making
season.

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 Mowing and wilting pastures and crops 6.2

Timing the cut

When to cut is often a compromise between quality and yield.

The digestibility of most temperate pastures and crops used for silage production is highest in early spring, before maximum
yield is achieved. This often coincides with lower temperatures, shorter days and, in southern Australia, a greater chance of
rainfall. As a result, many farmers delay harvest until later in the season – towards what is often the more traditional
haymaking season. When planning harvest times, consider the following points:
➤ Cutting earlier in the season, the forage has a higher nutritive value. Cutting later, when the crop or pasture is more
mature, will give higher yields, but the forage will be of lower quality (see Chapters 4 and 5).
➤ Cutting early increases the risk of losing quality because of poor wilting conditions and rainfall but, in most cases, the
average loss in quality is unlikely to be as great as the decline in ME content when cutting is delayed by three or more
weeks.
➤ In many cases, and depending on forage type, even with reduced yield the animal production per hectare of cut forage is
higher from silage produced early in the season. With very mature forage, the quality decline may be so great that the
silage is only suitable as a maintenance ration (see Chapters 13, 14 and 15).
➤ The costs of production are very similar per tonne of silage conserved for early-cut, lower-yielding and late-cut,
higher-yielding crops or pastures. When costed on an ME basis, the higher-quality, early-cut silage is less expensive
(see Chapter 11, Section 11.3.5).
➤ Early cutting should produce a greater quantity of high-quality regrowth and a greater total forage yield (silage and
regrowth) (see Chapter 3, Section 3.1.1).

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Section 6.3

Mowing

The mower’s efficiency will have a major 6.3.1

impact on the success and speed of the
Height of cut
wilting process. Mowing rates should be
more than 1.5-2.0 ha/hour. It is important The ideal cutting height depends on a
to avoid any factors that may extend the number of factors, including the type of
mowing period, such as using small pasture or crop, yield and quality, potential
mowers, blunt mower blades or under- for regrowth, wear and tear on blades and
powered tractors. It may be more machinery, soil and manure contamination
economical to employ a contractor with and provision of a stubble on which the
the latest and largest machinery to mow mown material can lie for drying.
and condition the crop. (The economic The optimum height of cut to maximise
reasoning behind the use of contractors is regrowth will vary with the pasture or
discussed in Chapter 11, Section 11.2.3.) crop, but is usually 4-7 cm for pastures
Using conditioners and increasing swath and 10-15 cm for summer forages such as
width can increase wilting rate (see Section sorghum. Cutting crops and pastures with
6.6). Formation of lumps in the swath multiple-cut potential too short (<5 cm)
behind the mower must be avoided because may slow the rate of regrowth and reduce
the material takes longer to dry and can total yield over the season. Table 6.1 gives
slow down the harvesting operation. suggested cutting heights for various crops
and pastures.
Table 6.1 Although cutting material very short will
Suggested cutting heights Forage type Height of cut (cm)
slightly increase yield, depending on the
for various forage types. Pastures 4-7
plant species, this may be offset by the
Summer forage 10-15 poorer quality of the lower stems and
crops (e.g. sorghum) leaves. If cutting height is increased to
Lucerne 5-7 (above plant crowns) avoid low-quality stems, stubble
Cereals 7-10 (>15 for increased quality)
management strategies may be needed if
Maize 10-40 (see Chapter 5, Section 5.2.4)
Kale 7-8 the paddock is to be returned to crop or
Peas 10-12 pasture in the near future.
Lablab 10-12
Soybeans/canola 6-10

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 Mowing and wilting pastures and crops 6.3

Figure 6.1 shows the results of some Figure 6.1

recent American research on cutting height Effect of cutting height on
5
with lucerne. On average, total yield for lucerne yield per cut.
each cut increased about 0.5 t DM/ha for 4

Yield (t DM/ha)
each 2.5 cm reduction in cutting height.
3
The shorter cutting height did not reduce
the yield of the next harvest when cut at 2
the mid-bud to early flowering stage.
1
Although quality decreased slightly with
decreasing cutting height, when both
quality and quantity were taken into 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5
Source: Adapted from
Cutting height (cm above soil) Wiersma et al. (2001)
account, the potential milk yield rose when
cutting height was reduced.
It is important to have the mower properly Cutting low also increases the risk of soil
adjusted for height and to maintain sharp and manure contamination of the silage.
blades. Poorly maintained and badly This can introduce undesirable bacteria to
adjusted equipment needs more power and the forage and adversely affect the silage
so increases operating costs. Mowers set at fermentation. It may even have
too great an angle will ‘scalp’ the sward implications for animal health (see
and leave a ‘mane’ of crop between the Chapter 2, Section 2.3.5).
cutting discs. This can substantially reduce
Exposed stones can damage mowers,
regrowth.
forage harvesters and chopping balers.
Poorly adjusted mowers also cause Rolling after sowing can be an advantage
problems if they come into contact with where the surface is uneven or stones or
the soil regularly, increasing the wear and clods are present.
tear on blades. This increases ‘down time’,
Leaving a stubble >10 cm high provides
with more frequent sharpening or
support for the mown material, reducing
changing of the blades. At very low cutting
contact between the swath and the ground.
heights, the contact between blades and the
This increases the drying rate, allowing
soil can put undue stress on the gears
greater movement of air under and through
driving the rotors, reducing the mower’s
the swath. The mown material is also kept
potential life.
above the ground, reducing the movement
of moisture into the cut forage.

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6.3.2 high power requirement. The action of flail

mowers can cause the forage to be
Types of mowers
contaminated with soil or manure.
Mower types include:
➤ reciprocating finger-bar (sickle bar); Drum mowers
➤ flail; Drum mowers usually consist of one or
➤ drum; more pairs of large drums, each fitted with
several knives. The two drums in each pair
➤ rotary disc; and
rotate in opposite directions, forcing the
➤ mower-conditioners (roller type, tyned
mown material between them and leaving
or flail type).
the swath in a windrow. Drum mowers
Mowers and mower-conditioners are have a much greater capacity than finger-
usually mounted to a tractor three-point bar mowers but require 4-8 times the
linkage or trailed. The development of power, typically 7-15 kW at the PTO per
combination front- and rear-mounted metre width of crop cut. The swaths left
mowers, trailed tandem-mounted and self- behind these mowers tend to ‘sit higher’
driven mowers have increased mowing rates. than those left by rotary disc mowers.
Leaving the mown material in a windrow
Reciprocating finger-bar mowers
is a disadvantage. To increase wilting rate,
Lucerne growers often favour reciprocating
the material should be tedded immediately
finger-bar (also called sickle or cutterbar)
after mowing (see Section 6.6).
mowers because they leave a ‘cleaner cut’
or reduced fragmentation of the stubble. Disc mowers
They have a relatively low power Multi-disc mowers are the most popular
requirement, about 1.5 kW/m width of cut, mowers due to their speed of operation and
but forward speed is restricted to durability. Disc mowers consist of several
3-8 km/hr, giving a mowing capacity of pairs of small rotating discs, each usually
about 0.6 ha/hr in good cutting conditions. fitted with two knives. The pairs of discs
They have generally been superseded by rotate in opposite directions, like drum
rotary disc and drum type mowers that mowers, but because the discs are much
have a faster cutting speed, less chance of smaller in diameter, the material is
‘blocking’ in wet or lodged material, and essentially left where it is cut. Disc mowers
greater durability on stony ground. are fitted with swath plates, which allow the
swath width to be adjusted, from a narrow
Flail mowers windrow to one almost the width of cut.
Flail mowers are modified flail harvesters, Disc mowers have a similar throughput
which leave the mown crop on the ground capacity to drum mowers. Cutting widths
in a windrow. After wilting, the chute is and work rates of individual mowers have
changed to allow the material to be picked increased substantially in recent years.
up and delivered to a cart. Output ranges They (and drum mowers) can be operated
from 0.4 to 1.2 ha/hr for a 1.5 m width of at forward speeds of 10-13 km/hr, giving a
cut, and up to 1.5 ha/hr with a 1.8 m width cutting rate of 1.0-1.5 ha/hr/m width of
of cut, but requires at least 35 kW to cut, depending on crop and ground
operate at 8 km/hr. conditions, and operator skill.
They are no longer common, due to their There is some evidence that forage cut with
inefficiency as mowers, lack of speed and a disc mower dries more quickly than that

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 Mowing and wilting pastures and crops 6.3

cut with a drum mower. In these studies, Plate 6.2

both in Australia and overseas, the principal Disc mower. Photograph: F. Mickan
advantage appears to be the wider swath
width. One disadvantage is that the forage
drops to the ground with minimal
disturbance, so the thickest and wettest
parts of the crop remain at the base of the
swath, on the ground. In very heavy crops,
the base of the swath can be still very moist
after several days unless the drying
conditions are very good or the crop is
tedded after mowing (see Section 6.6).

Mower-conditioners
In the past, conditioners required two
sorghum, cereals and stemmy leguminous
operations, with separate implements, to
crops with a tall growth habit such as
pick up and condition the crop. With
balansa, Persian, berseem and arrowleaf
higher capacity tractors and a need for
clovers and lucerne, but can be used for all
greater efficiency, mowers (usually disc
crops and pastures.
type) that incorporate conditioners have
As a general rule, the tyned conditioners
been developed. There are now mower-
should only be used for grass-type
conditioners with a cutting width of about
pastures and crops such as ryegrass, early
5.5 m that are capable of cutting
cut millet and cereals, and non-stemmy
1.0-1.5 ha/hr/m width of cut. They require
legumes, such as sub and white clovers
up to twice as much power as mower-only
and medics. Conditioners fitted with nylon
machines, to maintain output and
brushes have a role in ‘softer’ pasture-type
performance, typically 15-25 kW at the
forage. The way the machine is set up and
PTO per metre width of crop cut.
the skill of the operator will have a bearing
There are essentially two main types of
on the effectiveness of the operation.
conditioners – roller and flail.
Machines adjusted incorrectly may either
Roller conditioners operate by either
over- or under-condition the forage.
‘crushing’ or ‘crimping’ the cut forage
with rubber and/or steel rollers of various
Plate 6.3
designs. The crimping types leave a
Disc mower, with flail conditioner. Photograph: F. Mickan
number of breaks at intervals along the
stem, whereas the crushing types split the
stem along its length.
The flail-type conditioners use a variety of
metal, polyethylene or nylon spokes or
tynes, which may be either straight or vee
shaped, a series of rotating nylon brushes,
or various combinations of these.
Conditioners vary in their suitability for
various crops and pastures. Research has
shown that roller conditioners are the most
suitable for ‘stemmy’ crops, such as

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 Chapter 6

Plate 6.4 through the swath and for the moisture to

Rear view of disc mower with roller conditioner. Photograph: F. Mickan escape. The advantages of rapid wilting,
and the use of mower-conditioners and
other practices to increase wilting rate are
discussed in Sections 6.5 and 6.6.
The demand for greater capacity has
resulted in longer cutter bars on mower-
conditioners. Combinations of front- and
rear-mounted mower-conditioners or
tandem-mounted mower-conditioners have
also increased cutting widths. These can
have overall mowing widths above 7 m,
and cutting rates up to 10 ha/hr.
The latest development has been the
self-driven mower-conditioners,
Conditioners increase the rate of wilting in
incorporating two side mower-conditioners
two ways. They damage the outer waxy
protective layer (cuticle), allowing and a front mounted mower-conditioner
moisture to pass through the plant surface with cutting widths of about 9 m and
cutting rates of up to 10 ha/hr.
more freely. They also damage the stem,
increasing the rate of moisture loss from
Intensive mechanical conditioning
these areas.
Recent research in the United States,
Forage should not be over-conditioned;
Canada and Australia has compared drying
this will cause increased loss of DM. The
rates of forage using various machines –
leaf fraction, which is the highest quality
those that heavily condition crops at
component of the forage, is particularly
mowing, and high-performance or
susceptible to over-conditioning.
intensive mechanical conditioners
If a separate conditioner is used, this (maceration, mat making or super
operation should follow as soon as conditioning). These high-performance
possible after cutting to be most effective conditioners are in the early stages of
and to minimise DM losses. development. Table 6.2 shows the relative
Many mower-conditioners and drying rates that can be expected from a
conditioners now have adjustable swath range of machines designed to increase
boards or deflector plates to allow mown forage drying rates.
forage to be left in very wide swaths. The The maceration system combines four
ideal drying swath will have the stems of steps into one machine: mowing,
the crop on top of the swath, be widely macerating it through a series of serrated
spread and left ‘fluffy’ to allow airflow rollers, compressing the mashed forage
into thin mat, and depositing it on the
Table 6.2 stubble for field drying. Macerated forage
Increase in drying rate Type of machine Increase in
can dry 2-3 times faster than conventional
achieved using various drying rate (%) windrows. Although use of maceration
machines.
Windrow inverter 20-30 systems has been shown to improve
Tedder 30-60 quality of lucerne hay produced, with
Mower-conditioners 20-40
significantly less field losses, its role in
Source: Adapted from Maceration, super conditioning, mat making 100-200
Savoie et al. (1993) silage production is still being evaluated.

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 Mowing and wilting pastures and crops 6.4

Section 6.4

Dry matter content

All forages are composed of dry matter 6.4.1

(DM) plus water. Therefore, a silage which
Target DM content at harvest
has a DM content of 45%, contains 55%
moisture, for a total of 100%. When A good silage fermentation depends on the
completely dried in an oven, only the DM forage being harvested in a target DM
remains. It is the DM that contains the range (see Chapter 2, Section 2.1). The
energy, protein, fibre, minerals and target DM content will vary with factors
vitamins that livestock require for such as crop type, growth stage at harvest,
maintenance and production (see Chapters and the type of equipment and storage
13, 14 and 15). method being used. Table 6.3 shows
recommended DM content and wilting
requirements of a range of crop and
pasture types. Chapters 4 and 5 give more
detail on recommended DM content and
growth stage at harvest, potential yield and
quality of specific crops and pastures.
The DM content for baled silage is usually
higher than that recommended for silage
harvested with a forage harvester and
stored in pits or bunkers. Figure 6.2 shows
the target DM content for various forms of
forage storage options. The maximum DM
content recommended for most Australian

Table 6.3
Wilting requirement and target DM content at time of ensiling for a range
of crops and pastures.

Crop type Wilting Target DM (%) content at ensiling

requirement Forage harvested Baled
Lucerne Yes 35-40 35-50
Legume-dominant pastures
Legume forage crops
Grain legume crops
Cereal/legume mixtures
Temperate grass/ Yes 30-40 35-50
clover mixtures
Kikuyu grass Yes 35-40 35-50
Whole crop cereal Boot – Yes 35-40 35-50
Dough – No*
Forage sorghum Yes 30-40 35-50
Japanese millet Yes 30-40 35-50
Forage pennisetum
Grain sorghum No* 30-35 NR
Sweet sorghum No* 25-35 NR
Maize No* 33-38 NR
Brassica spp. (canola, kale) Yes 30-35 35-45
* Direct harvested.
NR – not recommended.
See Chapters 4 and 5 for more detail.

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 Chapter 6

silage storage systems does not exceed harvesting will usually start when it is
50% DM, the level for most baled silage slightly lower than recommended.
systems. Minimising time delays – by using extra or
If the forage becomes over-dry, very fine larger equipment, or contracting
chopping and using balers that can operations, for example – ensures quality
compact the material well may allow an losses during harvesting are kept low, and
adequate preservation of the silage. that most or all the silage is harvested
However, harvesting at DM contents above within the target DM range.
the target ranges in Table 6.3 is not Effluent loss can be a major problem with
recommended because of the high field low DM silage (see Chapter 2, Section
losses that can occur (see Chapter 2, 2.1.1), but is less significant when DM
Section 2.5.1). content of the silage is more than 28-30%.
In reality, if most of the crop is to be The contamination of waterways and
harvested at the desired DM content, groundwater with silage effluent is a
potential problem that can be avoided with
good wilting management (see Chapter 2,
Section 2.1.1). Contamination of water
systems is a growing concern, receiving
➤ Legumes have relatively low WSC content and, for chopped silage, increasing attention from the various
need to be wilted to DM levels at least 2-5 % units higher than
environment protection authorities.
grasses or cereals, at the lower end of the target range.
As well as being an environmental
➤ More mature plants with lower leaf:stem ratio need to be ensiled at
concern, effluent loss results in a decline
the lower end of the recommended DM ranges to ensure adequate
compaction (see Table 6.3). in silage quality. Silage effluent contains
many nutrients, with up to 5-10% solids,
➤ Haylage is an American term used to describe high DM silage
(50-60 % DM) stored in large tower silos using the Harvestore® comprising soluble crude protein
system. The enormous weights inside the towers compacts the (20-30%), soluble sugars (4-30%),
silage. fermentation products (0-30%) and ash
➤ Some producers have successfully ensiled large square bales at (20-30%) on a DM basis. A silage of 20%
55-70 % DM. However, field losses (DM and quality) at these high DM may lose 5% of its DM as effluent,
DM levels are greater. most of which is highly digestible.

Figure 6.2
The target range of DM Fresh Unwilted Wilted Wilted Baled Hay
pasture or direct silage, silage, silage
content for various forms cut silage long chop short chop
of forage. 15-20 % 15-20 % 30-35 % 35-40 % 35-50 % 80-88 %
DM DM DM DM DM DM

Evaporated
water Hay: too wet
Water

Silage: too dry

Dry
matter

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 Mowing and wilting pastures and crops 6.4

6.4.2 Plate 6.5

Silage quality and DM
How to determine DM losses can be high if the
content of forages forage is not adequately
wilted. These bales were
Sending samples of fresh forage to feed ensiled when DM was
analysis laboratories for accurate DM too low.

assessment is not practical. Simple and

relatively quick DM assessment can be
done on-farm using one of two methods:
1. Hand squeeze method. Photograph: F. Mickan

2. Microwave oven method.

At the time of publication, hay moisture Hand squeeze method
meters, although accurate for measuring
This is a quick and easy method for use in
low moisture content in hay, for example,
the field. It is more accurate than
were not sufficiently accurate for forages
‘wringing’ a handful of unchopped grass.
in the DM range recommended for silages.
Initially, you may need to calibrate this
However, further evaluation is required.
method (or some other test devised by
Standard kitchen ovens are not suitable for your own experience) by using a
drying forage samples. As well as the risk microwave oven to determine the correct
of the sample burning, the process is very DM content, or be guided by someone
slow and may take 10 to 24 hours to dry with experience in using the technique.
completely.
1. Take representative samples of the
The sample of forage to be dried must be mown forage across the paddock. (In
representative of the mown material, with uniform crops, a small section may be
samples from various locations in the forage harvested and a sample
paddock and to the full depth of the collected.)
windrows. Areas not representative of the
2. Mix the samples thoroughly and take a
paddock, such as capeweed infestations or
sub-sample.
wetter sections, should be sampled and
treated separately. These sections of the 3. Cut the sub-sample into 1-2 cm lengths.
paddock may need to be harvested last, 4. Tightly squeeze a handful into a ball for
particularly within a baled silage system. about 30 seconds.
5. Quickly open hand.
6. Estimate approximate DM content from
Table 6.4.

Table 6.4
DM content
DM content Condition of the sample
determination from hand
Below 25% Free moisture runs through fingers as material is being squeezed. When pressure is released, squeeze method.
the ball of chopped forage holds its shape. A lot of free moisture is present on hand.
25-30% Ball just holds its shape. No free moisture expressed. Hand moist.
30-40% Ball falls apart slowly. No free moisture. Little or no moisture on hand.
Above 40% Ball springs apart quickly.

Successful Silage 155

 Chapter 6

At the same moisture content, stemmy 5. Dry on full power (high) for intervals of
material will tend to feel drier than leafy 3-5 minutes to begin with until the
material. For example, grasses and lucerne sample begins to feel dry (time depends
will feel drier than clover. Forage that has on sample size, shortness of chop and
surface moisture from heavy dew or rain, initial DM content), reducing to
may feel wetter than it is. In both cases, 30 seconds to one minute as the sample
the effect will be less for chopped material becomes drier. Samples should be
than for longer material. turned and ‘fluffed-up’ at each
weighing to improve evenness of
Microwave oven method drying. This initial drying may require
A reasonably accurate estimate of DM up to 10 minutes of microwave time for
content may be obtained using a standard very wet samples.
domestic microwave oven. Digital scales, 6. Record weight of the sample and
which measure to units of one gram, are continue to heat, initially for 30-second
Warning essential. periods, at reduced power. Record
Follow steps 1 and 2 of the hand squeeze weight at the completion of each period
Place a 250 mL glass
method, then: in the microwave.
three-quarters full of
water in the oven 3. Cut the sub-sample into 3-4 cm lengths. 7. If the weight of the sample does not
during drying to prevent change after two or three drying
4. Tare a container suitable for use in a
the forage sample intervals, it is 100% dry (to within
microwave. The size of the sample to be
charring or igniting as it 1-2% units). This is the final dry
becomes completely
weighed should be equivalent to the
weight. If the sample chars or burns,
dry. Maintain the water amount that could be heaped onto a large
use the previous recorded weight.
level during oven use. dinner plate (about 150 g). Weigh the
Occasionally, the weight may increase if
You may need to sample of the chopped forage in the
the sample absorbs some moisture from
replace the water with tared container, measuring to the nearest
the glass of water; if this happens use
cold water if it starts to gram. Record this as the initial wet
steam or boil as this the last recorded weight.
weight. Spread the material evenly over
steam may be the container and place in oven with a 8. See box below for the method to
absorbed by the drying glass of water (see ‘Warning’ at left). calculate DM content.
forage.

8. Calculate the DM content

DM ( %) = Final dry weight (g) x 100

Initial wet weight (g)
Example: 48 g x 100 = 42.8 % DM
112 g
Remember: Tare the container (set the sclaes at zero before adding the sample) or subtract its
weight from both the initial and final weights.
Forage and silage DM content is usually expressed as a percentage of the total weight. It is
calculated using the following equation:
DM ( %) = dry weight (g) x 100
wet weight (g)
DM content may sometimes be expressed as g/kg. In this case, the following equation is used:
DM (g/kg) = dry weight (g) x 1,000
wet weight (g)
Conversion: 1 % = 10 g/kg

156 Top Fodder

 Mowing and wilting pastures and crops 6.5

Section 6.5

Wilting

Wilting is the process where moisture 6.5.1

evaporates from the mown forage to
How wilting occurs
increase DM content to the desired level
for harvesting. Moisture loss from mown forage is
To minimise losses (DM and quality) the initially quite rapid. It occurs primarily
mown material must be wilted as quickly through the stomata (microscopic pores)
as possible to the target DM content (see that are concentrated on the leaves and, to
Table 6.3). Ideally, wilting should take no a lesser extent, the stems. Most of the
longer than 48 hours. The longer the water loss from both grasses and legumes
wilting period needed to achieve the target is from the leaves, although some moisture
DM content, the more extensive the DM (up to 30% in grasses) is drawn from the
and quality losses due to continued plant stems and evaporates through the leaves.
respiration and microbial (bacterial and After the forage is cut, the stomata usually
mould) attack. The risk of rain will also close to conserve moisture. This is a plant
increase. survival mechanism and occurs more
Wilting beyond the target DM content also quickly on a hot, drying day than a cooler,
results in higher quality and DM losses overcast day. The delay in closing of the
due mainly to leaf loss before and during stomata will depend on plant moisture
harvest (see Section 6.7). content and the humidity within the swath,
but usually occurs between 30 minutes and
Weather conditions directly affect wilting
two hours after cutting. For most species,
rate. Warm days with low humidity and
this stomatal closure occurs before 30% of
extensive periods of solar radiation
the initial moisture has been lost.
(sunlight), accompanied by wind, result in
the fastest rates. During cool, overcast When the stomata are fully closed, water
weather, when the humidity is high, vapour can still move through the
wilting rates are slowest because of low epidermis or cuticle (outer skin) of the
evaporation rates. Weather conditions also leaves, leaf sheaths and stems, although
affect loss of forage DM and quality the rate of moisture loss is reduced to
during the wilting period (see Section 6.7). about 10% of that of open stomata.

Wilted silages are usually more palatable A young, vegetative crop or pasture
and result in greater animal intakes than contains significantly more leaf than stem;
unwilted silages produced from the same as plants mature, the proportion of leaf
forage. However, whether or not animal declines. Typically, lucerne contains
production is improved will depend on the 55-60% leaf at the vegetative stage of
length of time taken to wilt the forage growth, declining to 35-40% when in the
(see Section 6.5.2). full bloom to early pod stages. In perennial
ryegrass, the percentage of leaf falls from
85% at the early vegetative stage to 20%
when fully in head. As plants mature, the
proportion of soluble cell contents in the
stems also falls as more structural fibre is
produced. These changes explain the more
rapid wilt achieved with leafier material
compared to more stemmy material.

Successful Silage 157

 Chapter 6

Figure 6.3 Rate of moisture loss slows further as the

Simulated water loss over 1000 forage DM content approaches 40-50%
time from 1 tonne of DM (50-60% moisture). This is largely
fresh grass with a DM 800
Moisture loss (kg)

content of 18.9% (81.1% due to the moisture now being drawn from
moisture) at mowing. 600 inside the stems and larger plant fractions.
50 % DM content
40 % DM content
400 This change in rate of moisture loss occurs
30 % DM content at about the ideal moisture content of
200
Source: Adapted from Jones and
heavily wilted silage (see Figure 6.3).
Harris (1980), using thin layer, 0
temperature 200C, Baled silage produced at 50% DM content
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
relative humidity 50%, will require more extended wilting, with a
air speed 1 m/sec Time (hours)
relatively slow rate of moisture loss during
the later stages of wilting. As a result of
the longer wilting period needed for baled
silage, DM and quality losses during
wilting are likely to be greater for these
systems. The leaf fraction of some plant
species may become quite dry during this
period, increasing the risk of mechanical

Figure 6.4
Drying dynamics in a a. Initial drying in conditioned swath Initial drying in conditioned swaths -
conditioned swath.
Solar depth of 15-20 cm:
radiation • Heat generated in the swath due to
continued plant respiration rises to
the surface.
Reflected • Approximately 50 % of solar radiation
heat reaches ~2-3 cm into swath and
about 10 % to the base.
Wind
direction • About 20 % radiation initially reflected.
15-20 cm • Wind initially deflected over the swath.

100-120 cm

b. Drying effect several hours later Later drying in conditioned swaths -

depth of 15-20 cm:
Solar
radiation • Much more solar radiation reaches
the swath base.

• Little solar radiation reflected.

• More wind flows through the swath.

Wind
direction • Swath dries out more rapidly than
if mown and left behind standard
mower, with no conditioning.

100-120 cm

158 Top Fodder

 Mowing and wilting pastures and crops 6.5

losses during harvest. This is especially a radiation into the swath and more airflow
problem with legumes. through the swath.
The early and later stages of drying in a Figure 6.5 shows the impact the swath
mown swath are presented width has on drying rate. If the swaths
diagrammatically in Figure 6.4. In the occupy only 50% of the ground, only 50%
early stages of drying, about 20% of the of the solar energy is available (see Figure
sun’s heat is reflected from the swath’s 6.5a). If the swaths are spread over most of
surface, so is not available for drying. the ground surface, density is reduced and
Radiation at about 2 cm below the surface exposure to wind and the drying force of
is half that at the surface and only 10% at solar radiation is increased, thereby
the base. There is minimal air movement maximising drying rate (see Figure 6.5b).
in the middle of a swath, even on windy The humidity in and around the swath
days. becomes quite high as moisture
The density of the swath is reduced as evaporates. Forming a low-density swath,
moisture is lost and drying continues at which allows airflow through and around
greater depth. As shown in Figure 6.4b, it, will reduce the relative humidity and
this allows greater penetration of solar improve moisture loss.

Figure 6.5
The effect of swath
a. Utilisation of solar radiation in narrow, deep Narrow and deep swaths (very dense)
width on solar radiation
swaths Approximately 50 % of solar radiation is interception and
not utilised for drying. drying rate.
Drying rate is slow.

Wasted
radiation

b. Utilisation of solar radiation in wide swaths Wide and thin swaths (much less dense)

Approximately 85 % of solar radiation is

utilised for drying, increasing drying rate.

Minimal radiation
wasted

Successful Silage 159

 Chapter 6

6.5.2 Wilting rate

The effect of wilting on DM intake was found to be higher for

animal production silages that achieved the target DM content
for ensiling more quickly (see Figure 6.6).
In a number of overseas studies, the effects Producers should aim for a wilting period
of wilting on animal production have been of less than 48 hours. Where wilting is
variable. There have been no similar extended, the intake of wilted silage will
studies in Australia. not differ greatly from the unwilted silage.
A large number of studies in Europe have An extended wilt will increase loss of
compared unwilted and wilted silages forage quality (ME) and could cause total
produced from the same crop. Most ME intake to be reduced for wilted
silages studied were produced from compared to unwilted silages.
perennial ryegrass pastures, although some A survey of 140 dairy farms in western
contained other grasses or white clover. Victoria (summarised in the box below)
These results, shown in Table 6.5, suggest found that the average time taken to wilt
that the benefits of wilting were was 3-6 days and the average DM content
inconsistent, and it did not guarantee any of the forage at ensiling was 45.5%. The
improvement in liveweight gain or milk length of wilt was longer for baled systems
production. However, it was found that compared with chopped silage in order to
achieving animal production benefits from achieve a higher DM content.
wilting, as indicated by increased intake, These results highlight that the majority of
depended on three main factors – wilting producers in this survey may be over-
rate, final DM content and silage wilting and that wilting period is much too
fermentation quality. long. These producers are likely to be
Further details of the effects of wilting on suffering production losses.
beef cattle production, and the study in
Table 6.5, are discussed in Chapter 14, Summary of wilting survey results
Section 14.2.3, and in Chapter 13, Section
➤ Average wilting period – 3.6 days.
13.2.3, and Chapter 15, Section 15.2.3, for
➤ Average DM content of forage at
dairy cattle and sheep production,
ensiling – 45.5 %.
respectively.
➤ Average of 4.2 days wilting period for
Table 6.5 baled silage to achieve 49.6 % DM.
A comparison of Response to wilting ➤ Average of 2.2 days wilting period for
production from dairy chopped silage to achieve 35.7 % DM.
Average Range
and beef cattle fed wilted
silages compared to Dairy and beef: Most forages in this survey were perennial
unwilted silages % increase in DM intake 16.4 -14 to 85 ryegrass pastures.
produced from the same Dairy: Source: Jacobs (1998)
forage. Milk production (kg/day) 0.22 -2.0 to 2.2
% increase milk production 1.4 -10.0 to 16.7
(kg/day)
Milk fat (kg/day) 0.03 -0.08 to 0.15
Milk protein (kg/day) 0.02 -0.07 to 0.11
Beef:
Liveweight gain (kg/day) 0.03 -0.23 to 0.25
% change in liveweight gain 7.1 -22.2 to 64.1

Source: Adapted from Wright

et al. (2000)
Carcase weight gain (kg/day) -0.04 -0.13 to 0.03

160 Top Fodder

 Mowing and wilting pastures and crops 6.5

Final DM content Figure 6.6

As a general rule, for forages within the Effect of length of wilt on relative DM intake of wilted perennial ryegrass
silage by cattle compared to unwilted silages with a DM content of 18%.
recommended DM range, DM intake
increases with DM content. At high DM 150
Wilted to 20 % DM
contents (>55%), additional field losses Wilted to 24 % DM
may reduce the silage ME content. As a 140 Wilted to 35 % DM
Wilted to 45 % DM

Relative DM intake ( %)
result, there may be no further increase or Intake on unwilted silage
130
even a relative decline in DM intake (see
Figure 6.7). 120
If wilting is ineffective and there is little
110
increase in DM content, intake will be
very similar or less than that of unwilted 100
silage produced from the same forage.
90
Silage fermentation quality 1 2 3 4 5
Length of wilt (days)
Where the unwilted silages were poorly
preserved, as indicated by a high Source: Adapted from Wright et al. (2000)

ammonia-N content, or where the unwilted

silage contained significant amounts of
Figure 6.7
acetic acid, the increase in intake due to
wilting was greater. Temperate grasses (see Effect of DM content of wilted perennial ryegrass silage on DM intake
compared to unwilted silage (18 % DM content) from the same forage.
Table 6.5) contain more WSC than
legumes or legume-dominant crops and 140

pastures, or tropical species. The increase

130
Relative DM intake ( %)

in intake due to improved silage

fermentation quality is likely to be greater
120
with low WSC content forage.
Chapter 2, Section 2.2.2, and Chapter 12, 110
Section 12.4.5, contain further information
DM intake of unwilted silage
on silage fermentation quality. 100

90
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
DM content of wilted silage ( %)
Source: Adapted from Wright et al. (2000)

Successful Silage 161

 Chapter 6

Section 6.6

Increasing wilting rate

A rapid wilting rate is necessary to Mow after the dew lifts

maximise the potential benefits of wilting. Overnight dew on a standing crop or
A number of management strategies and pasture can contain up to 2 t/ha of ‘free’
mechanical processes are available to moisture. Mowing should be delayed until
increase wilting rate. They can be used most of it has evaporated. If not, the
independently or in combination. moisture ‘trapped’ under the mown swath
will delay drying. Drying will be even
Cut at an earlier growth stage slower if the swath is left flat, rather than
Cutting early, when crops are lighter loose and ‘fluffy’.
(lower yielding) and of higher quality, will
increase the wilting rates. For heavier Condition forage
crops, DM and quality losses during the Using a conditioner at mowing can
wilting process are likely to be higher increase the drying rate by 20-40%. Table
because they dry more slowly than lighter 6.6 shows the increase in wilting rate due
crops. This can be particularly important to conditioning, for a range of swath
early in the season, when drying widths and drying conditions. See Section
conditions are less favourable and even 6.3.2 for the various types of conditioners
light crops do not dry as rapidly. and their mode of mechanical operation.
Given the choice, it may be worthwhile to The increase in wilting rate of conditioned
harvest a greater area of early-cut (lower forage is due to increased rate of moisture
yielding) forage to ensure rapid wilting. loss through damaged stems, leaves and
Although, when costed on a $/kg DM other plant parts. In addition, the swath
basis, the silage produced from the lighter produced tends to be loose or fluffy,
crop is more expensive, on a quality basis allowing more air to pass through, which
($/kg ME) it may be cheaper. Chapter 11, also helps to promote rapid drying.
Section 11.3.5, discusses this quality/cost
Conditioning can have the following
comparison in detail.
disadvantages, but these are outweighed
Before mowing, consider the impact of by the benefits:
cutting time and growth stage at harvest on
➤ In the event of rain, conditioned
regrowth potential and consequences for
material will reabsorb more moisture
feed budgeting (see Chapter 3).
than unconditioned forage.
➤ Over-conditioning or using the wrong
type of conditioner can increase DM
loss, mainly leaf.

Table 6.6
Results from Irish studies Treatment Dull sunshine Average sunshine
showing the effect of
Unconditioned Conditioned Unconditioned Conditioned
conditioning, swath type 8 hr 32 hr 8 hr 32 hr 8 hr 32 hr 8 hr 32 hr
and sunshine on ryegrass
DM content ( %)* after Double swath 14.4 15.5 14.6 16.0 15.6 18.2 16.1 19.3
8 and 32 hours. Single swath 15.5 18.0 16.0 19.0 18.3 24.6 19.4 27.3
Spread swath 17.6 22.9 18.6 25.3 23.5 38.0 26.1 44.7
Double swath – two swaths combined immediately after mowing.
* The initial grass DM content was 13.2 % yielding 3.96 t DM/ha. No rain fell during the experiment.
Note: With the more favourable wilting conditions usually experienced in Australia, the drying is likely to be faster, and after
Source: Patterson (1998) the same length of time the final DM contents would be substantially higher than in these Irish studies.

162 Top Fodder

 Mowing and wilting pastures and crops 6.6

➤ In very hot weather, particularly with Figure 6.8

light crops, the forage can dry too Effect of swath treatments on the DM content of ryegrass (originally 17.2%
quickly. Cutting later in the day, reducing DM content with a yield of 3.87 t DM/ha) after 5, 8 and 27 hours.
swath width and lessening the severity of 50
At mowing
conditioning will minimise the losses.
After 5 hours
40
After 8 hours
Increase swath width

DM content ( %)
After 27 hours
30
The rate of moisture loss is greater from a
flat swath spread over the total mower
20
width than from a high, narrow swath. A

Treatment 1

Treatment 2

Treatment 3

Treatment 4
wider swath allows more of the mown 10
forage to be exposed to solar radiation (see
Figure 6.5) and significantly increases the 0
wilting rate. Treatment 1: One swath produced from 6 m cut of mown forage.
Not conditioned.
The rate of moisture loss differs Treatment 2: Mower conditioned, 2.4 m cut, left in a swath 1.2 m wide.
Treatment 3: Mower conditioned, 2.4 m cut, left in a swath 1.6 m wide.
throughout the swath, being highest at the Treatment 4: Mower conditioned, tedded twice daily.
outer surfaces and lowest internally, where
Source: Forristal, O’Kiely and Lenehan (1996)
a ‘microclimate’ develops and further
restricts moisture loss. In fact, the sun has
far more drying power than wind, although Figure 6.9
the two in combination are most effective.
Effect of swath width on the drying rate of kikuyu grass at Berry, NSW.
In Irish studies, with heavy ryegrass crops,
50
conditioning the forage and having a wide At mowing
6 hour wilt
swath increased wilting rate (see Figure 6.8). 30 hour wilt
40
48 hour wilt
At Berry on the NSW south coast, kikuyu 54 hour wilt
DM content ( %)

grass was either windrowed at mowing or 30

left in a wide swath. The windrowed
kikuyu took 54 hours to achieve the 20
Treatment 1

Treatment 2

same DM content as the kikuyu in the

wide swath achieved after 30 hours 10
(see Figure 6.9).
0
Treatment 1: Mown and left in a wide swath at near-mower width.
Treatment 2: Windrowed at the time of mowing.

Source: Kaiser et al. (unpublished data)

Successful Silage 163

 Chapter 6

Figure 6.10 Tedding

Effect of drying treatments 35 Tedding is the mechanical action of a
on DM content of No tedding
30 tedder rake, which spreads the mown
pastures.
With tedding
material. It should be done as soon as
25
possible after mowing and may be
DM content ( %)

20 repeated. Tedding or spreading the mown

material straight after mowing will
15
increase the rate of drying by 30-60%,
10 depending on such factors as crop yield
5 and climatic conditions.

0 Early in the season, when drying

Rotary Abrasion Crusher conditions are not ideal, two or three
mower conditioner conditioner
Source: Wilkinson (1995) citing
(nylon brush) (roller) teddings may be necessary to achieve the
the results of a Dutch study
desired DM content, especially if the crop
is to be harvested as baled silage. The
initial tedding should be at a relatively
slow speed to ensure the crop is well
spread. Later teddings may be at faster
speeds, but not so vigorous as to cause leaf
loss. Leaf losses are minimal when the
tedder is used straight after mowing and if
Plate 6.6 tedded later at low DM contents (see
Tedding the mown forage spreads the swath and increases wilting rates. Section 6.7.3). Particular care needs to be
Photograph: F. Mickan taken with forages such as lucerne, where
the leaf may be much drier than the stems.
Tedding a crop mown by a mower-
conditioner may increase the drying rate
by a further 20-30%, depending on factors
such as crop yield, conditioner type and
drying conditions. Tedding increased the
wilting rate in the previous Irish study (see
Figure 6.8) and a Dutch study (see Figure
6.10). These improvements occurred with
both conditioned and unconditioned
forage.

164 Top Fodder

 Mowing and wilting pastures and crops 6.6

In studies on the south coast of NSW, the Figure 6.11

time taken to wilt grass to greater than Effect of swath treatment on the DM content of kikuyu grass after different
30% DM content was reduced wilting intervals
substantially by leaving the swath at Moderate drying
mower width and tedding the grass during 40 Excellent drying conditions
conditions (2 experiments)
the afternoon (see Figure 6.11). 35 (1 experiment)
30 30hrs 48 hrs

DM content ( %)
Use windrow inverters 25
30 hrs
6 hrs
Windrow inverters have been developed 20 6 hrs
6 hrs 6 hrs
specifically to invert the windrow, picking 15
it up and gently replacing it back on the 10
ground to the side of its original location. At At At At
5 mowing mowing mowing mowing
Research has shown that the rate of drying 0
Fast wilt Slow wilt Fast wilt Slow wilt
can be increased by about 20-30% (see treatment treatment treatment treatment
Table 6.2). The windrow is ‘fluffed up’, Fast wilt treatment - mown material left at the width of the
mower and tedded once per 24-hour period.
reducing the density and encouraging a Slow wilt treatment - material left in windrow and not tedded.
greater rate of drying in the centre.
Source: Kaiser et al. (unpublished data)

Invert windrows with rakes

If machinery is not available to increase Chemical conditioning
the rate of drying by conditioning or Chemical conditioning, sometimes called
spreading, the last resort for material that ‘K-hay’, involves spraying a drying agent
has been left in a windrow is to invert the such as potassium carbonate onto plant
windrows by using a rake. Rakes are not stems at cutting. The waxy cuticle or layer
designed to handle very moist material so on the outside of the stem is dissolved,
the ‘turning’ of the windrow is usually not reducing resistance to water loss from the
successful. How effectively the material is plant after mowing.
inverted depends on the type of rake, DM Early research in Australia and the United
content of the cut material, speed travelled, States has confirmed that 5 kg potassium
set-up of the rake and the experience of carbonate in 200 litres of water/ha has
the operator. been very beneficial for hay production
A common problem experienced when with lucerne and medic crops and, to lesser
using rakes to invert windrows is that the extent, other legumes such as red clover.
windrows become very ‘ropey’, being They are less effective in high-yielding
twisted and becoming narrower, leading to crops and where drying conditions are
uneven drying. They are difficult to re- favourable.
rake and harvest. These windrows are even Drying agents have proven of no benefit
more difficult to handle if rain falls before on kikuyu forage and limited benefit in
the harvest is completed. pastures and other crops. Although no
research has examined its usefulness for
silage, the lower DM content required for
silage and continued developments in
conditioning machinery suggest chemical
conditioning may not have a role in silage
production.

Successful Silage 165

 Chapter 6

Section 6.7

Field losses

Once cut, a crop immediately begins to and are higher for hay compared to silage.
lose both DM and energy (ME). Losses are higher when wilting is slow and
There are three sources of field loss: if rain occurs. Additional information on
the various sources and extent of losses
• Plant respiration loss
throughout the silage making process are
• Weather damage loss
discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.5.
• Mechanical loss.
DM and quality losses are usually greater
Some losses, such as leaf shatter, are in younger versus older crops, in legumes
visible during mechanical operations. versus grasses, from long versus short
Other losses, such as plant respiration, wilting periods, from prolonged rain falls,
residual plant enzyme activity and from incorrect timing of mechanical
microbial degradation, are invisible. handling and incorrect equipment set-up.
DM and energy losses increase as the
forage is wilted to higher DM contents,

Factors affecting extent of field losses

➤ Higher-yielding crops and pastures wilt more slowly, increasing field losses.
➤ The type of machinery used for mowing and conditioning (and operator proficiency) will
affect mechanical losses.
➤ Losses increase with the number of mechanical (tedding and raking) operations, and
depend on the DM content at the time.
➤ Losses are less with rapid compared to slow wilts.
➤ Wide, thin swaths wilt more rapidly than narrow windrows, reducing losses.
➤ Increasing amount, frequency and intensity of rainfall will delay wilting and increase losses.
➤ Rainfall late in the wilting process, at higher DM contents, will cause higher losses.
➤ Losses increase as the forage is wilted to higher DM content at harvest.
➤ Time and effectiveness of follow-up drying weather.
➤ Type of machinery used in follow-up drying and harvesting.

166 Top Fodder

 Mowing and wilting pastures and crops 6.7

6.7.1 6.7.2

Plant respiration losses Weather damage losses

Plant respiration converts WSCs into Cloudy skies, cool temperatures, high
water, carbon dioxide and heat, resulting humidity, no breeze, heavy dews and
in a loss of DM and energy (hence ME rainfall typify poor wilting conditions.
content) in the forage. They lead to significant increases in field
Respiration rate is highest at cutting when losses (see Figure 6.12) and increased
plant moisture content is high; as the growth of undesirable moulds, bacteria
moisture content decreases so does the and yeasts in the swath before harvest. A
respiration rate. Temperature also directly large proportion of the WSC content may
influences the respiration rate – it is higher also be lost during respiration. If ensiled at
at higher temperatures. The effect of DM low DM content, as a salvage operation,
content and temperature on respiration rate this loss of fermentable substrate may
is shown in Chapter 2, Figure 2.6. result in a poor fermentation and
unpalatable silage. See Chapter 7 for
Although some respiration losses are
recommended treatments using additives.
unavoidable, a rapid wilt will minimise
them. Respiration losses are typically As well as slowing wilting rate, rainfall
about 2-8% of the DM, but may reach up can also cause direct losses of DM and
to 16% under poor drying conditions when nutrients due to leaching, leaf shatter and
making hay. Although losses may not be as increased mechanical losses if additional
high when making silage, prolonged tedding/raking operations are required.
wilting and periods of rain, particularly Table 6.7 summarises the results of a
soon after cutting, will cause significant number of European studies with ryegrass
losses. pastures, where the loss of forage DM was
determined for good, moderate and poor
weather conditions. The ryegrass was
tedded to increase drying rate, and the
total number of tedding operations
increased with deteriorating weather

Figure 6.12
35 Weather conditions Effect of weather
Poor conditions and final
30
Loss of DM in field ( %)

forage DM content on
25 loss of DM during
Moderate wilting for grass.
20

15
Good
10

0
20 40 60 80
DM content ( %)
0-1 1-4 2-6 3-8
Length of drying period (days) Source: Wilkinson (1981),
citing Zimmer (1977)

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Table 6.7 Table 6.8 shows the effect of rainfall over

Effect of length of wilt Weather conditions 24 hours and crop maturity on DM losses
and amount of rainfall on in lucerne/red clover hay. Leaf loss, and
No Rain Rain on
DM losses in ryegrass
rainfall on only more than leaching and respiration losses, rose
during wilting. 1 day 1 day
substantially from no rain to
Number of studies 2 3 3
Length of wilt (days) 2.0 4.7 8.3
63 mm rain. The losses were highest in the
Total rain (mm) 0 1.9 23.5 less mature crops (bud stage) due to their
Average maximum 25.0 17.6 17.7 higher proportions of soluble nutrients.
temperature (°C)
The same trends are likely with rain-
Number of teddings:
total 2.0 3.3 3.7 damaged lucerne silage, although the
per day 1.0 0.76 0.5 extent of losses are likely to be less.
Increase in DM
Mown forage lying in a narrow swath
content (%) 31.3 33.4 29.8
DM losses (%): absorbs less moisture than material in wide
total 6.5 8.1 13.1 swaths. However, the wide swaths are
per 1% increase 0.21 0.25 0.43 quicker to dry out after the rain stops.
Source: Van Bockstaele
in DM content
et al. (1979) Although not always practical, if rain is
imminent, the mown material should be
windrowed to reduce moisture uptake. The
conditions. The losses would have windrows should be spread out after the
included direct losses due to rainfall, rain stops to increase the rate of drying.
increased respiration loss and mechanical Crops which have been conditioned or
loss, but did not take into account the tedded soon after mowing will re-absorb
likely decline in energy content (ME) of more moisture after rainfall than an
the remaining DM. unconditioned swath.
These studies showed that the length of the The tedding and conditioning operations
wilting period more than doubled and total aim to maximise the drying rate to reduce
DM losses rose 25% when there was only DM and quality losses, and to greatly
a small amount of rain on one day. reduce the time the crop is at risk or
Significant rainfall, where rain fell on exposed to rainfall before harvest.
more than one day, led to a more than However, there will be occasions when the
four-fold increase in the length of wilting tedded and conditioned forage will be rain
period, and DM losses doubled. affected, increasing DM and quality losses.

Table 6.8
Effect of stage of maturity Loss Stage of maturity No rain 25 mm rain 42 mm rain 63 mm rain
and quantity of rain on
DM losses in lucerne/red Leaf loss Bud 7.6 13.6 16.6 17.5
clover hay in America Full bloom 6.3 9.1 16.7 19.8
(% DM lost). Leaching and respiration Bud 2.0 6.6 30.1 36.9
Full bloom 2.7 4.7 23.5 31.8
Total Bud 9.6 20.2 46.6 54.4
Source: Holland and Keszar Full bloom 9.0 13.7 40.2 51.5
(1990) citing Rohweder (1983).

168 Top Fodder

 Mowing and wilting pastures and crops 6.7

6.7.3 Figure 6.13

8 Loss of DM at each raking
Mechanical losses
7 or tedding operation for
6 lucerne at various DM
Mechanical losses of DM occur at mowing
contents.

DM loss ( %)
5
and conditioning, and at each raking and
4
tedding operation. Figure 6.13 shows the
3
level of DM loss that can be expected in Raking
2
lucerne harvest operations. This study Tedding
1
highlights that losses caused by raking or 0
tedding increase with increasing DM 20 30 40 50 60 70
Forage DM content
content of the forage. Raking into Mowing losses:
windrows should be carried out before the Mower without conditioner 1%
DM content reaches 50%. Mower with roller conditioner 2-3 %
Mower with flail conditioner 4 %
Leaf shatter losses in lucerne and most Source: Adapted from Pitt (1991)

other legumes may be four times greater

after mowing, conditioning and tedding
than for grass or cereal crops.
In the case of lucerne, there should be
minimal mechanical treatments after
mowing and conditioning, and preferably
none, as even freshly mown crops suffer
some leaf loss with tedding. Conditioning Plate 6.7
with a roller-type conditioner to speed
Large losses of the valuable leaf fraction can occur when lucerne and most
moisture loss from the stems is legumes are over-wilted. Photograph: A. Kaiser
recommended. Lucerne leaves dry 3-5
times faster than the stems and quickly
become brittle. Over-wilting of lucerne
and other legumes should be avoided.
The leaf fraction of legumes remains on
the plant in well-managed silage systems,
even baled silage at 50% DM content.
However, under extreme drying
conditions, particularly in unconditioned
crops, the leaf may become brittle at DM
contents of 35% or less.

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170 Top Fodder