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THEORIES BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOLOGY
What Motivation Theory Can Tell Us About Human Behavior
By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Updated on September 12, 2023
Medically reviewed by Amy Morin, LCSW
Motivation is an important force for initiating and maintaining goal-oriented behaviors. When we are
motivated, it feels easier to take steps toward what it is we want. Motivation also helps us continue to
take action even when things get tough or we feel like giving up. But where does this force come from?
That's where motivation theory comes into play.
Researchers have developed a variety of different explanations for how we become motivated. Here we
share a few of the most well-known motivation theories and the ideas behind them, as well as some of
their potential limitations.
At a Glance
Motivation theory seeks to explain what compels us to take certain actions. While some theories credit
our instincts, drive, or arousal levels for helping us get and stay motivated, others suggest that
motivation is derived from certain human needs, our expectations, or a desire for external rewards.
Instinct Motivation Theory
According to instinct theory, motivation is developed through evolutionary programming. It's similar to
how animals know to migrate. They don't learn how to do this; instead, it's an inborn or instinctual
behavior.
In the late 1800s, William James, the father of American psychology, identified a list of survival instincts.
Among them were fear, anger, love, shame, and modesty.1
The main problem with the instinct motivation theory is that it doesn't explain all human behavior.
James presumed that we act on impulse or instinct, but this ideology leaves out behaviors that are
learned or conditioned.
By the 1920s, instinct theories were pushed aside in favor of other motivation theories.2 That said,
contemporary evolutionary psychologists still study the influence of genetics and heredity on human
behavior.
How Evolutionary Psychology Explains Human Behavior
Drive Motivation Theory
Young woman drinking water out of glass bottle
Uwe Krejci / Getty Images
Drive theory proposes that motivation is derived from a person's desire to reduce the internal tension
that occurs when certain needs go unmet. It's based on the concept of homeostasis or the idea that the
body actively works to maintain a certain state of balance or equilibrium.
Drive theory helps explain behaviors that originate from biological or physiological needs, like hunger or
thirst. However, our behaviors aren't always motivated by unmet needs.
As an example, you may find yourself eating a meal or snack when you aren't physically hungry. This
theory doesn't explain these types of actions.
Arousal Motivation Theory

A fatigued man props up his head
Photographee.eu / Shutterstock
The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people take certain actions to maintain an optimal level
of physiological arousal or alertness. Additionally, optimal arousal levels can vary from one person to
another, also changing depending on the situation.
Based on this theory, if our arousal level gets too low, we are motivated to engage in activities that
make us feel more energized, like exercising or going to a nightclub or sporting event. Conversely, if our
physiological arousal is too high, we are motivated to pursue activities that relax the body and mind,
such as meditation or taking a nap.
One weakness of arousal theory is that it doesn't explain why we engage in behaviors for reasons
outside of physiological alertness—such as deciding to read when you aren't overly aroused. It also
doesn't account for the role that emotions can play in motivating us to do certain things.3
Humanistic Motivation Theory
Hierarchy of Needs Diagram of Human Motivation
Iamnee / Getty Images
Humanistic theories state that people are motivated to perform actions by the desire to meet certain
needs. These needs are represented in Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
Maslow's hierarchy suggests that people are first motivated to fulfill basic physiological needs, such as
air, water, and food. Once those needs are satisfied, they are motivated to meet safety, love, and
esteem needs before moving on to the need for self-actualization.
Humanistic psychology is interested in learning about what makes people happy and the things that
they do to achieve that aim rather than focusing on problematic behaviors. It is often criticized as being
"unscientific and naively overoptimistic."4
Incentive Motivation Theory
man holding medal
Ian Walton / Getty Images
Incentive theory suggests that people are motivated by external rewards. For example, you might be
motivated to go to work each day for the monetary reward of a paycheck. It adds that the greater the
perceived rewards, the more strongly people are motivated to pursue those reinforcements.
This theory shares some similarities with the behaviorist concept of operant conditioning.5 In operant
conditioning, behaviors are learned by forming associations with outcomes. Reinforcement strengthens
a behavior while punishment weakens it.
Incentives can arise from outside (extrinsic) or inside (intrinsic) an individual. Intrinsic motivation is
when you engage in a behavior because you find it rewarding for your own sake, rather than from the
desire for an external reward.
Extrinsic Motivation
Going to work to get paid
Studying to get a good grade
Working hard to get a raise or recognition from your boss
Tidying your house to avoid feeling embarrassed when company comes over
Intrinsic Motivation
Working because you enjoy the job

Studying because you find the subject interesting
Tackling a new project because you love a challenge
Tidying your house because a clean home keeps you calm
Intrinsic Motivation vs. Extrinsic Motivation: What's the Difference?
Expectancy Motivation Theory
Person seated at desk, smiling and thinking
Thomas Barwick / Getty Images
The expectancy theory of motivation suggests that when we think about the future, we formulate
expectations about what we think will happen. When a positive outcome is predicted, we believe that
we can make that possible future a reality. This leads us to feel more motivated to pursue those likely
outcomes.
This theory is sometimes referred to as the valence-instrumentality-expectancy model of motivation as

it proposes that motivation consists of these three key elements:6
Valence: the value people place on the potential outcome
Instrumentality: whether people believe they have a role to play in the predicted outcome
Expectancy: the belief that one has the capabilities to produce the outcome
A weakness of expectancy theory is that it doesn't account for the impact of one's social environment.
For example, research has found that, in the workplace, groups of individuals can influence the
motivation level of a single worker.7
Lloyd R, Mertens D. Expecting more out of expectancy theory: History urges inclusion of social context.
Int Manage Rev. 2018;14(1):28-43.

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THEORIES BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOLOGY

What Motivation Theory Can Tell Us About Human Behavior

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Updated on September 12, 2023

Medically reviewed by Amy Morin, LCSW

Instinct Motivation Theory

How Evolutionary Psychology Explains Human Behavior

Drive Motivation Theory

Young woman drinking water out of glass bottle

Uwe Krejci / Getty Images

Arousal Motivation Theory

Humanistic Motivation Theory

Hierarchy of Needs Diagram of Human Motivation

Iamnee / Getty Images

man holding medal

Ian Walton / Getty Images

Going to work to get paid

Studying to get a good grade

Working hard to get a raise or recognition from your boss

Working because you enjoy the job

Tackling a new project because you love a challenge

Tidying your house because a clean home keeps you calm

Intrinsic Motivation vs. Extrinsic Motivation: What's the Difference?

Expectancy Motivation Theory

Person seated at desk, smiling and thinking

Thomas Barwick / Getty Images

This theory is sometimes referred to as the valence-instrumentality-expectancy model of motivation as

Valence: the value people place on the potential outcome

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