RESEARCH

Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed
phenomenon. To research is to purposely and methodically search for new knowledge
and practical solutions in the form of answers to questions formulated beforehand.
Research is also defined as a systematic inquiry that investigates hypotheses, suggests
new interpretations of data or texts, and poses new questions for future research to
explore.
According to Rajasekar et al. (2006), research is a logical and systematic search for
new and useful information on a particular topic. It is an investigation of finding
solutions to scientific and social problems through objective and systematic analysis.
It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of hidden truths. Here knowledge
means information about matters. The information might be collected from different
sources like experience, human beings, books, journals, nature, etc. A research can
lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge. Only through research is it
possible to make progress in a field. Research is done with the help of study,
experiment, observation, analysis, comparison and reasoning. Research is in fact
ubiquitous. More precisely, research seeks predictions of events and explanations,
relationships and theories for them.
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH:
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedure. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden
and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own
specific purpose, some general objectives of research below:
(i) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
(Studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formative
research studies).
(ii) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation
or a group. (Studies with this object in view are known as descriptive
research studies).
(iii) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it
is associated with something else. (Studies with this object in view are
known as diagnostic research studies).
(iv) To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables. (Such
studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

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CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH:
Following are the characteristics of research;
i. Research is directed toward the solution of a problem.
ii. Research requires expertise.
iii. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or
theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
iv. Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidences.
v. Research demands accurate observation and description.
vi. Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or
using existing data for a new purpose.
vii. Research is characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply
rigorous analysis.
viii. Research involves the quest for answers to un-solved problems.
ix. Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to
validate the procedures employed the data collected and the conclusions
reached.
x. Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
xi. Research is carefully recorded and collected.
xii. Research sometimes requires courage.
TYPES OF RESEARCH:
There are varieties of ways through which we may classify it into different categories.
(A) On the basis of nature of information: On the basis of nature of information we
can classify the research into two types;
(i) Qualitative Research: When information is in the form of qualitative data.
(ii) Quantitative Research: When information is in the form of quantitative data.
(B) On the basis of utility of content or nature of subject matter of research: On
the basis of these criteria we can categorize the research into two categories.
(i) Basic/ Fundamental /pure or Theoretical Research: Its utility is universal.
(ii) Experimental or Applied Research: Its utility is limited.
(C) On the basis of approach of research: We may classify research into two
different categories.
(i) Longitudinal Research: Examples of this category are historical, Case study and
Genetic research.

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(ii) Cross-Sectional Research: Examples of this category are Experimental and Survey
Research.
(D) On the basis of method of research: On the basis of research method we may
classify a research into five different categories.
(i) Philosophical Research: It is purely qualitative in nature and we are focusing on
the vision of others on the content of research.
(ii) Historical Research: It is both qualitative as well as quantitative in nature and
deals with past events.
(iii) Survey Research: It deals with present events and is quantitative in nature. It may
further be sub-divided into; discretional, correlational and exploratory type of
research.
(iv) Experimental Research: This is purely quantitative in nature and deals with future
events.
(v) Case-Study Research: It deals with unusual events. It may be qualitative as well as
quantitative in nature depending upon the content.

RESEARCH PROCESS
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry
out research. These actions or steps are;
(i) Formulating the Research Problem
(ii) Extensive Literature Survey
(iii) Developing the Research Hypothesis
(iv) Preparing the Research Design
(v) Determining the Research Design
(vi) Collecting the Research Data
(vii) Execution of the Project
(viii) Analysis of Data
(ix) Hypothesis Testing
(x) Generalization and Interpretation
(xi) Preparing of the Report or Presentation of the Result

(i) Formulation of Research Problem: At the very outset, the researcher must decide
the general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter that he would like to inquire
into and then research problem should be formulated.

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(ii) Extensive Literature Survey: Once the problem is formulated the researcher
should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this
purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to academic journals, conference proceedings,
government reports, books etc. must be tapped depending on the nature of the
problem.
(iii) Development of Working Hypothesis: After extensive literature survey,
researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working
hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences. It’s very important or it provides the focal point for research.
(iv) Preparing the Research Design: After framing hypothesis we have to prepare a
research design i.e. we have to state the conceptual structure within which research
would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of
research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with optimum
effort, time and expenditure. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the
research purpose.
(v) Determining Sample Design: A sample design is a definite plan determined
before any data is actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.in
census inquiry we involve a great deal of time, money and energy so it it not possible
in practice under many circumstances. Sample designs can be either probability or
non-probability. With probability samples each element has a known probability of
being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the
researchers to determine this probability.
(vi) Collecting the Data: There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data
which differ considerably in context of cost, time and other resources at the disposal
of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through
survey. In case of survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following
ways; By observation,
 Through personal interview,
 Through telephonic interviews,
 By mailing of questionnaires or
 Through schedules.
(vii) Execution of the Project: Execution of project is a very important step in the
research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to
be collected would be adequate and dependable. A careful watch should be kept for
unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey realistic as much as possible.

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 (viii) Analysis of Data: The analysis of data requires a number of closely related
operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to
raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inference. Analysis
work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages;
coefficients etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process
of analysis, relationships of differences supporting or conflicting with original or new
hypothesis should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity
data can be said to indicate any conclusions.
(ix) Hypothesis Testing: After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to
test the hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the
hypothesis or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which is to be
answered by applying various tests like ‘t’ test, ’F’ test etc. F test have been developed
by statisticians for the purpose. Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with,
generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated.
(x) Generalizations and Interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several
times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization i.e. to build a
theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at
certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek
to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
(xi) Preparation of the Report or the Thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare
the report of what has been done by him. The layout of the report should be as
follows; the preliminary pages, the main text and end matter. The preliminary pages
carry title, acknowledgements and forward and then index. The main text of the
report should have introduction, review of literature and methodology.
CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH
One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
(a) The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be
used.
(b) The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit
another researcher to repeat the researcher for further advancement, keeping the
continuity of what has already been attained.
(c) The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results
that are as objective as possible.
(d) The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design
and estimate their effects upon the findings.

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(e) The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and
the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the
data should be checked carefully.
(f) Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
(g) Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a
good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
ASSIGNMENT
Identify ethical considerations in research.

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 RESEARCH DESIGN
A research design is simply the framework or plan for a study that is used as a guide
in collecting and analyzing the data. It is a blueprint that is followed in completing a
study. Research design is the blue print for collection measurement and analysis of
data. Actually it is a map that is usually developed to guide the research.
Definitions:
“Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for
collection and analyzing the needed information.” William Zikmund
“Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to
obtain answers to research questions and to control variance.” Kerlinger
Thus we can say that a research design is the arrangement of condition for collection
and analysis of data in a manner that aims to generalize the findings of the sample on
the population.
PURPOSE OF A RESEARCH DESIGN:
Research designs are used for the following purposes;
(i) To minimize the expenditure:
Research design carries an important influence on the reliability of the results attained.
It therefore provides a solid base for the whole research. This makes the research as
effective as possible by providing maximum information with minimum spending of
effort, money and time by preparing the advance plan of all about the research.
(ii) To facilitate the smooth scaling: Research design is needed because it facilitates
the smooth scaling of the various research operations, thereby making research as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort,
time and money.
(iii) To collect the relevant data and technique: Research design stands for
advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the
techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research
and the availability of staff time and money. Poor preparation of research design upset
the entire project.
(iv) To provide blue print for plans: Research design is needed due to the fact that
it allows for the smooth working of many research operations. It is like blue print
which we need in advance to plan the methods to be adopted for collecting the
relevant data and techniques to be used in its analysis for preparation of research
project. Just as for better economical and attractive construction of a house need a

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blue print and a map of that, similarly we need a blue print or a design for the smooth
flow of operation of research.
(v) To provide an overview to other experts: A research design provides an
overview of all the research process and with the help of the design we can take the
help and views of experts of that field. The design helps the investigator to organize
his ideas, which helps to recognize and fix his faults.
(vi) To provide a direction: A research design provides a proper or particular
direction to the other executives and others who are helping us into the process. The
researcher studies available, literature and learns about new (alternative approaches.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN:
Generally, a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the
data collected and analyzed. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is
reported to be the best design in scientific investigation. Similarly, a design which
yields maximum information and provides an opportunity for considering different
aspects of a problem is considered to be the most appropriate and efficient design. A
good research design possesses the following characteristics;
(i) Objectivity: It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection and
scoring of the responses. The research design should permit the measuring instruments
which are fairly objective in which every observer or judge scoring the performance
must precisely give the same report. In other words, the objectivity of the procedure
may be judged by the degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to
different individuals by more than one independent observer. This ensures the
objectivity of the collected data which shall be capable of analysis and interpretation.
(ii) Reliability: It refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements. For
example, if a respondent gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to
give the same response to that item even if he is asked repeatedly. If he is changing his
response to the same item, the consistency will be lost. So the researcher should frame
the items in a questionnaire in such a way that it provides consistency or reliability.
(iii) Validity: Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it
measures what it is expected to measure. For example, an intelligence test conducted
for measuring the IQ should measure only the intelligence and nothing else and the
questionnaire shall be framed accordingly.
(iv) Generalizability: It means how best the data collected from the samples can be
utilized for drawing certain generalizations applicable to a large group from which
sample is drawn. Thus a research design helps an investigator to generalize his
findings provided he has taken due care in defining the population, selecting the
sample, deriving appropriate statistical analysis etc. while preparing the research
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design. Thus a good research design is one which is methodologically prepared and
should ensure that generalization is possible. For ensuring the generalization we
should confirm that our research problem has the following characteristics;
a) The problem is clearly formulated.
b) The population is clearly defined.
c) Most appropriate techniques of sample selection are used to form an
appropriate sample.
d) Appropriate statistical analysis has been carried out.
e) The findings of the study are capable of generalizations.

(v) Adequate Information: The most important requirement of good research

design is that it should provide adequate information so that the research problem can
be analyzed on a wide perspective. An ideal design should take into account important
factors like; (
(i) Identifying the exact research problem to be studied
(ii) The objective of the research
(iii) The process of obtaining information
(iv) The availability of adequate and skilled manpower and
(v) The availability of adequate financial resources for carrying research.
(vi) Other Features: Some other important features of a good research design are
flexibility, adaptability, efficiency, being economic and so on. A good research design
should minimize bias and maximize reliability and generalization.

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 WRITE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL?
Most students and beginning researchers do not fully understand what a research
proposal means, nor do they understand its importance. To put it bluntly, one's
research is only as a good as one's proposal. An ill-conceived proposal dooms the
project even if it somehow gets through the Thesis Supervisory Committee. A high
quality proposal, on the other hand, not only promises success for the project, but also
impresses your Thesis Committee about your potential as a researcher.
A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a worthwhile
research project and that you have the competence and the work-plan to complete it.
Generally, a research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in the
research process and include sufficient information for the readers to evaluate the
proposed study.
Regardless of your research area and the methodology you choose, all research
proposals must address the following questions: What you plan to accomplish, why
you want to do it and how you are going to do it. The proposal should have sufficient
information to convince your readers that you have an important research idea, that
you have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major issues, and that your
methodology is sound.
The quality of your research proposal depends not only on the quality of your
proposed project, but also on the quality of your proposal writing. A good research
project may run the risk of rejection simply because the proposal is poorly written.
Therefore, it pays if your writing is coherent, clear and compelling.
This paper focuses on proposal writing rather than on the development of research
ideas under the following areas:
Title of Project:
It should be concise and descriptive. For example, the phrase, "An investigation
of . . ." could be omitted. Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship,
because such titles clearly indicate the independent and dependent variables.
However, if possible, think of an informative but catchy title. An effective title not
only pricks the reader's interest, but also predisposes him/her favourably towards the
proposal.
Abstract:
It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should include the research
question, the rationale for the study, the hypothesis (if any), the method and the main

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findings. Descriptions of the method may include the design, procedures, the sample
and any instruments that will be used.
Introduction:
The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or
context for your research problem. How to frame the research problem is perhaps the
biggest problem in proposal writing. If the research problem is framed in the context
of a general, rambling literature review, then the research question may appear trivial
and uninteresting. However, if the same question is placed in the context of a very
focused and current research area, its significance will become evident.
Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast rules on how to frame your research question
just as there is no prescription on how to write an interesting and informative opening
paragraph. A lot depends on your creativity, your ability to think clearly and the depth
of your understanding of problem areas. However, try to place your research question
in the context of either a current "hot" area, or an older area that remains viable.
Secondly, you need to provide a brief but appropriate historical backdrop. Thirdly,
provide the contemporary context in which your proposed research question occupies
the central stage. Finally, identify "key players" and refer to the most relevant and
representative publications. In short, try to paint your research question in broad
brushes and at the same time bring out its significance.
The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with a
focus on a specific research problem, to be followed by the rational or justification for
the proposed study. The introduction generally covers the following elements:
1. State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the study.
2. Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in such a way as to
show its necessity and importance.
3. Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth
doing.
4. Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by your
research.
5. Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your experiment.
Alternatively, specify the phenomenon you want to study.
6. State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or phenomenological
research, you may not have any hypotheses. (Please do not confuse the hypothesis
with the statistical null hypothesis.)

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7. Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a
clear focus.
8. Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional.)
LITERATURE REVIEW:
Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction section.
However, most professors prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough
review of the literature.
The literature review serves several important functions:
1. Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel".
2. Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research.
3. Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.
4. Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to
your research question.
5. Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information.
6. Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.
7. Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual
framework for your research.
8. Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and
substantial contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue
or filling a major gap in the literature).
Most students' literature reviews suffer from the following problems:

 Lacking organization and structure

 Lacking focus, unity and coherence
 Being repetitive and verbose
 Failing to cite influential papers
 Failing to keep up with recent developments
 Failing to critically evaluate cited papers
 Citing irrelevant or trivial references
 Depending too much on secondary sources
Your scholarship and research competence will be questioned if any of the above
applies to your proposal.

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There are different ways to organize your literature review. Make use of subheadings
to bring order and coherence to your review. For example, having established the
importance of your research area and its current state of development, you may devote
several subsections on related issues as: theoretical models, measuring instruments,
cross-cultural and gender differences, etc.
It is also helpful to keep in mind that you are telling a story to an audience. Try to tell
it in a stimulating and engaging manner. Do not bore them, because it may lead to
rejection of your worthy proposal. (Remember: Professors and scientists are human
beings too.)
METHODS:
The Method section is very important because it tells your Research Committee how
you plan to tackle your research problem. It will provide your work plan and describe
the activities necessary for the completion of your project. The guiding principle for
writing the Method section is that it should contain sufficient information for the
reader to determine whether methodology is sound. Some even argue that a good
proposal should contain sufficient details for another qualified researcher to
implement the study.
You need to demonstrate your knowledge of alternative methods and make the case
that your approach is the most appropriate and most valid way to address your
research question. Please note that your research question may be best answered by
qualitative research. However, since most mainstream psychologists are still biased
against qualitative research, especially the phenomenological variety, you may need to
justify your qualitative method.
Furthermore, since there are no well-established and widely accepted canons in
qualitative analysis, your method section needs to be more elaborate than what is
required for traditional quantitative research. More importantly, the data collection
process in qualitative research has a far greater impact on the results as compared to
quantitative research. That is another reason for greater care in describing how you
will collect and analyze your data.
For quantitative studies, the method section typically consists of the following
sections:
1. Design -Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment? What kind of design
do you choose?
2. Subjects or participants - Who will take part in your study? What kind of
sampling procedure do you use?

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3. Instruments - What kind of measuring instruments or questionnaires do you use?
Why did you choose them? Are they valid and reliable?
4. Procedure - How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are
involved? How long does it take?
RESULTS:
Obviously you do not have results at the proposal stage. However, you need to have
some idea about what kind of data you will be collecting, and what statistical
procedures will be used in order to answer your research question or test your
hypothesis.
DISCUSSION:
It is important to convince your reader of the potential impact of your proposed
research. You need to communicate a sense of enthusiasm and confidence without
exaggerating the merits of your proposal. That is why you also need to mention the
limitations and weaknesses of the proposed research, which may be justified by time
and financial constraints as well as by the early developmental stage of your research
area.
COMMON MISTAKES IN PROPOSAL WRITING
1. Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question.
2. Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research.
3. Failure to cite landmark studies.
4. Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by other
researchers.
5. Failure to stay focused on the research question.
6. Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.
7. Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.
8. Too much rambling -- going "all over the map" without a clear sense of direction.
(The best proposals move forward with ease and grace like a seamless river.)
9. Too many citation lapses and incorrect references.
10. Too long or too short.
11. Failing to follow the APA style.
12. Slopping writing.

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ASSIGNMENT
Guide students to write research proposals

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 RESEARCH PROBLEM
The problems lie everywhere around us. They even lie at our door step and in our
backyards. Human nature is so complicated, that a problem solved for one individual
may still exist for another individual, a problem solved for one class/ school/teacher/
situation/ system/time etc., still remains a problem for another class/ school/ teacher/
situation/system/time or a problem solved for the time being may reappear with a
lapse of time. We become habitual of living in the age of problems i.e. we are so much
surrounded by the problem that we suffer from,” problem blindness”. But in order to
solve the problem or making research we need to delimit the problem.
Selection of problem is not the first step in research but identification of the problem
is the first step in research. Selection of problem is governed by reflective thinking. It
is wrong to think that identification of a problem means to select a topic of a research
or statement of the problem.
A topic or statement of the problem and research problem are not the synonyms but
they are inclusive. The problem concerns with the functioning of the broader area of
field studied, whereas a topic or title or statement of the problem is the verbal
statement of the problem. The topic is the definition of the problem which delimits or
pin points the task of a researcher.
It is the usual practice of the researcher that they select the topic of the study from
different sources especially from research abstracts. They do not identify the problem,
but a problem is made on the basis of the topic. It results that they have no active
involvement in their research activities, whatever, they do, do mechanically.
DEFINITIONS OF THE PROBLEM:
The obstacles which hinder our path are regarded as problem. Different definitions of
the problem are given below;
“Problem is the obstacle in the path of satisfying our needs.” John Geoffery
“Problem is a question which is to be solved.” John. G. Tornsand
“To define a problem means to put a fence around it, to separate it by careful
distinctions from like questions found in related situations of need.” Whitney
“A problem is a question proposed for a solution generally speaking a problem exists
when there is a no available answer to same question.” J.C. Townsend
“A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks: What relation exists
between two or more variables?” F.N. Kerlinger
“To define a problem means to specify it in detail and with precision each question
and subordinate question to be answered is to be specified, the limits of the

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investigation must be determined. Frequently, it is necessary to review previous
studies in order to determine just what is to be done. Sometimes it is necessary to
formulate the point of view or educational theory on which the investigation is to be
based. If certain assumptions are made, they must be explicitly noted.”
Monero and Engelhart
IDENTIFICATION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM:
The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research problem;
Step I Determining the field of research in which a researcher is keen to do the
research work.
Step II The researcher should develop the mastery on the area or it should be the field
of his specialization.
Step III He should review the research conducted in area to know the recent trend and
studies are being conducted in the area.
Step IV On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of the study.
Step V He should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem or employ his
personal experience of the field in locating the problem. He may take help of
supervisor or expert of the field.
Step VI He should pin point specific aspect of the problem which is to be
investigated.
THE SOURCES OF THE PROBLEM:
(i) The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies of education are
obvious sources.
(ii) Social developments and technological changes are constantly bringing forth
new problems and opportunities for research.
(iii) Record of previous research such specialized sources as the
encyclopedias of educational, research abstracts, research bulletins, research
reports, journals of researches, dissertations and many similar publications are
rich sources of research problems.
(iv) Text book assignments, special assignments, reports and term papers
will suggest additional areas of needed research.
(v) Discussions-Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of ideas with
faculty members and fellow scholars and students will suggest many
stimulating problems to be solved, close professional relationships, academic
discussions and constructive academic climate are especially advantageous
opportunities.

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 (vi) Questioning attitude: A questioning attitude towards prevailing
practices and research oriented academic experience will effectively promote
problem awareness.
(vii) The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts of the
field and most experienced persons of the field. They may suggest most significant
problems of the area. He can discuss certain issues of the area to emerge a
problem.
Although research problems should not be assigned or they should not be proposed
and allotted by a guide but consultation with the more experienced faculty member or
research worker is a desirable practice.
One of the most important functions of the research guide is to help the student clarify
his thinking, achieve a sense of focus and develop a manageable problem from one
that may be vague and too complex.
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM:
Kerlinger has identified following three criteria of good problem statements;
1. A problem should be concerned with relation between two or more variables
2. It should be stated ‘clearly and unambiguously in question form’.
3. . It should be amenable to empirical testing.
Meeting these criteria in his problem statement will result, in a clear and concise idea
of what the researcher wants to do. This sets the state for further planning.
OBJECTIVES OF ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT THE PROBLEM:
1. To make the research work feasible.
2. To delimit the scope of the problem
3. To establish the proper frame of reference.
Aspects of Delimiting a Problem:
1. Delimited to certain variables that should be mentioned clearly in the problem.
2. Delimited to the area or level as primary level, secondary level, college or
university level.
3. Delimited to size of sample, considering the time, energy and money.
4. Delimited to the best method only.
5. Delimited to the best available tool for measuring the variable.
6. Delimited to the most appropriate techniques.
7. Other delimitations particular to a problem. As the above delimitations help
the researcher for conducting the study, the findings of studies also confine to
these delimitations.

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EVALUATION OF THE PROBLEM:
When considering a problem, a researcher is required to ask himself a series of
questions about it. These are helpful in the evaluation of the problem on the basis of
personal suitability of the researcher and social value of the problem.
Following questions must be answered affirmatively before the study is under Taken:
1. Is the Problem Researchable?
2. Is the Problem New?
3. Is the Problem Significant?
4. Is the Problem Feasible for the Particular Researcher?
In order to be feasible, a problem should agree with the following:
a) Research competencies of the Researcher
b) Interest and enthusiasm of the Researcher
c) Financial consideration in the Project
d) Time requirement for the Project
e) Administrative considerations in the Project.

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 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
Formulation of Hypothesis: The word hypothesis consists of two words –
Hypo+Thesis. ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification. ‘Thesis’ means
statement about solution of the problem. Thus the literal meaning of the term
hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the problem. Hypothesis
offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some
rationale. Again, ’hypo’ means the composition of two or more variables which are to
be verified and ‘thesis’ means position of these variables in the specific frame of
reference.
Definitions of Hypothesis:
“Any supposition which we make in order to endeavour to deduce conclusions in
accordance with facts which are known to be real under the idea that if the
conclusions to which the hypothesis leads are known truths, the hypothesis itself
either must be or at least likely to be true.” J.S. Mill
“A hypothesis is a tentative generalization the validity of which remains to be tested.
In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess, imaginative idea
which becomes basis for further investigation.” Lundberg
“It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to
explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further investigation.” John
W. Best
“A hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at the
time, known about a phenomenon, and it is employed as a basis for action in the
search for new, truth, when the hypothesis is fully established, it may take the form of
facts, principles and theories.” Barr and Scates
“Hypothesis is an assumption whose testability is to be tested on the basis of the
compatibility of its implications with empirical evidence and previous knowledge.”
Gorge J. Mouly
Nature of Hypothesis:
(i) Conceptual: Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework are involved in a
hypothesis.
(ii) Verbal statement in a declarative form: It is a verbal expression of ideas and
concepts. It is not merely mental idea but in the verbal form, the idea is ready enough
for empirical verification.
(iii) It represents the tentative relationship between two or more variables.

20
(iv) Forward or future oriented: A hypothesis is future-oriented. It relates to the future
verification not the past facts and information.
(v) Pivot of a scientific research: All research activities are designed for verification of
hypothesis.
FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS:
H.H. Mc Ashan has mentioned the following functions of hypothesis;
(i) It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth which enables
an investigator to start his research works.
(ii) It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for and may provide
possible solutions to the problem.
(iii) It may lead to formulate another hypothesis.
(iv) A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final hypothesis.
(v) Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement which may be
objectively tested and accepted or rejected and leads for interpreting results and
drawing conclusions that is related to original purpose.
(vi) It delimits field of the investigation.
(vii) It sensitizes the researcher so that he should work selectively, and have very
realistic approach to the problem.
(viii) It offers the simple means for collecting evidences for verification.
IMPORTANCE OF A HYPOTHESIS:
(i) Investigator’s eyes: Carter V. Good thinks that by guiding the investigator in
further investigation hypothesis serves as the investigator’s eyes in seeking answers to
tentatively adopted generalization.
(ii) Focuses research: Without hypothesis, a research is unfocussed research and
remains like a random empirical wandering. Hypothesis serves as necessary link
between theory and the investigation.
(iii) Clear and specific goals: A well thought out set of hypothesis places clear and
specific goals before the research worker and provides him with a basis for selecting
sample and research procedure to meet these goals.
(iv) Links together: According to Barr and Scates, “It serves the important function of
linking together related facts and information and organizing them into wholes.”

21
(v) Prevents blind research: In the words of P.V. Young,” The use of hypothesis
prevents a blind search and indiscriminate gathering of masses of data which may
later prove irrelevant to the problem under study."
(vi) Guiding Light:” A hypothesis serves as powerful beacon that lights the way for
the research work.”
(vii) It provides direction to research and prevent the review of irrelevant literature
and the collection of useful or excess data.
(viii) It sensitizes the investigator certain aspects of situation which are irrelevant from
the standpoint of problem at hand.
(ix) It enables the investigator to understand with greater clarity his problem and its
ramification.
(x) It is an indispensible research instrument, for it builds a bridge between the
problem and the location of empirical evidence that may solve the problem.
(xi) It provides the investigator with the most efficient instrument for exploring and
explaining the unknown facts.
(xii) It provides a frame work for drawing conclusion.
(xiii) It stimulates the investigator for further research.
FORMS OF HYPOTHESIS:
According to Bruce W. Tuckman following are the forms of hypothesis;
(i) Question form: A hypothesis stated as a question represents the simplest level of
empirical observation. It fails to fit most definitions of hypothesis. It frequently
appears in the list. There are cases of simple investigation which can be adequately
implemented by raising a question, rather than dichotomizing the hypothesis forms
into acceptable / reject able categories.
(ii) Declarative Statement: A hypothesis developed as a declarative statement
provides an anticipated relationship or difference between variables. Such a
hypothesis developer has examined existing evidence which led him to believe that a
difference may be anticipated as additional evidence. It is merely a declaration of the
independent variables effect on the criterion variable.
(iii) Directional Hypothesis: A directional hypothesis connotes an expected direction
in the relationship or difference between variables. This type of hypothesis developer
appears more certain of anticipated evidence. If seeking a tenable hypothesis is the
general interest of the researcher, this hypothesis is less safe than the others because it
reveals two possible conditions. First that the problem of seeking relationship between

22
variables is so obvious that additional evidence is scarcely needed. Secondly,
researcher has examined the variables very thoroughly and the available evidence
supports the statement of a particular anticipated outcome.
(iv) Non –Directional Hypothesis or Null Hypothesis: This hypothesis is stated in
the null form which is an assertion that no relationship or no difference exists between
or among the variables. Null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis testable within the
framework of probability theory. It is a non-directional form of hypothesis.
There is a trend to employ or develop null hypothesis in research in most of the
disciplines. A null hypothesis tentatively states that on the basis of evidence tested
there is no difference. If the null hypothesis is rejected, there is a difference but we do
not know the alternative or the differences. In this the researcher has not to anticipate
or give the rational for the declaration or directional form. It does not make researcher
biased or prejudiced. He may be objective about the expected outcomes of the
research or findings.
Actually this is a statistical hypothesis which is self- explanatory. Null hypothesis
means zero hypotheses. A researcher has not to do anything in developing it. While
research hypothesis is second step in the process of reflective thinking.
A null hypothesis in an appropriate form is order to accommodate the object of
inquiry for extracting this information. It does not necessarily reflect the expectations
of the researcher so much as the utility of the null form as the best fitted to the logic of
chance in statistical knowledge or science.
It is the no difference form, i.e. there is no difference or relationship between or
among variables under certain conditions.
Statistical tests of significance are used to accept and reject the null hypothesis. If it is
rejected, the general hypothesis is accepted.
Non-directional hypothesis is known as null hypothesis because it ‘nullifies’ the
positive argument of the findings or non-directional statement of the generalization. It
is also termed as statistical or zero hypothesis because it denies the existence of any
systematic principles apart from the effect of chance. It assumes that none or zero
difference exists between the two population means or the treatments.
FORMULATION OF TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS:
A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory. It is used as
a guide in the investigation of other facts and theory that are as yet unknown. Its
formulation is one of the most difficult and most crucial step in the entire scientific
process. A poorly chosen or poorly worded hypothesis can prevent the following:
(i) The obtaining of enough pertinent data,
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(ii) The drawing of conclusions and generalizations, and
(iii) The application of certain statistical measures in the analysis of the result.
Hypothesis is the central core of study that directs the selection of the data to be
gathered, the experimental design, the statistical analysis and the conclusions drawn
from the study. A study may be devoted to the testing of one major hypothesis, a
number of subsidiary hypothesis, or both major and subsidiary hypotheses. When
several hypotheses are used, each should be stated separately in order to anticipate the
type of analysis required and in order to definitely accept or reject each hypothesis on
its own merit. Irrespective of number or type used each hypothesis should be testable
and based upon a logical foundation.
Fundamental Basis of Hypothesis:
The researcher deals with reality on two levels;
1. The Operational Level: On the operational level researcher must define events in
observable terms in order to operate with the reality necessary to do researches.
2. The Conceptual Level: On the conceptual level the researcher must define events
in terms of underlying communality with other events. Defining at a conceptual level,
the researcher can abstract from single specific to general instance and begin to
understand how phenomena operate and variables interrelate. The formulation of a
hypothesis very frequently requires going from an operational or concrete level to the
conceptual or abstract level. This movement to the conceptual level enables the result
to be generalized beyond the specific conditions of a particular study and thus to be of
wider applicability.
Research requires the ability to move from the operational to the conceptual level
and vice–versa. This ability is required not only in constructing experiments but in
applying their findings as well. The process of making conceptual contrasts between
operational programme is called conceptualization or dimensionalization.
Difficulties in the Formulation of Useful Hypothesis:
Moving from the operational to the conceptual level and vice –versa is a critical
ingredient of the research to demonstration process. The following are the difficulties
in the formulation of hypothesis:
1. Absence of knowledge of a clear theoretical framework.
2. Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical framework logically.
3. Lack of acquaintance with available research technique resulting in failure to be
able to phrase the hypothesis properly.

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25
 VARIABLES
A variable is an empirically applicable concept that takes on two or more values.
Most variables investigated in the social sciences are however, not dichotomous. They
are instead, characterized by a large number of values. In many studies, we manipulate
one variable and note the effects of the manipulation on another variable. For
example, you could manipulate the amount of overtime to be worked and measure the
effect on employee motivation, or vary the price of a product and assess the change in
demand. The variable that is varied such as management style, overtime or price is
termed the independent variable or IV.
These variations are often termed different conditions of the variable. The variable
that is measured or observed to chart the effect of the manipulation, e.g. retention rate
in the above examples, is the dependent variable or DV. Changes in the dependent
variable depend on variations in the independent variable.
A third type of variable is the moderating variable which affects the nature of the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables. For example, the effect
of varying levels of stress in different employees act to influence the relationship
between the management style and retention in that it is likely that the more stressed
an employee is by the management style the more likely he is to leave. Gender and
Age are often moderating variables. The mediating variable is one that lies between
the effect of the IV on the DV. Whereas the moderating variable affects the IV-DV
relationship through the different levels of the moderating variable, it is the variations
in the IV’s that influence the effect of the mediating variable on the DV. Here staff
turnover and availability of training both influence the level of job related skills,
which in turn affect the performance of the employees. The moderating variable is
almost a DV for the original IV’s and then converts into another IV in its effect on the
DV.
The variable that the researcher is interested in explaining is the dependent variable.
The explanatory variables are the independent variables. An independent variable is
the hypothesized cause of a dependent variable, and the dependent variable is the
expected outcome of the independent variable.
The distinction between the above types of variables is analytic and relates to a
particular purpose of research. An independent variable in one study may be a
dependent variable in another. The decision to treat a variable in terms of the above
types of variables will depend on the objective of a given research. Nevertheless, after
making a decision, the researcher has to be consistent in his or her classification
throughout the research process.

26
You can illustrate the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent
variable using a two-dimensional graph. Following the mathematical custom, .X can
be referred to as the independent variable and you can represent it by the horizontal
axis, while Y, the dependent variable, can be represented by the vertical axis. The X-
values are plotted on the X-axis, and Y-values on the Y-axis.

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 QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES

A variable can either be qualitative or quantitative. A qualitative variable can be

referred to as a non-numerical attribute of an individual or object. Qualitative
variables such as gender or colour attempt to divide people or objects into groups.
Other qualitative variables like job position or social class, which both divide and
order objects or people are known as ordered qualitative variables.
A quantitative variable can be referred to as a numerical attribute of an individual or
object. Nevertheless, to obtain a quantitative variable, you need to find a suitable
measuring tool. For such variables as income, age, and height, this will not be a
problem, since they have accepted measures that are already in use. There are some
difficulties with other variables, such as loyalty, honesty, and intelligence. Here, you
may have to devise your own measuring tool, or look for what other researchers may
have used as measures for instance, psychologists measure intelligence as an
intelligence quotient (or IQ), which is a score coming from a specially designed test.
This measure is often referred to as a hypothetical construct.
Quantitative variables are classified into discrete and continuous variables. A
discrete quantitative variable takes only one of range of distinct values between the
start and end of a scale. As an example, the number of sales assistants in a shopping
mall on different days of the week might range from one to five. Between the start and
end of this scale, the variable can only take the values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
A continuous quantitative variable can take any value between the start and end of a
scale. As an example, a suitable range for an adult’s age might be from 22 to 40 years.
Between the start and end of this scale, any value of the variable (that is, age) can be
possible. One adult can be 30 years of age, another might be 30.5 years, or another
30.56 years, and so on, with increasingly more accurate measurement.
Table 1.1 contains examples of qualitative and quantitative variables.
QUALITATIVE VARIABLES DISCRETE QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES
Name Job Title, Employment Status, Number of dependants Number of subordinates,
Place of Birth, Colour of Eyes/Hair Number of cars owned, Date of birth,
Clothes/shoe size
Ordered Qualitative Variables Quantitative Variables
Continuous
Social class Qualifications, Job grade Income Height ,Weight

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INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The independent variable is the variable that can be manipulated in order to be able to
predict the values of the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the variable
whose values are being predicted by the independent variable. For example, you may
wish to vary the intensity of lighting in your factory (the independent variable) in
order to observe the effect on the productivity levels of employees (the dependent
variable). Or you may place individuals in a stressful situation, may be by creating
loud, random noises (the independent variable), in order to observe their ability to
complete complex tasks (the dependent variable).
EXTRANEOUS AND CONFOUNDING VARIABLES
An extraneous, often referred to as exogenous variable, is any variable other than the
independent variable which might have an effect on the dependent variable. If your
research involves an investigation of the relationship between productivity and
motivation, for example, you may find it difficult to exclude the effect on productivity
of other factors such as heat wave, a work to rule or domestic problems. A
confounding variable is one which obscures the effects of another variable such as, the
novelty for employees of being the centre of attraction by the researcher, or working
in an unfamiliar place, especially when the research is laboratory based.

SAMPLING
A survey may be conducted by either of two methods
1. Census Method or Parametric method and
2. Sampling method or Non-parametric method.

1. Census method: It deals with the investigation of the entire population. Here the
data are collected for each and every unit of the universe. This method provides more
accurate and exact information as no unit is left out.
2. Sampling method: Here a small group is selected as representative of the whole
universe. It works with the objective to obtain accurate and reliable information about
the universe with minimum of cost, time and energy and to set out the limits of
accuracy of such estimates. It makes exhaustive and intensive study possible with
much less time, money and material. Its more popular in research work.
Population: Population or universe means, the entire mass of observations, which is
the parent group from which a sample is to be formed. The term population or

29
universe conveys a different meaning than a traditional one. In census survey, the
count of individuals (men, women and children) is known as population.
But in Research Methodology population means characteristics of a specific group.
For example, secondary school teachers of, who have some specific features like
teaching experience, teaching attitudes etc.
Sampling means selecting a given number of subjects from a defined population as
representative of that population.
One type of population distinguished by educational researchers is called the target
population.
By target population distinguished by educational researchers is called the target
population.
By target population, also called universe, we mean all the members of a real or
hypothetical set of people, events or objects to which we wish to generalize the results
of our research.
THE FIRST STEP IN SAMPLING IS TO DEFINE THE TARGET
POPULATION.
Research work is guided by inductive thinking. The researcher proceeds from
specificity to generality. The sample observation is the specific situation, which is
applied to the population, it is the general situation.
The measures of a sample are known as statistics and measures of a population are
termed as parameter. Mean, S.D., coefficient of Correlation of sample observation
known as Statistics and Mean, S.D., coefficient of correlation of population are known
as parameters. Generally, parameters are estimated on the basis of sample statistics.
Sampling is indispensable technique in behavioural research and not so common in
physical sciences. It is fundamental to all statistical methodology of behavioural and
social research. It makes research findings economical and accurate. Sampling means
selection of individuals from the population in such a way that every individual has
equal chance to be taken into the sample.
Term sample should be reserved for a set of units or portion of an aggregate of
material which has been selected in the belief that it will be representative of the
whole aggregate. By Frank Yates “Sample is set of units of an aggregate.”
ASSUMPTIONS OF SAMPLING:
1. Homogeneity amidst complexity: Social phenomenon is very complex in nature
and every unit appears to be different from another. But at the same time they also
possess similarities in many respects. It is, therefore, assumed that there is the

30
possibility of such representative types in the whole population that makes sampling
possible.
2. Possibility of Representative Selection: Sampling has its origin in the
mathematical theory of probability and law of statistical regularity. The law of
statistical regularity lays down that a group of objects chosen at random from a large
group tend to possess the characteristics of that large group (universe) by L. R.
Conner.
3. Absolute accuracy not essential but relative or significant accuracy i.e. needed in
case of large scale observations. Because it is practically impossible to achieve
because of errors in measurement, collection of data, its analysis, interpretation.
DEFINITION:
“A statistical sample is a miniature picture or cross –section of the entire group or
aggregate from which the sample is taken.” P. Y. Young
A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation and analysis.
It is a collection consisting of a part or sub-set of the objects or individuals of
population which is selected for the express purpose of representing the population.
By observing the characteristics of the sample, one can make certain inferences about
characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.
Sampling, “It is the process of selecting a sample from the population. For this
purpose, the population is divided into a number of parts called sampling units.”
Sampling designs means the joint procedure of selection and estimation. Sampling is a
part of the strategy of research. Sampling should be such that the error of estimation is
minimum.
Good and Hatt, “A sample as the name implies, is a smaller representation of a larger
whole.”
W. G. Cocharn, “In every branch of science we lack the resources, to study more
than a fragment of the phenomenon that might advance our knowledge.” i.e. fragment
is sample and phenomenon is population. The sample observations are applied to the
phenomenon i.e. generalization.
David S. Fox, “In the social sciences, it is not possible to collect data from every
respondent relevant to our study but only from some fractional part of the respondents.
The process of selecting the fractional part is called sampling.”
NEED OF SAMPLING:
1. Economy of time.

31
2. Economy of money.
3. True detailed knowledge.
4. Utility in experimental study.
5. It has reliability because it is based on probability theory.
ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING:
1. It has a greater adaptability.
2. It is an economical technique.
3. It has high speed for generalization. 4. According to W.G. Cocharan, “It has greater
precision and accuracy in the observation”.
5. This technique has great accuracy.
6. It has a greater speed in conducting a research work.
7. It has a greater scope in the field of research.
8. It reduces the cost of observation or data collection.

DISADVANTAGES OR LIMITATION OF SAMPLING:

1. Scope of biasness. (Less accuracy)
2. Problem of representative Sample-Difficulty in selecting a truly representative
sample.
3. Need of eligible researchers.
4. Instability of sample subjects or changeability of units i.e. in heterogeneous
population.
5. There are certain situations where sampling is possible.
ESSENTIALS OF AN IDEAL SAMPLE:
Homogeneity: The units included in sample must be as likeness with other units.
Adequacy: A sample having 10% of the whole data is adequate.
Independence: Every unit should be free to be included in the sample.
Representativeness: An ideal sample must be such that it represents the whole data
adequately.

32
In the number of units included in a sample should be sufficient to enable derivation
of conclusions applicable to the whole data. Economical in terms of time and money.
High level of reliability.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE:
1. A good sample is the true representative of the population corresponding to its
properties.
2. The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and sample is called
sub-aggregate of the universe.
3. A good sample is free from bias; the sample does not permit prejudices, the
learning and pre-conception, imaginations of the investigator to influence its choice.
4. A good sample is an objective one; it refers objectivity in selecting procedure or
absence of subjective elements from the situation.
5. A good sample maintains accuracy. It yields an accurate estimates or statistics and
does not involve errors.
6. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature of a closely linked with
true-representativeness. Comprehensiveness is a quality of a sample which is
controlled by specific purpose of the investigation. A sample may be comprehensive
in traits but may not be a good representative of the population.
7. A good sample has the practicability for research.

LITERATURE REVIEW OR SURVEY

A literature review or survey is an organised write up showing previous work done
concerning a research topic or question in your field. The aim of a literature review is
to show your reader (e.g. your supervisor) that you have read and that you have a good
grasp of the main published work concerning a particular topic or question in your
field. This work may be in any format, including online sources. It may be a separate
assignment, or one of the introductory sections of a report, dissertation or thesis. In the
latter cases in particular, the review will be guided by your research objective or by
the issue or thesis you are arguing and will provide the framework for your further
work.
It is very important to note that your review should not be simply a description of
what others have published in the form of a set of summaries, but should take the form
of a critical discussion, showing insight and an awareness of differing arguments,
theories and approaches. It should be a synthesis and analysis of the relevant
published work, linked at all times to your own purpose and rationale.

33
A good literature review, therefore, is critical of what has been written, identifies areas
of controversy, raises questions and identifies areas which need further research.
According to Caulley (1992) of La Trobe University, the literature review should do
the following:
• compare and contrast different authors' views on an issue
• group authors who draw similar conclusions
• criticise aspects of methodology
• note areas in which authors are in disagreement • highlight exemplary studies •
highlight gaps in research
• show how your study relates to previous studies • show how your study relates to the
literature in general
• conclude by summarising what the literature says
THE GENERAL PURPOSES OF THE REVIEW ARE TO:
• help you define and limit the problem you are working on • help you place your
study in an historical perspective • help you avoid unnecessary duplication • help you
evaluate promising research methods • help you relate your findings to previous
knowledge and suggest further research
If you make a good literature review you will have the following advantages:
1. It shows that you do not only understand what you have done, but you understand
what others have done related to your subject in a broader context. Several researchers
have already done lots of work on your subject. If you can tell people about what
research has already been done and what methods already exist, then your readers will
think that at least you are interested in your topic, have some self-initiative and are
informed and up-to-date on your research area. 2. It shows that you are intelligent
enough to evaluate the quality of the other research work done on the subject, i.e., it
shows that you are capable of thinking critically and identifying strengths and
weakness. 3. It gives you the opportunity to tell how your research is related to
previous work done by others on the subject. 4. It tells the reader if you are simply
going to duplicate others’ work simply to gain a better understanding, or whether your
focus is to improve upon others’ work or perhaps combine the methodology of two or
more existing approaches to solving a problem.
TIPS FOR WRITING A LITERATURE SURVEY
1. BE A HUNTER! Go online and search for articles, books and papers related to
your subject. Be creative and persistent in your keyword search until you hunt down
good references or examples. It is important, therefore, to try and decide on the

34
parameters of your research. What exactly are your objectives and what do you need
to find out? In your review, are you looking at issues of theory, methodology, policy,
quantitive research, or what? Before you start reading it may be useful to compile a
list of the main areas and questions involved, and then read with the purpose of
finding out about or answering these.
2. Ask your supervisor for recommendations (but don’t totally rely only on these!).
When you read some literature that you think is useful and related, first record the
citation on your list of references, using the APA style.
3. When you read some literature that is not very useful, do not include it on your list
of references. More references do not mean a better list of references. Useless
references only confuse a careful reader and make you lose credibility.
4. In each document, identify the approach(es)/method(s) for solving problem(s), and
compare this/these with what you already know.
5. Identify which approaches and/or methods you will use and omit in your research.
6. A good literature review needs a clear line of argument. You therefore need to use
the critical notes and comments you made whilst doing your reading to express an
academic opinion. After you feel satisfied that you know most of the existing
approaches/methods, do the following:
(a). List out all the approaches/methods, in a logical sequence (perhaps in
chronological order), including both those you will use and those you will omit. There
is always a clear link between your own arguments and the evidence uncovered in
your reading. You always acknowledge opinions which do not agree with your thesis.
If you ignore opposing viewpoints, your argument will in fact be weaker
(b). For each approach/method:

 Describe how it works and what its components are

 Tell what kinds of problems it is good at solving
 Tell what kinds of problems it is poor or limited at solving
 Mention other strengths and/or weakness of each approach
 Tell if you will use or omit the approach for your research and why or why not
(c). Your review must be written in a formal, academic style. Keep your writing clear
and concise, avoiding colloquialisms and personal language. You should always aim
to be objective and respectful of others' opinions; this is not the place for emotive
language or strong personal opinions. If you thought something was rubbish, use
words such as "inconsistent", "lacking in certain areas" or "based on false
assumptions"!

35
(d) And remember at all times to avoid plagiarising your sources. Always separate
your source opinions from your own hypothesis. Making sure you consistently
reference the literature you are referring to. When you are doing your reading and
making notes, it might be an idea to use different colours to distinguish between your
ideas and those of others.

THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

The research instrument or a tool is described as a device used to collect the data. It
facilitates variable observation and measurement. The type of instrument suitable for
use by the researcher depends on the data collection method selected. Instrument
selection and or development require a high degree of research expertise because the
instrument must be reliable and valid.
Ways of searching for Research Instrument
1. Read professional journals so as to learn
a. what kind of instruments are being used for similar studies
b. their format
c. their style
d. how they are used by the writers.
2. Read books that provide a description or an actual copy of various instruments for
the reader.
3. Talk with other researchers who may know of certain tools they have developed for
themselves or who may have used tools developed by others.
4. Combine or adapt one or more tools used by other researchers.
5. Develop his/her own instrument to fulfil a specific need
Guidelines for developing an instrument
1. The instrument must be suitable for its function
2. The research tool will only be effective only as it relates to its particular purpose.
3. The instrument must be based on the theoretical framework selected for the study.
4. The instrument must be valid
5. The content of the instrument must be appropriate to test the hypothesis or answer
the question being studied.
6. The instrument should be reliable

36
7. The devised research tool should provide comparable data every time the subject
uses the instrument.
8. An instrument should include an item that directly asks questions on the hypothesis.
9. The research tool should be designed and constructed in such a way that cheating is
minimized.
10. The instrument should be free of bias
11. A good instrument is free of build-in clues.
12. The instrument should not contain measures that function as hints for desired
responses.
13. The researcher may need to read extensively to identify which aspects of the
theory are appropriate for investigation.
14. The researcher through the instrument must be able to gather data that are
appropriate in order to test the hypothesis or to answer the question under
investigation. 15. The researcher should gather a group of items from such sources
such as persons knowledgeable in the field, accepted theories or hypothesis, personal
experience, or materials from studies reported in books and professional journals.
16. The response given by the respondent in the research study should solely be
his/her own. There should be no contamination through outside influences such as
someone
else’s ideas or products. Therefore, the respondent who agrees to participate in a study
is responsible for supplying information or for exhibiting behaviour that is truly
his/her own.
Types of Research Instruments
1. Questionnaire
2. Check list
3. Distribution
4. Interview
5. Observation
6. Records
7. Experimental Approach
8. Survey Approach

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QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire is a series of questions designed to elicit information which is filled in
by all participants in the sample. This can be gathered either by oral interview or by
written questionnaire. Questionnaire is the most common type of research instrument.
Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the
researcher time and money.People are more truthful while responding to the
questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their
responses are anonymous. But they also have drawbacks .Majority of the people who
receive questionnaires don't return them and those who do might not be representative
of the originally selected sample.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
Web based questionnaires: A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of
Internet based research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would
click on an address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire.
This type of research is often quicker and less detailed.Some disadvantages of this
method include the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to
access a computer.Also the validity of such surveys are in question as people might be
in a hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate responses.
(http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/power/ch2/methods/methods.htm)
Questionnaires often make use of Checklist and rating scales.These devices help
simplify and quantify people's behaviors and attitudes. A checklist is a list of
behaviors, characteristics, or other entities that the researcher is looking for. Either the
researcher or survey participant simply checks whether each item on the list is
observed, present or true or vice versa. A rating scale is more useful when a behavior
needs to be evaluated on a continuum. They are also known as Likert scales. (Leedy
and Ormrod, 2001)

Advantages of Questionnaire
1. Relatively simple methods of collecting or obtaining data.
2. Consumes less time 3. Allows researcher to collect data from a widely scattered
sample.
Disadvantages of Questionnaire
1. Responses to a Questionnaire lack depth. 2. Respondent may omit or disregard any
item he/she chooses. 3. Some items may force the respondent to select responses that
are not his/her actual choice. 4. Length of the questionnaire is limited according to the
respondent’s interest. 5. Printing may be costly especially if it is lengthy. 6. Data are

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limited to the information that is voluntarily supplied by the respondents. 7. Some
items may be misunderstood. 8. The sample is limited to those who are literate.
Criteria of a good Questionnaire
1. Clarity of Language. It must meet the level of understanding of the respondents in
order to generate needed responses. 2. Singleness of objective. An item must have one
and only one answer. 3. One-to-One correspondence. The questionnaire as a whole
must correspond with the objectives of the study. 4. Correct Grammar, Spelling and
Construction. The questionnaire must be constructed by observing grammatically
correct sentences, correctly spelled words, coherence in construction of sentences, etc.
Characteristics of a good Questionnaire.
1. It has a well stated title.
2. It has a statement of purpose
3. It assures the respondents about the confidentiality of responses.
4. It is designed to achieve the objective of the study.
5. It has a clear direction
6. There are no double-negative questions.
7. It avoids double-barrels questions.
8. The design corresponds to an easy tabulation of data.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data
collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results. Data
collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of
interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated
research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data collection
component of research is common to all fields of study including physical and social
sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on
ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same.
Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At one end of
this continuum are quantitative methods and at the other end of the continuum are
Qualitative methods for data collection.
In collecting the data, the researcher must decide:

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1. Which data to collect 2. How to collect the data 3. Who will collect the data 4.
When to collect the data
The selection of the chosen data collection method should be based on the following:
1. The identified hypothesis or research problem. 2. The research design 3. The
information gathered about the variables being studied.
The methods of data collection vary according to:
1. The degree of structure
2. Degree of quantifiability
3. Degree of obtrusive (conspicuousness, un-mistakeableness)
4. Degree of objectivity
Different ways of collecting evaluation data are useful for different purposes, and each
has advantages and disadvantages. Various factors will influence your choice of a data
collection method: the questions you want to investigate, resources available to you,
your timeline, and more. (http://dmc.umn.edu/evaluation/data.shtml

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The Quantitative data collection methods,
They rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit
diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce results that
are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize.
Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or
being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the
research question, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments. If
this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational
characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or
outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a
larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select
participants.
Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:

 Experiments/clinical trials.
 Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of
patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).
 Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
 Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and
telephone interviews, questionnaires etc).
(http://www.achrn.org/quantitative_methods.htm)
Qualitative data collection methods
They play an important role in impact evaluation by providing information useful to
understand the processes behind observed results and assess changes in people’s
perceptions of their well-being. Furthermore qualitative methods can be used to
improve the quality of survey-based quantitative evaluations by helping generate
evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the design of survey questionnaires and
expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation findings. These methods are
characterized by the following attributes:

 they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers
may change the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping
techniques or informants)
 they rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents may be
interviewed several times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or
check the reliability of data  they use triangulation to increase the credibility
of their findings (i.e., researchers rely on multiple data collection methods to
check the authenticity of their results)  generally their findings are not
generalizable to any specific population, rather each case study produces a

41
 single piece of evidence that can be used to seek general patterns among
different studies of the same issue
Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a qualitative study takes a
great deal of time. The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data
thoroughly, accurately, and systematically, using field notes, sketches, audiotapes,
photographs and other suitable means. The data collection methods must observe the
ethical principles of research.
The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three
broad categories:
 indepth interview
 observation methods
 document review
The following link provides more information on the above three methods.

A RESEARCH PROJECT
REPORT
Speaking technically, the research process is a model of the scientific method of
thinking or of analyzing problems. As a model of science, the research process in its
simplified form will be constituted by the following stages of activities:
Problem identification and definition
Hypothesis or answer(s) formulation
Research design and data collection
Data analysis and discussion
Conclusion and generalization making
In all applied research studies, these basic stages of activities are mechanically
followed in the process of investigating problems peculiar to the various specific areas
of life. In writing the research report, the impersonal mode is preferred for
communication. Instead of stating that “I did this” or “I did that”, you can say “the
study was carried out……, the samples are…….,” the research report will depend on
the research philosophy and the culture of the institution, organization or the
department in control. NOUN has different schools which have their own house
styles. Before you start writing your research report, find out the house style of your
own school.

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 The arrangement of different parts of the report should make it possible for a reader
to easily locate any section of particular interest to him. To give you a guideline, a
conventional format fro arranging research reports in these/dissertations is given in
this section. A particular thesis need not have all the sections therefore; relevant
sections would be used in the appropriate order. The format is as follows:
Preliminary pages:
Title page
Acceptance page or approval page
Dedication
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Table of content
List of tables
List of figures
List of appendices
Chapter One- Introduction:
Background to the problem or Rationale for the problem
Statement of the problem
Significance of the study
Objectives of the study or purpose of the study
Scope of the study
Area of study / context of the study
Research questions and or hypothesis
Definition of terms (operational definitions)
Review of literature:
Theoretical and conceptual frame work
Review of related researches
Research Methodology
Research design

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 Population
Sampling technique and samples
Instrumentation – development and administration of instruments
Data collection
Data analysis techniques
Limitations
Results and discussion
Presentation and analysis of data
Interpretation of the findings
Summary and Conclusion
Summary of results.
General conclusion
Implications of the study and / or recommendations.

g.Supplementary
Bibliography
Appendix
Index
Let us describe some of these sections
THE PRELIMINARY PAGES
The first page of the report is the title page, where the table of the project is clearly,
briefly and to the point stated. The title should contain such essential elements as the
major variables and the target population. It should be phrased in such a way that it
describes what the study is all about. It should not be phrased in an emotionally laden
way in order to suggest that a particular point of view is being sold or emphasized to
the reader. Look at this title „Gender differences in Mathematics enrolment among
NECO candidate in 2008”. You will notice that the title clearly shows the variable is
gender and mathematics enrolment while the target population is NECO candidates in
2008.
The acceptance page: This is laid out in a way specified by the institution to which
the research project report is submitted for a degree. This page may contain the
44
following information: The names, signatures of the departmental head, the dean, the
supervisors, the dates, and the name of the students and very importantly an attestation
of the originality of the research report. Some institutions also require the name and
signature of the external examiner.
The dedication page: This permits emotionally laden words in which tribute is paid
to individual or group who are dear to the writer or those who would be interested in
the research findings.
The Acknowledgment Page: This page expresses gratitude to all those who helped
you in the research process, that is in conducting the research and preparing the report.
Abstract: This succinctly summarizes the research process by stating the aim of the
investigation, the population, samples, and methods of investigation, the measuring
instruments used and the findings.
The Table of Content: This lays out in a tabular form, the chapters, headings and
sub-headings of the report with the page numbers in which various sections of the
report may be located. You have to sequentially arrange and number the content from
preliminary to supplementary pages.
The List of Tables: This is similar to the table of contents. It shows the page
numbers in which the table presented in the report are located. The number and title of
each table should be serially listed. Similarly, the list of figures tabulates all figures,
their numbers, titles and the pages where they are presented in the report or where
they can be located. Again, the list of appendices should also be serially arranged in
numerical order.
CHAPTER ONE – The Introduction.
The background to the problem: This presents reasonable statements to indicate that
it is valuably worthwhile to spend time, energy, to dissipate resources to carry out this
investigation in the problem area. You have to present the reasoning to be clear and
convincing to the readers.
The problem statement: Some of the times, this is stated in interrogative or question
statements which define and limit the scope and direction of interest of the researcher
in his topic of study. It deals with the nature of the topic or issue of study which needs
clarification.
The significance of the study: This shows the utility value of the research. The
findings of your research are expected to profit some individuals or institutions, etc.
These beneficiaries and the benefit expected to accrue to them ought to be mentioned.
The objectives of the study: This should state the specific aspects of the problem
investigated in the research and the reasons for focusing on these aspects. This section
45
should give a brief overview of all the elements that would be investigated. Some of
the times this section is interchanged with the purpose of the study.
The scope of the study: This indicates the extent to which the researcher intended to
cover the topic, the geographical area, time period and variables to be covered. Some
of the times, this section is interchanged with delimitation of the study.
The research questions and / or hypotheses: These are stated in order to guide and
direct the researcher in the investigation especially in the area of literature review,
collection an analysis of data, discussion etc.
The definition of terms: This section is used to educate and inform the reader on the
operational meaning of any coined or technical words, phrases or expression which
cannot otherwise be understood because of their unconventional usage. You should
not include any terms to which appropriate meaning is attached by conventional
usage. The essence of definition is to make sure your readers understand the specific
meanings you ascribe to the term in your study.
CHAPTER TWO – Literature Review.
In this chapter section, you are expected to show what other researchers and writers
have done, said, written, found out in the area of the research topic you are
investigating. You are expected to make reviews of theoretical, conceptual and
empirical literature. Any literature review should provide guidance on the research
hypotheses/questions and problem, the methodology to use for the study and on the
anticipated findings of the study.
The theoretical and conceptual literature review will provide theoretical and
conceptual information. In other words it will provide the definitions and meanings of
the key concepts and variables in the study and also the theoretical bases for the study
while the empirical literature review will provide if possible, a comprehensive account
of research findings of other studies related to your own study in order to provide
comparative empirical findings upon which to evaluate the new ones to be generated
in the study on your hand.
CHAPTER THREE – Methodology
The research design: In this section, you should make a write up to show the extent
to which extraneous variables were controlled or eliminated. You should also report
any lapses as limitations. The design may or may not fall into the neat categories of
research design described earlier. Infact, you can use a combination of design if need
be. Effective control of extraneous variables may dictate the use of unlabelled designs.
Therefore, any plan that you use should be clearly described even if it cannot be
classified under a conventional label used in research.

46
The sampling technique: This should be described in such a way as not a leave your
readers in doubt about what you have actually done in selecting your sample. It is not
enough to say „A simple random sample of 100 respondents was drawn from the
population.
You have to report the specific manner in which a simple random sample was drawn.
For instance, you can report that a table of random numbers was used to select 100 out
of 1000 subjects or that pieces of numbered papers were jumbled in a basket and
members of the population were picked from it. This is very important.
Instrumentation: In this section, you have to describe the tools used for data
collection, such as questionnaire, attitude scales, tests opinionnaire, etc. in order to
show their essential characteristics. You should also report the reliability indices and
validation procedures. If you have used a standard instrument, you have to report and
give reasons why you considered it most appropriate. You also have to show that all
necessary conditions for its administration were fulfilled. But if you developed new
instrument, you have to outline the procedures followed in the development.
You should not present the detailed substantive content of the instrument in the body
of the report. Rather, it may be included in the appendix.
Data Collection: In this section, you should indicate the method(s) through which
you obtained the data. Such details as whether research assistance were used, if yes,
whether they were trained, whether you we present at each location to collect the data
or postal system were used, did you obtain permission before collecting data etc,
should all be reported. You should also report whether the instruments used for
recording went faulty during data collection and steps taken to correct them. These
details, when reported will help future researchers to be formed. These practical
details and problems encountered when reported will serve the additional purpose of
confirming that you actually carried out the investigation and experience the realities
of research. So, you have to report all the steps you have taken in order to ensure the
collection of valid data.
Data Analysis techniques: This section describes the methods you have applied to
the data and, if applicable, the reasons for their choice. These reasons for choice
should be related to the research design, the nature of the sample and the types of data.
If the mode of analysis is not widely known, you have to report it in details. Note that
it is better as far as possible to use the simplest, ell known techniques. It is not very
necessary to report the formula and details of computation of very popular techniques
like chi-square, t-test or ANOVA.
Limitations of the study: In this section, you are expected to state the desirable
conditions which were not met and which are expected to influence the external and
/or internal validity of the research study. It may be possible, for instance that an
47
experimental study is inevitably limited in generalizability of the findings to the target
population because of restrictive conditions in which the research was conducted.
While a non-experimental research may fail to control for all the relevant extraneous
variables therefore, it will reduce the internal validity of the research study.
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
Usually in chapter four of the report, results of analysis of data collected is presented.
It should clearly and concisely set out the results using the most illuminative modes of
presentation. You can exploit fully the use of tables and figures. All tables and figures
should be serially numbered. They must have titles or headings. You should highlight
the findings of interest displayed in these using brief verbal descriptions. These should
be directly related to the hypotheses and / or research questions. It is always better to
organize the data presentation and analysis around the hypotheses and research
questions. You have to treat each hypothesis or research questions. You have to treat
each hypothesis or research questions in turn. All the detailed calculations of the data
may be included in the appendix.
Interpretation of the findings: In this section, you have to make the results more
meaningful to your readers by discussing possible explanations for the findings. In
doing this, you have to cite relevant literature to provide convincing evidence that the
interpretation makes a contribution to existing theory and knowledge in the area. You
have to make available to the reader all the insights obtained while analyzing the data.
THE DISCUSSION
Because of the importance of this section, we want to bring it out again for further
explanation. The function of this section enable you to evaluate and interprete the
implications or meaning especially with respect to the original hypothesis stated in the
study. You have to use the fact and figures contained in the reviewed literature to
effect accurate interpretations of the finings and the implications. You are free to
examine interprete and qualify the research results as well as draw or make inferences,
reasons, and guesses in order to justify or rationalize the results or findings. This is
where you have the opportunity to show your scholastic prowess in your area of study.
You are expected to give particular emphasis to any theoretical consequences of the
results and the validity of your findings, conclusions, and implications.

48
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, IMPLICATIONS
These are usually parts of the final chapter which constitutes chapter five of the
research report. The Summary: In this section you should clearly and concisely
restate the problem, the hypotheses and / or research questions and findings.

The Conclusion: These should be based solely on the findings generated by the
research. Recommendations: Based on the findings and conclusions of the study you
may make some valuable recommendation you think are appropriate for application in
your area of practice in order to make activities processes more effective. The overall
goal of research is to provide answers to question thereby producing new theories to
increase knowledge or generate better theories to increase knowledge for results and
better ways of doing things to achieve better results to make life better. You should
therefore make clear, relevant and verifiable recommendations that will be of practical
value.
Implications of the study: At this stage you may wish to include personal ideas on
the relevance of the findings to theory and practice. These ideas should be directly
derived from the study. It is an error if you use this section for speculative statements
about which your research had no evidence. You will gain nothing by making an
unnecessarily lengthy implication section. Instead you loose some marks for
speculating outside the scope of the study.
Suggestion for further study: You should genuinely provide these as if they are
matters arising from the research study. You are also expected to produce some
implications for further study, for further refinement or for repetition to ensure
continuous growth of knowledge in the chosen activities in all areas of human life
endeavors. Research is for control, improvement and control strategies in the different
areas of life.
SUPPLEMENTARY PAGES
The Bibliography or Reference: These include all references which you have cited
in the repot. All the related literature which shed light on the problem but were not
cited are also included for more exhaustive study by interested readers. The method
with which you can arrange the bibliographical entries depends on the referencing
style. Whatever style you want to use, you have to make the format uniform
throughout the research report. Most institutions make use of the author/date system in
which the entries are arranged alphabetical order of the authors‟ names. If an author
has more than one work in a year, use the alphabetical suffices a, b, c, d, etc added to
the year of publication to distinguish between the different publications. They have to

49
be serially arranged with in the year. Where an author has publication in different
years, you should arrange them serially with the earlier work entered first.
To avoid making mistakes in the entries, you should try to be meticulous in cross
checking the details of the entries. We may revisit references again in the next unit
where more details will be provided for your practical application.

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