EHS207

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: EHS207
COURSE TITLE: GENERAL BIOCHEMISTRY FOR

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
EHS 207 COURSE GUIDE
COURSE
GUIDE
EHS 207
GENERAL BIOCHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
HEALTH
Course Team Dr. O. A. Saliu (Course Developer/Writer) - NOUN

Dr. O. A. Idowu (Co-writer) - UniIlorin
Prof. A. T. Oladiji (Course Editor) - UniIlorin
Prof. G. C. Okoli-Nnabuenyi (Programme
Leader/Coordinator) - NOUN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
ii
© 2019 by NOUN Press

National Open University of Nigeria
Headquarters
University Village
Plot 91, Cadastral Zone
Nnamdi Azikiwe Expressway
Jabi, Abuja
Lagos Office
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Printed 2019
ISBN:
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
iii
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction……………………………………………. iv
What You Will Learn in The Course………………….. iv
Course Aim……………………………………………. v
Course Objective………………………………………. v
Working Through the Course…………………………. v
The Course Materials………………………………….. v
Study Units…………………………………………….. v
Presentation Schedule…………………………………. vi
Assessment……………………………………………. vi
Tutor-Marked Assignment……………………………. vii
Course Marking Scheme……………………………… viii
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials……………………… viii
Summary……………………………………………… viii
iv
INTRODUCTION
EHS 207 title “General Biochemistry” is a three (3) Unit course with
four (4) Modules and fifteen (15) Units. Biochemistry is the study of
biomolecules. It can also be defined as the application of chemistry to
the study of biological processes in living organisms. Biochemistry is
both a life science and a chemistry science; it explores the chemistry of
living organisms and the molecular basis for the changes occurring in
living cells.
Millions of complex chemical reactions are going on in the human body

at any given time, ranging from the balance of the endocrine system to
the storage and utilization of fuel molecules such as glucose. By
studying and understanding this highly complex reaction, biochemists
have found better ways to fight infections and diseases not just at the
molecular level but also at the cellular level. Since an Engineer cannot
repair a vehicle if he does not understand how it works, so a biochemist
must understand how the human body functions and the various
mechanisms involved in process.
Much of biochemistry also deals with the structures and functions of

cellular components such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic
acids collectively known as biomolecules. The main purpose of all the
efforts of Biochemistry is to benefit humans in all forms particularly in
the diagnosis and treatment of different diseases. For example,
investigation of diabetes mellitus is completely based upon the
laboratory test in Biochemistry laboratories, where the presence of sugar
in urine is tested by Benedict‟s test. Similarly, investigations of other
disorders such as albuminuria, lactosuria, etc are a few of so many
ailments that are investigated in Biochemistry laboratories.
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THE COURSE
In this course, you will learn about the branches of biochemistry and its
relevance to other life sciences, biochemistry of living cells, biological
oxidation and electron transport chain, buffer, acidity, alkalinity, pH,
pKa values and their roles in cellular metabolism. You will learn about
the metabolism of biomolecules such as carbohydrate, proteins as well
as lipids. The structure of the DNA will also be discussed. The
knowledge that will be acquired in this course will assist you in
understanding the various biochemical reactions that takes place in the
living system.
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COURSE AIM
The aim of this course is to build your foundation in the knowledge of

biochemistry as it relates to the proper physiological functioning of the
human system.
COURSE OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this course, you should be able to:
 explain the branches and relevance of biochemistry, biochemistry

of living cells, biological oxidation and electron transport chain,
buffer, acidity, alkalinity, pH, pKa values and their roles in
cellular metabolism.
 understand the metabolism of major biomolecules such as
carbohydrate, proteins, lipids as well as nucleic acid.
WORKING THROUGH THE COURSE
As a student of this course you are expected to register for this course
online which is available at the NOUN website before you can have
access to all the materials. You will be expected to read every module
along with all assigned readings to prepare you for assessment.
Reading the reference materials will enhance your understanding of the

course.
Note that each unit has self-assessment exercises which you are advised
to do and at certain periods during the course, you will be expected to
submit your assignment for the purpose of assessment. There will be
final examination
THE COURSE MATERIALS
The main components of the course are:

1. The Course Guide
2. Study Unit
3. References/Further Reading
4. Assignments
STUDY UNITS
There are four (4) modules and fourteen (14) study units in this course
They are as follows:
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Module 1 Introduction to General Biochemistry
Unit 1 Definition of Biochemistry

Unit 2 Cell Structure, Cell components and their Functions
Unit 3 Biochemistry of the Plasma Membrane
Module 2 Water, Acids, Bases, Buffer and Macromolecules
Unit 1 Water, Acids, Bases and Buffer

Unit 2 Chemistry of Carbohydrates
Unit 3 Chemistry of Amino Acids and Protein
Unit 4 Chemistry of Lipids
Unit 5 Chemistry of Nucleic Acids
Module 3 Metabolism of Biomolecules
Unit 1 Metabolism of Carbohydrates

Unit 2 Krebs cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation
Unit 3 Metabolism of Proteins
Unit 4 Metabolism of Lipids
Module 4 Micronutrients (Vitamins and Minerals) and

Detoxification
Unit 1 Water Soluble Vitamins

Unit 2 Trace Elements
Unit 3 Detoxification
There are activities related to the lecture in each unit which will help
your progress and comprehension of the unit. You are required to work
on these exercises which together with the TMAs will enable you to
achieve the objectives of each unit.
PRESENTATION SCHEDULE
There is a time-table prepared for the early and timely completion and
submissions of your TMAs as well as attending the tutorial classes. You
are required to submit all your assignments by the stipulated time and
date. Avoid falling behind the schedule time.
ASSESSMENT
There are three aspects to the assessment of this course.

The first one is the self-assessment exercises. The second is the tutor
marked assignments and the third is the written examination or the
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examination to be taken at the end of the course.
Do the exercises or activities in the unit by applying the information and

knowledge you acquired during the course. The tutor-marked
assignments must be submitted to your facilitator for formal assessment
in accordance with the deadlines stated in the presentation schedule and
the assignment file.
The work submitted to your tutor for assessment will count for 30% of
your total course work.
At the end of this course, you have to sit for a final or end of course
examination of about a three-hour duration which will count for 70% of
your total course mark.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
This is the continuous assessment component of this course and it

accounts for 30% of the total score. You will be given four (4) TMAs by
your facilitator to answer. Three of which must be answered before you
are allowed to sit for the end of course examination.
These answered assignments are to be returned to your facilitator.
You‟re expected to complete the assignments by using the information

and material in your readings, references and study units.
Reading and researching into your references will give you a better
deeper understanding of the subject.
1. It is important that each assignment reaches your facilitator on or

before the deadline given in the presentation schedule and
assignment file. If for any reason you are not able to complete
your assignment, make sure you contact your facilitator before
the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an extension.
Request for extension will not be granted after the due date
except for exceptional circumstances.
2. You will need to revise the whole course content before sitting
for the examination. The self-assessment activities and TMAs
will be useful for this purpose. The examination concludes the
assessment for the course and constitutes 70% of the whole
course. All areas of the course will be examined and you will be
informed the time for the examination.
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COURSE MARKING SCHEME

Assignment Marks
Assignments 1 – 4 Four assignments, best three marks of
the
four count at 10% each–30% of course
marks.
End of course examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course materials.
FACILITATORS/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS
Sixteen (16) hours are provided for tutorials for this course. You will be
notified of the dates, times and location for these tutorial classes.
As soon as you are allocated a tutorial group, the name and phone
number of your facilitator will be given to you.
These are the duties of your facilitator: He or she will mark and
comment on your assignment. He will monitor your progress and
provide any necessary assistance you need. He or she will mark your
TMAs and return them to you as soon as possible.
Do not hesitate to contact your facilitator by telephone or email if you

need assistance. The following might be circumstances in which you
would have to contact your facilitator if you:
 do not understand any part of the study or the assigned readings
 have difficulty with the self-tests
 have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor‟s
comments or with the grading of an assignment.
You should endeavor to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to
have face to face with your course facilitator and to ask questions which
are answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the
course of your study.
SUMMARY
General biochemistry is the branch of life science that introduces you to

chemical and physio-chemical processes such as respiration, digestion
and metabolism of various biomolecules that occur within living
organisms.
On completion of this course you will have an understanding of the

components of the living cell, biological oxidation and electron transport
chain, metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as well as their
roles in cellular metabolism and detoxification of harmful substances.
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You are expected to apply the knowledge you have acquired during this
course to your practical life.
Furthermore, you should be able to answer the following questions:

 define biochemistry
 discuss the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
 give an account of oxidative phosphorylation and electron
transport chain
 explain the detoxification processes of harmful substances.
We wish you success in this course.
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MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 Introduction to General Biochemistry……. 1
Unit 1 Definition of Biochemistry………………...... 1

Unit 2 Cell Structure, Cell components
and their Functions………………………….. 5
Unit 3 Biochemistry of the Plasma Membrane…….. 9
Module 2 Water, Acids, Bases, Buffer

and Macromolecules………………………. 14
Unit 1 Water, Acids, Bases and Buffer…………….. 14

Unit 2 Chemistry of Carbohydrates………………… 21
Unit 3 Chemistry of Amino Acids and Protein…….. 28
Unit 4 Chemistry of Lipids…………………………. 35
Unit 5 Chemistry of Nucleic Acids………………… 41
Module 3 Metabolism of Biomolecules……………… 46
Unit 1 Metabolism of Carbohydrates……………… 46

Unit 2 Krebs cycle and Oxidative
Phosphorylation……………………………. 54
Unit 3 Metabolism of Proteins…………………….. 60
Unit 4 Metabolism of Lipids………………………. 65
Module 4 Micronutrients (Vitamins and

Minerals) and Detoxification…………….. 69
Unit 1 Water Soluble Vitamins…………………… 69

Unit 2 Trace Elements……………………………. 78
Unit 3 Detoxification……………………………… 83
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MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL

BIOCHEMISTRY
Unit 1 Definition of Biochemistry

Unit 2 Cell Structure, Cell components and their Functions
Unit 3 Biochemistry of the Plasma Membrane
UNIT 1 DEFINITION OF BIOCHEMISTRY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Biochemistry
3.2 Relevance of Biochemistry as a Life Science
3.3 Branches of Biochemistry
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The essence of studying biochemistry is for the purpose of

understanding the various chemical reactions that occur in living
organisms at both the cellular and molecular levels. Biochemistry as a
life science is applicable and relevant in different fields of study such as
medicine, agriculture, pharmacy, nursing etc.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 define biochemistry
 understand the relevance of biochemistry to other life sciences
(nursing, medicine, pharmacy)
 describe different branches of biochemistry.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of Biochemistry
Biochemistry is the study of biomolecules. It can also be defined as the

application of chemistry to the study of biological processes in living
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organisms. Biochemistry is both a life science and a chemical science; it

explores the chemistry of living organisms and the molecular basis for
the changes occurring in living cells.
Millions of complex chemical reactions are going on in the human body

at any given time, ranging from the balance of the endocrine system to
the storage and utilisation of fuel molecules such as glucose. By
studying and understanding these highly complex reactions, biochemists
have found better ways to fight infections and diseases at the molecular
level. Since an Engineer cannot repair a vehicle if he does not
understand how it works, so a biochemist must understand how the
living system works in order to proffer solutions in disease states. Thus
much of biochemistry deals with the structures and functions of cellular
components such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids
collectively known as biomolecules. The main focus of biochemistry is
in understanding how biological molecules give rise to the processes
that occur within living cells, which in turn relates greatly to the study
and understanding of the whole organism (human being).
3.2 Relevance of Biochemistry to other life Sciences
Biochemistry provides foundation for other life sciences such as

medicine, nursing, pharmacy, zoology, microbiology etc. as well as
agriculture.
In pharmacy biochemistry provides an

 understanding of the constitution of drugs, the half-life of drugs
and drug metabolism.
In agriculture, the knowledge of biochemistry plays a valuable role in

farming, fishery, poultry, sericulture etc as it
 helps in the prevention and treatment of diseases
 gives an idea of how the use of fertilizers can increase plants
growth, their yield and quality of food
 can help to evaluate pesticide residues or other toxic waste in
plants, food grain and seed through biochemical test
 help in the monitoring of the quality of milk in animal husbandry
which can be checked by biochemical test.
In medicine, biochemistry gives an insight into the changes and

physiological alterations that take place in the body. It also assists in
clinical diagnosis of diseases.
Biochemists have contributed greatly to the discovery of new drugs to

treat chronic diseases such as cancer, viral infections and metabolic
disorders. They are able to do this because they have thorough
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understanding of what happens at the molecular and cellular levels of

living organisms.
3.3 Branches of Biochemistry
i. Toxicology: This field studies the adverse effects of toxic or

foreign chemical substances on the organisms. Environmental
and food toxicology also fall under this branch of biochemistry.
ii. Enzymology: This is the study of enzymes, their functions,
deficiency and the consequence of such deficiency in diseases.
iii. Molecular biology and Biotechnology: This field evolved
directly from Nucleic acid biochemistry and it involves
manipulation of DNA to improve drug research and solve health
problems. It has wide applications in other fields of science
which includes cancer research.
iv. Lipid and Carbohydrate biochemistry: This field studies the
biochemical basis of metabolic disorders such as diabetes, obesity
and Cardiovascular diseases.
v. Natural products biochemistry: This is a new area of research
in biochemistry; it evolved as a result of interest of scientists
across the world in searching for new drugs from plants. Quinine
and Artesunate (antimalarial drugs) were isolated from plants.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this introductory unit, biochemistry has been introduced a life science

with important contribution to the field of nursing, medicine, agriculture
etc. The five main branches of biochemistry discussed above have
different dimensions of improving human life.
5.0 SUMMARY
The primary aim of this unit is to enlighten you about biochemistry as a

field of science, its branches as well as its relevance in the field of
nursing, medicine, pharmacy and agriculture.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Define biochemistry.
2. Name and explain three (3) branches of biochemistry.
3. Discuss the relevance of biochemistry to other life sciences.
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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Amanullah, M. (2011). Medical Biochemistry and Biotechnology. (1st

ed.).
Murray, R.K., Bender, D. A., Botham, K., M., Kennelly, P.J., Rodwell
V.W. & Well, P.A. (2012). Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry
(29th ed.). McGraw-Hill Medical.
Nelson, D.L. & Cox M. M. (2009). Lehninger Principles of

Biochemistry (4th ed.).
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UNIT 2 CELL STRUCTURE, COMPONENTS OF THE

CELL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Structure of Animal Cell
3.2 Components of the Cell and their Functions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The living cell we are to discuss here is not different from the cell you
learnt in Biology when you were in secondary school. Cells are the basic
building blocks of all living organism. The human body is composed of
trillion of cells. Cells have many parts, each with a different function.
Some of these parts called organelles are specialized structures that
perform certain tasks within the cell. Biochemical arrangement of cells
and how these cells interact to perform various functions in man are not
only fascinating but also very interesting. Imagine the sensitivity of cells
responsible for taste; different region of your tongue detects different
taste.
Some cells are replaced every 72 hours in our body while some spend up
to ten years before they die. Also, some cells remain in our body
throughout our lifetime. There are two basic types of cells in nature and
these are prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are the
simplest cells and are without a nucleus and cell organelles while
eukaryotic cells are sophisticated cells with a well-defined nucleus and
cell organelles. A group of cells forms tissue, various tissues forms an
organ and different organs make up the body.
It is important to understand compartmentalization and the functions of

various organelles present in the cells. Most biochemical reactions take
place inside the cell but in different organelles; for example, energy
generation takes place inside the mitochondria. Thorough understanding
of cell structure will help you to understand the root causes of many
diseases and the biochemical mechanisms of their treatment.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will learn about the cell, structure of the
animal cell, cell organelles and their functions.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Structure of Animal Cell
A living cell is defined as the fundamental unit of life and it is the

smallest unit capable of exhibiting the characteristics of life. The cell
was discovered in 1665 by Robert Hooke while examining a thin slice of
cork under his new crude microscope. He observed numerous porous
structures and named it the cell. The animal cells have different shapes
and sizes; some are circular, spherical, cylindrical, fibrous etc. Red
blood cells called erythrocytes are one of the smallest animal cells while
ova are among the largest. In terms of length, nerve cells are the longest.
For ease of representation, circular structure is commonly used to
illustrate the structure of the animal cell Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Structure of the animal cell
Source: Armstrong (2001).
A cell can be subdivided into 3 parts namely:

i. The plasma membrane: This is the thin cover that separates a
cell from its environment. It also protects the components of the
cell from leakage. It prevents the fluid outside the cell called
extracellular fluid (ECF) from mixing with the fluid inside the
cell called intracellular fluid (ICF). Plasma membrane regulates
the materials that enters or leaves the cell, for this reason, it is
said to be semi-permeable. In addition, the plasma membrane has
some glycoproteins and glycolipids on its surface; these
molecules serve as signal molecule between cells.
xvii
ii. The cytoplasm: This is the fluid-like space between the plasma
and nuclear membrane. Cytoplasm is the cavity where the
organelles are found. It provides space for the movement of
synthesized products from one compartment to another for
further processing. The organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm
by cytoskeleton network that resemble nets.
iii. Nucleus: This is the most important part of the cell, the nucleus is
always centrally located. It has its own membrane called nuclear
membrane which protects the content of the nucleus. Nucleus is
very important to the cell because it contains the genetic materials
(DNA and RNA) that control all the activities of the cell. Nucleus
regulates the rate and time of cell division. It also determines the
materials that enter or exit the cell.
3.2 Functions of cell organelles
i. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: It is a vast system of

interconnected, membranous, sacks that are located in the cell‟s
cytoplasm and it is responsible for the synthesis of protein (due to
the presence of ribosomes attached to it) and degradation of worn
out organelles.
ii. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: It is located in the cell‟s

cytoplasm and transports materials throughout the cell. It contains
enzymes which produce and digest lipids (fats) and membrane
proteins. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is therefore
responsible for the synthesis of lipids and steroids, storage and
metabolism of calcium and detoxification of toxic substances.
iii. Golgi Apparatus: It is a flattened sac-like organelle that looks like

a stack of pancakes. It is located near the nucleus. It produces the
membranes that surround the lysosomes. The golgi apparatus
packages proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound
vesicles for export from the cell.
iv. Lysosome: These are round organelles surrounded by a

membrane where the digestion of cell nutrients takes place due to
presence of the digestive enzymes. It contains more than 40
different hydrolytic enzymes and they are collectively known as
LYSOZYMES which are actively involved in the degradation of
macromolecules, worn out organelles and the removal of excess
secretory products. Lysosome has the thickest membrane to
prevent the leakage of hydrolytic enzymes.
v. Peroxisomes: These are single membrane spherical organelles,
xviii
also called micro-bodies. They contain antioxidant enzymes such

as catalase and peroxidases which are involved in the
detoxification of hydrogen peroxide and other radicals.
vi. Mitochondria: The mitochondrion is known as the power house

of the cell as it generates energy in form of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate), the energy currency of all living cells. It is
spherical in shape and has double membrane i.e. inner and outer
mitochondrion membrane.
vii. Ribosomes: These are small organelles rich in ribonucleic acid

(RNA) and are active in the synthesis of proteins.
ix. Vacuole: The vacuole is a fluid-filled, membrane-surrounded

cavity inside a cell. The vacuole fills with food being digested
and waste material that is on its way out of the cell. There are
specialized vacuoles which function to store fat as fat droplets.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The cell is the structural and functional basic unit of life. The human
body contains several billions of cells that perform various functions.
There are specialized structures called cell organelles present within the
cell through which the cell performs these various functions.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the cell, types of cells, structure of the
animal cell, cell organelles and their functions.
1. Draw a well labeled structure of the animal cell

2. List four cell organelles and their functions.
Amanullah, M. (2011). Medical Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 1st

edition.
Devlin T.M. (2010). Textbook of Biochemistry with Clinical

Correlation 7th Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc.
UNIT 3 BIOCHEMISTRY OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
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1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Components of the plasma membrane
3.2 The functions of plasma membranes
3.3 Transportation of materials across the plasma membrane
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The cell or plasma membrane can be referred to as „the wall of a city. It

protects the components of the cell and also regulates what enters or
leaves the cell. The plasma membrane is very important to all cells since
the cell owes its survival to an intact and functional cell membrane. If
there is any injury to the cell membrane, the whole cell may be
destroyed. Technically, the cell membrane is a liquid. At room
temperature, it has about the same consistency as vegetables oil. Lipids,
proteins and carbohydrates in the plasma membrane can diffuse freely
throughout the cell membrane; they are essentially floating across its
surface. This process is known as the fluid mosaic model, which was
coined by S. J. Singer and G. L. Nicolson in 1972.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you be able to describe the plasma membrane.
You will also get to know the various mechanism of transport of
materials across the plasma membrane.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Components of the plasma membrane
Plasma membrane mainly consists of phospholipids, cholesterol and

proteins. There is a wide variation in lipid- protein ratio for different cell
membranes. The functions performed by the cell and the location
determine the quantity of proteins and lipids present in the plasma
membrane.
Membrane Lipids
There are several types of membrane lipids. The fundamental building
blocks of cell membranes are the phospholipids. Membrane lipids are
amphipathic molecules (they have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic
xx
ends, hydrophilic means “water loving”; this part readily associates with
water while hydrophobic ends means “water hating”; they tend to move
away from water). When cellular membranes form, phospholipids
assemble into two layers because of their hydrophilic and hydrophobic
properties. The phosphate heads in each layer face the aqueous or
watery environment on both side, and the tails hide away from the water
between the layers of heads, because they are hydrophobic (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2: Structure of plasma membrane bilayer

Source: Sadler (2004).
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is another important membrane lipid found exclusively in
the plasma membrane of mammalian cells. The cholesterol molecules
are randomly distributed across the phospholipid bilayer, helping the
bilayer stay fluid in different environmental conditions. It holds the
phospholipids together so that they don‟t separate too far thereby letting
unwanted substances in, or compact too tightly, restricting movement
across the membrane. Without cholesterol, the phospholipids in the
plasma membrane will start to get closer together when exposed to cold,
making it more difficult for small molecules, like gases to squeeze in
between the phospholipids like they normally do. Also the presence of
cholesterol prevents phospholipids from separating from each other
which could have resulted in large gaps.
Membrane Proteins
Membrane proteins can be classified as being either peripheral or
integral on the basis of their association with the membrane lipids.
Integral membrane proteins interact extensively with the hydrocarbon
chains of membrane lipids. Most of these integral proteins span the lipid
bilayer, protruding at both ends. They have high percentage of non-polar
amino acids and represent about 70% of total membrane proteins.
Examples are membrane enzymes, hormone receptors, pumps and
channels. Integral proteins are helpful for transporting larger molecules
like glucose across the cell membrane. In contrast, peripheral proteins
are bound to the surface of lipid bilayer primarily by electrostatic and
hydrogen bonds. Many peripheral membrane proteins are also bound to
the surfaces of integral proteins, on either the cytosolic or extra cellular
xxi
side of the membrane. Examples include cytochrome c and acetyl

choline esterase.
3.2 Functions of the plasma membrane
i. Protection: The primary function of the plasma membrane is to

protect the cytoplasm and the organelles present in the cell. It is
responsible for the maintenance of shape and size of cells.
ii. Transportation: The cell membrane act as semi permeable

membrane which allows only some substances to pass through it
thereby acting as a barrier for other substances. For example,
small hydrophobic molecules such as CO2, O2 and small lipids
dissolve in the membrane and pass through readily. Ions and most
nutrient molecules do not move freely through the membrane, but
are often carried by the transport protein channels, either with or
without the use of energy.
3.3 Mechanism of transportation of materials across the plasma

membrane
Passive Transport: Passive transport in cells involves the process of

diffusion; the diffusion can be simple or facilitated.
Simple diffusion – In terms of cellular activity, the rate of simple

diffusion can be affected by temperature, molecular size, concentration
of the gradient. Materials that are moved through membranes by simple
diffusion include: water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, some lipid soluble
molecules such as alcohol.
Facilitated diffusion – Most molecules cannot move freely through the

membrane, but do cross membranes with the help of membrane
transport proteins, which temporarily bind to the substance to be moved
through the membrane, a process called facilitated diffusion. No energy
is involved in the process since both carrier proteins and channel
proteins are involved. Materials that pass through membranes by
facilitated diffusion include glucose, amino acids and many small ions.
The movement of water through membranes also involves facilitated
diffusion. The special protein channel used for this is called aquaporins,
and it facilitates the movement of water at a rate needed for cell
activities. Facilitated diffusion process may be coupled to the movement
of other molecules in the same direction or opposite direction. In co-
transport, the transport of one molecule depends on sequential transfer
of another molecule. Co-transport may be symport or antiport. A
symport moves two molecules in the same direction e.g. sodium-glucose
xxii
transporter. Antiport system moves two molecules in opposite direction.

It is also known as counter transport e.g. sodium-potassium transporter.
Active transport – Energy requiring transport across membranes.

Active transport is involved in the movement of molecules across the
cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of
higher concentration i.e. against the concentration gradient. Generally,
most cells need to move substances through the membrane in a direction
counter to the gradient or move substances that are too large or bulky
with the use of energy. Some transport proteins (carrier proteins) can
move substances through the membrane against the concentration
gradient. Active transport typically requires two carrier protein active
sites. One recognizes the substances to be carried while the other
releases ATP to provide energy for the protein carrier. In some cases,
concentration gradients of ions typically (H+) protons or (Na+) sodium
ions can be used to provide the energy needed to move molecules
through the membranes.
Active transport is classified into two types according to the source of

energy used. Primary active transport derives its energy directly from
the hydrolysis of ATP while the secondary active transport uses an
indirect energy of an electrochemical gradient or membrane potential
produced originally by primary active transport. An example of primary
active transport is sodium-potassium pump (Na+ - K+ ATPase). It is the
protein or enzyme responsible for the transportation of Na+ and K+
across the cell membrane. The enzyme is known as sodium-potassium
Adenosine triphosphatase.
The energy required for the transportation of sodium and potassium ions
are derived from the hydrolysis of ATP. For every three Na+ pumped
out of the cell, two K+ are released into the cytosol.
Figure 1.3: Active and passive transport across the plasma

membrane
xxiii
Source: Delvin (2010).

4.0 CONCLUSION
The plasma membrane is a semi-permeable membrane that controls the

entry and exit of molecules within the cell. The chemical structure of the
plasma membrane explains the process of transportation across different
gradients of the cell.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the lipids and protein components of
the cell membrane. We also discussed the different mechanism of
transportation of material across the cell membrane with explanation of
the factors that drive such exchange.
1. Write short notes on the lipids and protein components of the

plasma membrane
2. Explain the passive mechanism of transportation across the cell
membrane, draw diagrams to illustrate your answers.
3. Differentiate between the active and passive methods of
transportation.

edition
Devlin T.M. (2010) Textbook of Biochemistry with Clinical Correlation

7th Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Murray, R. K., Bender, D. A., Botham, K., M., Kennelly, P.J., Rodwell
V. W. and Well, P. A. (2012). Harper‟s Illustrated
th
Biochemistry (29 Edition) McGraw-Hill Medical.
Nelson, D.L. and Cox M.M., (2009). Lehninger Principles of

Biochemistry 4th edition
Sadler, T. W. (2004). Langman‟s Medical Embryology 9th edition.
xxiv
MODULE 2 WATER, ACIDS, BASES, BUFFER AND

MACROMOLECULES
Unit 1 Water, Acids, Bases and Buffer

Unit 2 Chemistry of Carbohydrates
Unit 3 Chemistry of Amino Acids and Protein
Unit 4 Chemistry of Lipids
Unit 5 Chemistry of Nucleic Acids
UNIT 1 WATER, ACIDS, BASES AND BUFFER
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Properties of Water
3.2 Biological Importance of Water
3.3 Acid, Base and Buffer
3.4 Biological Importance of buffer
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Water is the most abundant matter on earth and also a major component
of the body. Typically, organisms are constituted of 70 to 90 % water. It
must be present before any metabolic activity can take place in the cell
and it is referred to as a weak electrolyte because it can undergo partial
dissociation into a proton (H+) and hydroxyl ion (OH-).
Water is made up of oxygen and two hydrogen atoms. Oxygen has a

tendency to pull the electrons more towards itself, thereby becoming
electronegative and leaving the hydrogens electropositive. This results in
the creation of a dipole due to the fact that each water molecule is
surrounded by four other water molecules. The bond between „H‟ of one
water molecule and „O‟ of the other is known as hydrogen bond. In this
unit we shall also be discussing acids and bases which are defined with
respect to their ability to gain or lose protons and the importance of
buffers in biological system.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should understand the properties of water,
the importance of water as the major component of living organisms and
xxv
be able to define acid, base and a buffer. You will also learn how to
calculate pH, pOH and pKa of a given solution.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The properties of water
i. Water is the predominant chemical component of all living

organisms.
ii. Most chemical reactions in the cell take place in aqueous
environment.
iii. It has a high boiling and melting points when compared to other
liquids.
iv. It has a specific heat of vaporization
v. Hydrogen bonds hold the oxygen and hydrogen atoms together in
a water molecule.
vi. The oxygen of water is very electronegative, while hydrogen is
electropositive; as a result water is dipolar and exhibit tendency
to dissociate.
3.2 Biological importance of water
i. Water helps in the digestion of food: It helps to break down

food so that the body can absorb the nutrients.
ii. It regulates the body temperature: Water that is stored in the
middle layers of the skin comes to the skin‟s surface as sweat
when the body heats up. As it evaporates, it cools the body.
iii. It cushions the brain, spinal cord and other sensitive tissues:
Dehydration can affect brain structure and function. It is also
involved in the production of hormones and neurotransmitters.
Prolonged dehydration can lead to problems with thinking and
reasoning.
iv. It boosts skin health and beauty: With dehydration, the skin
can become more vulnerable to skin disorders and premature
wrinkling.
v. It delivers oxygen throughout the body: Blood is more than 90
percent, and blood carries oxygen to different parts of the body.
vi. It lubricates the joint: Cartilage, found in joints and the disks of
spine contains around 80 percent water. Long-term dehydration
can reduce the joints shock-absorbing ability, leading to joint
pain.
vii. The strong dipole and high dielectric constant of water
enables it to dissolve large quantities of charged compounds.
viii. The presence of hydrogen bond also enables water to dissolve
many organic molecules that contain functional groups.
xxvi
ix. Water provides environment for macromolecules to achieve

stable structure in solution
3.3 Acid, Base and Buffer
An acid is a proton donor. It is also a compound that dissociates in

aqueous solution to produce (H+) proton and a conjugate base (A-).
HA H+ + A -
Acid may dissociate partially (called weak acid e.g. ethanoic acid,
water) or completely (called strong acid e.g. hydrochloric acid) in
solution. In solution, weak acid establishes equilibrium between the
proton and its conjugate base. Weak acids are those which have a slight
tendency to give up protons e.g. acetic acid. On the other hand, strong
acids give up protons readily e.g. HCl.
HCl H+ + Cl-
CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
A Base is a compound that accepts proton in aqueous environment. Just

like an acid, there are strong bases and weak bases. For example, sodium
hydroxide is a strong base which releases hydroxyl ions very easily, and
water is a weak base as it is a poor source of hydroxyl ions.
NaOH Na+ + OH-
H2 O H+ + OH-
pH of a solution is simply defined as the negative logarithm of the

hydrogen ion concentration in a media. In simple terms it is a value that
gives the amount of hydrogen ions present in a solution. This value is
expressed in a reverse or negative form i.e. higher the pH value lower is
the hydrogen ion concentration and lower the pH value higher is the
hydrogen ion concentration. The pH of all solutions ranges between 0
and 14 only. pH of value 7.0 is neutral e.g. water and pH ranging from 0
to 0.69 is acidic and 7.1 to 14 is basic or alkaline.
The normal pH of the blood plasma ranges between 7.35 and 7.45,
average being 7.4. The intracellular pH of the tissues is 7.25 to 7.35
averaging to 7.30 and pH of extracellular fluid is 7.30 to 7.40 with an
average of 7.35. A decrease in the pH of blood is termed as acidosis and
an increase in the pH of blood is termed as alkalosis. Alkalosis is more
fatal than acidosis.
xxvii
Mathematically,
pH = - log [H+] and
pOH = - log [OH-]
The equilibrium constant is called the acid dissociation constant and it is

represented as:
Ka = = [H+] [A-]
[HA]
Where K is the equilibrium constant and a is the acid.
Calculation of pH, pOH and pKa
Example 1: If the H+ concentration of a solution is 4.2 x 10-3 calculate

the pH of the solution.
Solution:
pH = - log [H+], log[4.2 x 10-3] = log 4.2 + log 10-3 = 0.62 -3 = -2.38.
Substitute for log [H+] in the equation.
pH = -(-2.38), the two negative values canceled out, pH = 2.38
Example 2: Calculate the [H+], [OH-] and pH of 0.01M ethanoic acid,

given that (Ka = 1.76 x 10-5).
Solution:
Note that ethanoic acid is a weak acid, it dissociates partially in solution,

therefore HA = H+ + A- , if the conjugates are represented by x, then HA
= 0.1- x ≈ 0.1 (value of x is negligible)
Ka = [H+] [A-]
[HA]
Ka = 1.76 x 10-5 = X2/0.1

X2 = 1.76 x 10-6, X is equal to the square root of 1.76 x 10-6
This is equal to 1.33 x 10-3, therefore,
[H+] = 1.33 x 10-3
pH = -log 1.33 x 10-3 = 0.12-3, if you take away 3 from 0.12, this will
give you a negative value (-2.88).
pH = 2.88 .
xxviii
To calculate the pOH, the dissociation of pure water will be considered.

H3O = H+ + OH-,
[H+] + [OH-] = 1.0 x10-14,
[OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14/ [H+]
= 1.0 x 10-14/1.33 x 10-3,
[OH-] =7.52 x 10-12.
But pOH = -log 7.52 x 10-12. This is equal to 0.88 – 12,

pOH = 11.12
Buffer
A buffer is a solution that resists changes in pH (hydrogen ion

concentration) when an acid or a base is added. A buffer contains a
weak acid and its conjugate base. Examples of buffer solutions are
Acetate buffer (acetic acid and acetate salt), Bicarbonate buffer
(carbonic acid and bicarbonate salt), phosphate buffer (sodium hydrogen
phosphate and potassium hydrogen phosphate) etc.
Regulation of pH solution by buffer
If (H+) hydrogen ions are added to a buffer solution, the conjugate base
reacts with the excess hydrogen ions to form the acid. On the other
hand, if (OH-) hydroxyl ions are added, they react with the acid present
in the buffer to produce water and conjugate base.
Preparation of buffer
To prepare buffer, Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is usually used to

calculate the concentrations of acid and base components of the buffer to
be prepared.
The equation is pH = pKa + log [A-]

[HA]
3.4 Biological importance of buffer
Buffers are chemical substances that help to maintain a relatively

constant pH in a solution. Buffering is important in living systems as a
means of maintaining a fairly constant internal environment also known
as homeostasis. The following are examples of buffers in biological
xxix
system and their importance:
i. The maintenance of blood pH is regulated via the bicarbonate

buffer. This system consists of carbonic acid and bicarbonate
ions. When the blood pH drops into the acidic range, this buffer
acts to form carbon dioxide gas. The lungs expel this gas out of
the body during the process of respiration. During alkaline
conditions, this buffer brings the pH back to neutral by causing
excretion of the bicarbonate ions through the urine.
ii. The phosphate buffer system acts in a manner similar to the

bicarbonate buffer, but only that it has a much stronger action.
The internal environment of all cells contains this buffer
comprising hydrogen phosphate ions and dihydrogen phosphate
ions. Under conditions when excess hydrogen enters the cell, it
reacts with the hydrogen phosphate ions, which accepts them.
Under alkaline conditions, the dihydrogen phosphate ions accept
the excess hydroxide ions that enter the cell.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Water is life and a core component of all other fluids that make chemical
reactions possible in the body. Acids, bases and buffers serve different
biological purposes in the living system.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this study unit, you have learnt about the properties of water and its
biological importance, acid, base and buffers. You are also introduced to
the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
1. What are the properties of water?

2. Define an acid and a base.
3. Give examples of two buffers and explain how they regulate pH
in the living system.
4. Calculate the pH of a solution of weak acid whose Molarity is
0.0008.
5. Calculate the [H+], [OH-] and pH of 2.5 x 10-3 M ethanoic acid,
given that (Ka = 1.48 x 10-5).
xxx
Amanullah, M. (2011). Medical Biochemistry and Biotechnology 1st

edition.
Devlin T. M. (2010) Textbook of Biochemistry with Clinical

Correlation 7th edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Murray, R. K., Bender, D. A., Botham, K., M., Kennelly, P. J., Rodwell
V.W. and Well, P. A. (2012). Harper‟s Illustrated
th
Biochemistry (29 edition) McGraw-Hill Medical
Nelson, D. L. and Cox M. M., (2009). Lehninger Principles of

Biochemistry 4th edition.
xxxi
UNIT 2 CHEMISTRY OF CARBOHYDRATES
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Classification of Carbohydrates
3.2 Isomers of Glucose
3.3 Functions of Carbohydrates
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignments
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Carbohydrates (CHOs) are compounds containing C, H and O (Carbon,

Hydrogen and Oxygen) with the general formula CnH2nOn. They are
widely distributed in plants and animals where they play important
structural and metabolic roles. Glucose is the most important
carbohydrate.
Most dietary CHO is absorbed into the bloodstream as glucose formed

by the hydrolysis (breakdown) of dietary starch and disaccharides.
Other sugars are also converted to glucose in the liver. Glucose is the
major metabolic fuel of mammals and a universal fuel for the fetus. It is
the precursor for the synthesis of all other CHOs in the body, including
glycogen which is the storage form of carbohydrates in man. Diseases
associated with CHO metabolism include Diabetes Mellitus,
Galactosemia, Glycogen storage diseases and Lactose intolerance.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to know the classification of
carbohydrates into various sugars, the isomers of glucose and the roles
of carbohydrates in biological membrane.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Classification of Carbohydrates (CHO)
Carbohydrates are classified according to the number of sugar units in

the molecule as follows:
Monosaccharides: These are sugars that contain one sugar unit and
cannot be further hydrolyzed. They represent the end product of CHO
digestion in the human body. They are classified as trioses, tetroses,
xxxii
pentoses, hexoses or heptoses, depending on the number of carbon (C)

atoms, and as aldoses and ketoses depending on whether they have an
aldehyde or ketone group. Examples of monosaccharaides hexoses are
glucose and galactose.
Table 2.1: Classification of Sugars

Classification based on Aldoses Ketoses
number of Carbon
atom
Trioses (C3H6O3) Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
Tetroses (C4H8O4) Erythrose Erythrulose
Pentoses (C5H10O5) Ribose Ribulose
Hexoses (C6H12O6) Glucose Fructose
Heptoses (C7H14O7) - Sedoheptulose
Figure 2.1: Sugars with different no of carbon atoms

Source: Nelson and Cox (2010).
Disaccharides: These are condensation products of 2 monosaccharide

units e.g. lactose (galactose + glucose), maltose (2 glucose i.e. glucose +
glucose) and sucrose (glucose + fructose).
Oligosaccharides: These are condensation products of 3-10

monosaccharides. Most are not digested by human enzymes rather they
play structural roles.
Polysaccharides: These are condensation products of 10 or more

monosaccharide units.. Food contains a wide variety of other
polysaccharides, collectively known as non-starch polysaccharides
which are not digestible by the human enzymes and are the major
components of dietary fibre. Examples include cellulose (a glucose
xxxiii
polymer from plant cell walls) and inulin (a fructose polymer which the
storage CHO in some plants. Examples of polysaccharides are glycogen,
starch and dextrin which may be linear or branched polymers
Glycogen: It is known as animal starch. It is made up of α-1, 4 linkages

in the linear and α-1, 6 linkages at the branching points. It is highly
branched. Glycogen is the storage form of energy (glucose) in each and
every cell of the body. Liver and muscle contains the highest amount of
glycogen. At least 5% of glycogen is present in each cell even under
severe fasting/starvation condition. It gives a red colour with iodine.
Starch: It is made up of α-D-glucose units, hence known as glucosan. It

is composed of amylose and amylopectin.
Figure 2.2: Structure of glycogen showing glycosidic linkage

Structure of Glucose
The straight chain structural formula of glucose can account for some of
its properties, but a cyclic structure formed by a reaction between the
aldehyde group and an OH group is thermodynamically more favoured
and accounts for other properties. The cyclic structure results from the
reaction between the aldehyde group in C1 and the OH group in C5,
which forms a hemiacetal linkage and produce either of 2 stereoisomers.
The structure can also be represented in form of a chair, with the 6
membered rings containing one oxygen atom as shown in Figure 2.3.
xxxiv
Figure 2.3: Structures of glucose

3.2 Isomers of Glucose
Isomerism is the occurrence of compounds with the same chemical

formula but different structural formula. The important types of
isomerism found in glucose are D and L isomerism. The designation of
a sugar isomer as the D form or of its mirror image as the L form is
determined by its spatial relationship to the parent compound of the
carbohydrates. The orientation of the –H and –OH groups around the C
atom adjacent to the terminal primary alcohol carbon determines
whether the sugar belongs to D or L series (when the –OH group on this
C is on the right, the sugar is called D isomer and when it is on the left,
it is called L-isomer) Most of the naturally occurring monosaccharide
are D sugars. The presence of asymmetric C atom also confers optical
activity on the compound. When a beam of plane-polarized light is
passed through a solution of an optical isomer, it rotates either to the
right (known to be + dextrorotatory,) or to the left (known to be -
levorotatory).
Figure 2.4: D and L isoforms of Glucose

Epimers: These are isomers differing as a result of variations in
xxxv
configurations of the –OH and –H on C atoms 2, 3 and 4 of glucose.

The most important biological isomers of glucose are mannose (differs
in configuration at C2) and galactose (differs in confriguration at C4).
Figure 2.5: Epimers of Glucose

3.3 Functions of carbohydrates
1. Provide instant energy to the body: This is the primary

function of carbohydrates in the body. Carbohydrates which we
consume as food in the form of starch get digested in the body to release
glucose. This glucose after being absorbed into blood reaches all the
body tissues and cell. It gets metabolized to release energy in the form
of ATP in the presence of oxygen inside the mitochondria.
2. Reserve food: Carbohydrate is also stored as the reserve food in

the body. This is a precautionary measure for the body to cope up in
times of hunger. The excess glucose which is obtained by food is
converted to glycogen in the body. This conversion of glucose to
glycogen happens in the presence of the hormone insulin. This glycogen
is stored in the liver and to a small extent in the skeletal muscles. In
times of starvation, this glycogen converts back to glucose and provides
energy.
3. Detoxification of the body by metabolism: Many drugs and

toxic wastes in the body are metabolized for easy excretion in the body.
Some of these are water-insoluble and hence they are difficult to
be expelled in urine. The body converts them into glucuronosyl
conjugates using the glucuronosyl moiety derived from carbohydrates. A
carbohydrate moiety like glucose combines with uronic acid to form
glucuronate. These conjugates of insoluble substances with glucuronosyl
are more water-soluble and easily excreted from the body. Thus
detoxification of physiological importance is carried out to some extent
with carbohydrate derivatives.
xxxvi
4. Constitute genetic material: Carbohydrates form a part of DNA

and RNA in the form of deoxyribose and ribose sugars. These are five
carbon sugars.
5. They are constituents of all the cellular organelles:

Carbohydrates are also components of cell organelles like the cell
membrane, mitochondria, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, etc. They
provide structural integrity, mechanical strength in combination with
proteins and lipids. They help make up the body mass by being included
in all the parts of the cell and tissues. For example, in cell membranes,
there are two constituents, i.e., glycolipid layer and glycoprotein layer.
Here the term “glyco” is a carbohydrate.
6. Transport of oxygen: Glucose is taken by red blood cells which

lack mitochondria and other cell organelles required for
producing energy. The energy in the form of ATP is produced by a non-
oxidative pathway (anaerobic glycolysis). This energy thus produced is
necessary for hemoglobin to bind to oxygen molecules which are
transferred from lungs to the different tissues.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Carbohydrates are one of the important biomolecules that are widely

distributed in plants and animals and they play important structural and
metabolic roles in the living cell.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt the various classifications of carbohydrates

with examples, the isomers of glucose and the biological roles of
carbohydrate.
1. Explain the classification of carbohydrates and give two

examples each
2. What is isomerism and list the isomers of glucose
3. Enumerate the functions of carbohydrates

edition.
Devlin T.M. (2010) Textbook of Biochemistry with Clinical Correlation

7th edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc.
xxxvii
Murray, R.K., Bender, D.A., Botham, K., M., Kennelly, P.J., Rodwell
V.W. and Well, P.A., (2012). Harper‟s Illustrated
Biochemistry (29th Edition) McGraw-Hill Medical.

Sadler, T.W. (2004). Langman‟s Medical Embryology 9th edition.
xxxviii
UNIT 3 CHEMISTRY OF AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Chemical Nature of Amino Acids
3.2 The 20 Amino Acids found in Proteins
3.3 Classification of Amino Acids
3.4 Classification of Proteins
3.5 Roles of Protein in Biological Process
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assessment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Amino acids are the basic structural units of proteins. Proteins in all
species from bacteria to humans are made from the same set of twenty
amino acids. Amino acids take part in many types of reactions, but the
most important of these is the formation of a peptide bond. This
involves the joining of the α- carboxyl group of one amino acid to the α-
amino group of another amino acid, with the loss of a water molecule.
Amino acids are grouped according to the nature of their side chains.
Since amino acids are weak acids, their strength is expressed as pKa
(negative log of ionization constant). The net charge on an amino acid
depends on the pKa of its functional groups and the pH of the
surrounding medium.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you will have an understanding of the chemical
nature of amino acids, different ways of classifying amino acids and
proteins, formation of peptide bonds and the role of proteins in
biological process.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Chemical nature of amino acids
An amino acid consists of amino group, a carboxyl group (-COOH), a

hydrogen atom (H) and a distinctive R group bonded to a carbon atom,
called the α- carbon. The R group is specific to each amino acid.
Amino acids in solution at neutral pH are predominantly dipolar ions

also called a Zwitterions. In the dipolar form, the amino group is
xxxix
protonated (-NH3+) while the carboxyl group is dissociated (-COO-).

The ionization state of an amino acid varies with pH. At physiological
pH, carboxyl groups exist almost entirely as -COO- and amino groups
predominantly as -NH3+.
pH 7 pH 11
Figure 2.6: Structure of amino acid at ionization states as a function

of pH
3.2 The 20 amino acids found in proteins
Proteins found in living organisms contain only twenty (20) different

kinds of amino acids. The same 20 standard amino acids make up the
proteins in all living cell either in virus, bacteria, yeast, plant or human
cell. These 20 amino acids combine in different sequences and numbers
to form various kinds of proteins. The table below shows the 20
standard amino acids.
Table 2.2: The twenty (20) amino acids
Amino acid Three –letter abbreviation One-letter symbol

Alanine Ala A
Arginine Arg R
Asparagine Asn N
Aspartic acid Asp D
Cysteine Cys C
Glutamine Gln Q
Glutamic acid Glu E
Glycine Gly G
Histidine His H
Isoleucine Ile I
Leucine Leu L
Lysine Lys K
Methionine Met M
Phenylalanine Phe F
Proline Pro P
Serine Ser S
xl
Threonine Thr T
Tryptophan Trp W
Tyrosine Tyr Y
Valine Val V
3.3 Classification of amino acids
Amino acids may be classified based on the following:
Classification based on nutritional requirement

1. Essential Amino Acids
These are amino acids which are not synthesized in the body but must be
provided in the diet to meet the body‟s metabolic needs. About ten of
the amino acids are grouped under this category indicating that
mammals require about half of the amino acids in their diet for growth
and maintenance of normal nitrogen balance. Examples are Arginine*,
Histidine*, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine,
Threonine, Tryptophan, Valine.
Note that *Arginine and *Histidine are also grouped as semi essential
amino acids
2. Non- Essential Amino Acids

These amino acids are amino acids that need not be provided through
diet, because they can be biosynthesized in adequate amounts within the
organism. Examples are Alanine, Asparagine, Aspartic acid (aspartate),
Cysteine, Glutamic Acid (glutamate), Glutamine, Glycine, Proline,
Serine, and Tyrosine.
3. Semi-essential Amino Acids

These are amino acids that can be synthesized within the organism but
their synthesis is not in sufficient amounts, however they should also be
provided in the diet. Two amino acids are grouped under semi-essential
amino acids and they are Arginine and Histidine.
Classification based on the fate of each amino acid in mammals

Amino acids can be classified here as Glucogenic (i.e. potentially can be
converted to glucose), ketogenic (i.e. potentially be converted to ketone
bodies).
1. Glucogenic Amino Acids

Glucogenic amino acids are those amino acids in which their carbon
skeleton gets degraded to pyruvate, α ketoglutarate, succinyl CoA,
fumarate and oxaloacetate and then converted to glucose and glycogen.
These include Alanine, Cysteine, Glycine, Arginine, Glutamine,
Isoleucine, and Tyrosine.
xli
2. Ketogenic Amino Acids

Those amino acids in which their carbon skeleton is degraded to
acetoacetyl CoA, or acetyl CoA and then get converted to acetone and
β-hydroxy butyrate which are referred to ketone bodies. These include
Phenylalanine, Tyrosine, Tryptophan, Isoleucine, Leucine, and Lysine.
These amino acids have the ability to form ketone bodies which is
particularly evident in untreated diabetes mellitus in which large
amounts of ketone bodies are produced by the liver. Degradation of
Leucine which is an exclusively ketogenic amino acid makes a
substantial contribution to the formation of ketone bodies especially
during starvation.
Classification depending on the charge

1. Neutral amino acids: These are amino acids that do not contain
any charge on the „R‟ group. They are further classified into
 Aliphatic amino acids which contains a chain of carbon atoms
e.g. Glycine, Alanine, Seine, Threonine, Valine, Leucine,
Isoleucine, Asparagine, Glutamine
 Aromatic amino acid which have an aromatic shape or contains
benzene ring e.g. Phenylalanine, Tyrosine, Tryptophan.
 Heterocyclic amino acids which have heterocyclic ring i.e. any of
the ring structures which contain different atoms.
 Sulphur containing which are amino acids which contain Sulphur
atom e.g. Cysteine and Methionine.
2. Acidic amino acids: These are amino acids that contain a

negative charge or an acidic group e.g. Aspartate, Glutamate
3. Basic amino acids: These contain a positive charge or a basic

group e.g. Arginine, Lysine and Histidine.
Formation of peptide bonds

The most important reaction of amino acids is the formation of a peptide
bond. This involves the joining of the α- carboxyl group of one amino
acid to the α- amino group of another amino acid, with resultant loss of a
water molecule. The biosynthesis of peptide bonds requires an input of
free energy, whereas their hydrolysis is thermodynamically favorable.
Many amino acids (usually > 100) are joined by peptide bonds to form a
polypeptide chain.
3.4 Classification of proteins
Proteins are macromolecules with a backbone formed by polymerization

of amino acids. They are nitrogenous compounds of high molecular
weight which play a vital or prime role in living organisms.
xlii
Proteins may be classified on the basis of their composition, solubility,

shape and their biological functions.
Classification based on composition

A. Simple protein: These proteins yield only amino acids during
hydrolysis with no other major organic or inorganic hydrolysis products.
B. Conjugated Proteins
These yields amino acids and other organic and inorganic components
e.g. Nucleoprotein (a protein containing Nucleic acids), Lipoprotein (a
protein containing lipids), Phosphoprotein (a protein containing
phosphorous), Metalloprotein (a protein containing metal ions of Fe2+),
Glycoprotein (a protein containing carbohydrates)
Classification based on Solubility

a) Albumins: These proteins such as egg albumin and serum
albumin are readily soluble in water and coagulated by heat.
b) Globulins: These proteins are present in serum, muscle and other
tissues and are soluble in dilute salt solution but sparingly in
water.
c) Histones: Histones are present in glandular tissues (thymus,
pancreas etc.) and are soluble in water. They combine with
nucleic acids in cells and on hydrolysis to yield basic amino
acids.
Classification based on Shape

A. Fibrous proteins
These proteins are made up of several coiled cross-linked polypeptide
chains. They are insoluble in water and highly resistant to enzyme
digestion. A few sub groups are listed below:
1. Collagens: These are major proteins of the connective tissue.
They are insoluble in water, acids or alkalis but are convertible to
water-soluble gelatin and are easily digestible by enzymes.
2. Elastins: present in tendons, arteries and other elastic tissues, not
convertible to gelatin.
3. Keratins: these are proteins found in the hair and nails etc.
B. Globular proteins: These are globular or ovoid in shape, soluble

in water and constitute the enzymes, oxygen carrying proteins,
hormones etc.
Classification based on biological functions

Proteins are sometimes described as the "workhorses" of the cell
because they do so many things like:
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 act as enzymes e.g. kinases, transaminases etc.

 act as storage proteins e.g. myoglobin, ferritin
 act as regulatory proteins e.g. peptide hormones, DNA binding
proteins
 act as structural protein e.g. collagen, proteoglycan
 act as protective proteins e.g. blood clotting factors,
Immunoglobins,
 act as transport protein e.g. hemoglobin, plasma lipoproteins
 act as contractile or motile proteins e.g. actin, tubulin
3.5 Roles of proteins in biological processes
Proteins play crucial roles in virtually all biological processes. Some of

these roles include:
Enzymatic catalysis: Nearly all chemical reactions in biological

systems are catalyzed by enzymes. Chemical transformations rarely
occur at perceptible rates in vivo in the absence of enzymes. Most
enzymes are proteins. Thus, proteins play the unique role of determining
the pattern of chemical transformations in biological systems.
Transport and storage: Many small molecules and ions are transported
by specific proteins e.g. Hb (hemoglobin) transports oxygen in
erythrocytes while myoglobin transports oxygen in muscle. Transferrin
carries iron in the plasma of blood to the liver where it is stored as a
complex with ferritin, another protein.
Co-ordinated motion: Proteins are the major components of muscle.

Muscle contraction is accomplished by the sliding motion of two kinds
of protein filaments. On the microscopic scale, coordinated motion such
as the movement of chromosomes in mitosis and the propulsion of
sperm by their flagella are also produced by contractile assemblies
consisting of proteins.
Mechanical support: The high tensile strength of skin and bone is due
to the presence of collage, a fibrous protein.
Immune protection: Antibodies are highly specific proteins that

recognize and combine with foreign substances such as viruses, bacteria
and cells from other organisms.
Generation and transmission of nerve impulses: The response of

nerve cells to specific stimuli is mediated by receptor proteins e.g.
rhodopsin is the photoreceptor protein in retinal rod cells.
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Control of Growth and Differentiation: Controlled sequential

expression of genetic information is essential for the orderly growth and
differentiation of cells. Repressor proteins are important control
elements that silence specific segments of the DNA of a cell. Nerve
growth factor, a protein complex serves to guide the formation of neutral
networks in higher organisms.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Proteins are nitrogenous organic compounds of high molecular weight

which play a primary role in living organisms. They are polymers of
amino acids and are essential nutrients for tissue growth, repairs and
replacement.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt about the chemical nature of amino acids,
different classification of amino acids and proteins, formation of peptide
bonds and the role of proteins in biological system.
1. Describe the chemical nature of amino acids.

2. Identify the 20 amino acids which make up proteins.
3. Explain the formation of peptide bond.
4. State the biological role of protein in the living system.

edition.
Devlin T. M. (2010). Textbook of Biochemistry with Clinical


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UNIT 4 CHEMISTRY OF LIPIDS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Fatty Acids
3.2 Classification of Lipids
3.3 General Functions of Lipids
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference/further reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The word lipid was derived from the Greek word lipos meaning fats.
Lipids are heterogeneous group of compounds related either directly or
indirectly to fatty acids. They are insoluble in water but soluble in non-
polar organic solvents such us benzene, chloroform, and ether. They are
present in all living organisms.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will learn about fatty acids, classification of
lipids and the biological functions of lipids.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Fatty Acids
Fatty acids (FA) are the monocarboxylic acids with a long hydrocarbon
chain. The minimum number of carbon atoms required to be called as
fatty acid is 4. They are two types of fatty acids namely saturated and
fatty unsaturated.
1. Saturated fatty acids are the fatty acids without double bonds
i.e. they contain only single bonds along the length of the carbon chain.
Name of fatty acids Number of carbon atoms

Butyric acid 4
Lauric acid 12
Myristic acid 14
Palmitic acid 16
Stearic acid 18
Arachidic acid 20
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All these fatty acids are solids at room temperature.
2. Unsaturated fatty acids are the FA that contains one or more

double bonds along the length of the hydrocarbon chain. Most naturally
occurring unsaturated FAs have a cis-configuration i.e. the hydrogen
atoms are on the same side of the chain. To represent the position of the
double bond in a fatty acid, it is represented as Delta n (∆), where n
shows the position of double bond between the nth carbon atom and the
carbon atom next to it towards the omega (last) carbon atom. Unsaturated
fatty acids are all liquids at room temperature. They can be further
classified depending on the number of double bonds present per fatty
acid into:
(a). Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFA): They contain only one

double bond per fatty acid. Oleic acid is the most abundant
monounsaturated FA in nature with C18 atoms and cis ∆9 (cis ∆9 means
position of the double bond). Palmitoleic acid is another example of
MUFA, and it is present nearly in all fats. Palmitoleic has C16 atoms
and cis ∆9 (cis ∆9 means position of the double bond)
Name of fatty acid Number of carbon Position of the

atoms double bond
Palmitoleic acid 16 cis ∆9
Oleic acid 18 cis ∆9
(b). Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) – These are the FAs

obtained from plant seeds. They usually contain 2 or more double bonds.
In PUFA, double bonds are usually separated by a methylene (CH2)
group. PUFA are present in oils such as soya bean oil, groundnut oil,
sunflower, benne-seed oil etc. Examples of PUFA are linoleic, linolenic
and arachidonic acids; they are also called omega 6 and omega 3 fatty
acid respectively. These two PUFA are also referred to as essential
PUFA because animals cannot synthesize them, therefore they must be
supplied to the body in the diet.
Name of fatty Number of Number of Position of the

acid carbon atoms double bonds double bond
Linoleic acid 18 2 cis ∆9,12
Linolenic acid 18 3 cis ∆9,12,15
Arachidonic 20 4 cis ∆5,8,11,14
acid
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3.2 Classification of Lipids
Lipids can be classified into the following:
1. Simple lipids: - These are esters of fatty acids with different

alcohols. They are further classified as:
Neutral Fats: - These are esters of fatty acids with glycerol. They are
known as triacylglycerols (TAG) or triglycerides.
Waxes: - Esters of fatty acids with high molecular weight monohydric

alcohols
Triacylglycerols
These are esters of fatty acids with a glycerol and are storage forms of
lipids in mammals. Triacylglycerols also called triacylglycerides exist as
simple or mixed types depending on the type of fatty acids that form
esters with the glycerol.
Triacylglycerols are mainly found in special cells called adipocytes (fat

cells), of the mammary gland, abdomen and under skin of animals.
Figure 2.7: Structure of Triacylglycerides
2. Compound lipids: - Simple lipids in combination with some

other groups are called compound lipids. Depending upon the
group (prosthetic group) attached the compound lipids are further
classified as:
(a). Phospholipids: - They contain a phosphoric acid as the prosthetic

group. Depending upon the alcohol present they are grouped into
Glycerophospholipids (the alcohol is glycerol) e.g. phosphatidyl choline,
phosphatidyl ethanolamine, phosphatidyl serine, phosphatidyl inositol
etc and Sphingophospholipids (the alcohol is sphingosine) e.g.
sphingomyelin which contains a fatty acid at the amino group.
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(b). Glycolipids: - These lipids contain a fatty acid, sphingosine and

carbohydrate residues. They are also known as cerebroside.
3. Derived lipids: Derived lipids are the hydrolytic products of the

simple and compound lipids. They include fatty acids and
steroids.
Steroids
All compounds containing the cyclo-pentano-perhydro-phenanthrene
ring are called steroids. Example of steroids is cholesterol. Cholesterol
is the major sterol in the body. It is a constituent of cell membrane and
provides rigidity to it. It acts as the precursor for all the other steroids in
the body.
Biological importance of cholesterol

• For the synthesis of bile salts that are important in lipid digestion
and absorption.
• For the synthesis of steroid hormones that are biologically
important like the sex hormones estrogen and progesterone.
• For the synthesis of vitamin D3
• As a structural material in biological membranes.
• As a component of lipoproteins which is a transport form of lipid
based energy.
Cylo-pentano-perhydro-phenanthrene
Cholesterol
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Symptoms of essential fatty acids deficiency

When essential fatty acids (omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids) are not
present in our diets, our body will not be able to produce prostaglandins
and sterols (this is just one of many functions of these FA). We know
that hormones are very important for reproduction in man and woman,
deficiency of material required to synthesize them will result in
inadequate or complete absence of the hormones. The result is
infertility. So, foods that are rich in essential fatty acids are good for our
health, examples of such foods are fish, poultry products, fruits,
vegetables, nuts (especially walnuts), legumes (especially soya beans),
beef etc. The symptoms of essential fatty acids deficiency are:
i. Growth retardation
ii. Poor wound healing
iii. Dermatitis and hair loss
iv. Kidney and liver diseases
v. Infertility
vi. Depression
The most noticeable symptoms of essential fatty acids deficiency are

skin disorders such as scaly dermatitis. It usually occur on the hands,
shoulders, forearms and face however it can show up on other parts of
the body. When essential fatty acids are included in the diets, these
symptoms disappear within 7 days.
3.3 General functions of lipids
i. They serve as efficient energy sources: Lipids provide energy

higher amount of energy for the body than carbohydrates and
protein.
ii. They are structural components of the cell membrane: Cell
membranes are made up of lipids such as phospholipids and
cholesterol that gives cell stability.
iii. They assist in digestion: Lipids dissolve fat soluble vitamins (Vit.
A, D, E, K) and therefore help in their digestion.
iv. They occur as free fatty acids in the plasma where they act as
transporter of various biological molecules, especially plasma
albumin.
iv. They serve as thermal insulators.
v. Lipids serve as precursors for hormones especially steroid
hormones.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Lipids are efficient energy sources for the body and also one of the
structural components of the plasma membrane. Deficiency of essential
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fatty acids which are a class of lipid in our body give rise to symptoms
like growth retardation, poor wound healing, dermatitis and hair loss etc.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about fatty acids, classification of lipids and
the symptoms of fatty acid deficiency.
1. List the classes of lipids and give 2 examples in each

2. Enumerate the biological functions of lipids
3. Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, give
two examples of each
4. Enumerate the symptoms of fatty acids deficiency

edition.


li
UNIT 5 CHEMISTRY OF NUCLEIC ACID
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Nucleic acids
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference/Further reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Nucleic acids are acidic compounds first discovered in the cell nucleus.
Later they were found in the cytoplasm. They are high molecular weight
nitrogenous organic compounds which play an important role in storage,
transmission and control of all the cellular activities. They are defined as
polynucleotides i.e. chain-like polymers of up to thousands of nucleotide
units. Each nucleotide is a molecular complex of nucleoside and
phosphoric acid.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
On the completion of this unit you will get to understand the chemical
components of nucleic acids, the structure of the DNA and RNA.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Nucleic acids
The term nucleic acid is the overall name for DNA i.e. deoxyribonucleic
acid and RNA i.e. ribonucleic acid. They are composed of nucleotides,
which are the monomers made of three components: a 5-carbon sugar, a
phosphate group and a nitrogenous base.
Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules in all living things
because it is the genetic material responsible for the transfer of genetic
information from one generation of organisms to another. The traits we
share with our parents are due to the genes inherited from them. This is
not limited to physical appearance, colour of skin, size of eye balls,
intelligence etc.
Nucleic acids are present in nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast in

plant. They are found in two basic structural forms, deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
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The structure of DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the principal informational
macromolecule of the cell which stores, translates and transfers the
genetic information. In prokaryotes, the DNA is found mostly in the
nuclear zone. In eukaryotes it is found in the nucleus, mitochondria and
chloroplast. The structure of the DNA is based on the discovery of
Watson and Creek in 1953.
Double helical structure of DNA as proposed by Watson and Crick

Model
The three dimensional structure of DNA as proposed by Watson and
Crick and the recent advances in it are summarized below:
1. DNA is made of two helical chains coiled around the same axis,
to form a right-handed double helix.
2. The two chains in the helix are anti-parallel to each other i.e. the
5‟-end of the polynucleotide chain and the 3‟-end of the other
polynucleotide chain is on the same side and close together.
3. The distance between each turn is 3.6 nm
4. There are 10 nucleotides per turn
5. The spatial relationship between the two strands creates major
and minor grooves between the two strands. In these grooves
some protein interact.
6. The hydrophilic backbones of alternating deoxyribose and
negatively charged phosphate groups are on the outside of the
double bond helix.
7. The hydrophobic pyrimidine and purine bases are inside the
double helix, which stabilizes the double helix of the DNA.
8. The double helix is also stabilized by inter-chain hydrogen bond
formed between a purine and pyrimidine base.
9. A particular purine base, pairs by hydrogen bonds, only with a
particular pyrimidine base i.e. Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine
(T) and Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine only.
10. Two hydrogen bonds pairs Adenine and Thymine (A = T)
whereas three hydrogen bonds pairs Guanine and Cytosine (G =
C).
11. The base pairs A = T and (G = C) are known as complementary
base pairs.
12. Due to the presence of complementary base pairing, the two
chains of the DNA double helix are complementary to each other.
Hence the number of „A‟ bases are equal to the number of „T‟
bases (or „G‟ is equal to „C‟) in a given double stranded DNA.
13. One of the strands in the double helix is known as sense strand
i.e. which codes for
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3.6 nm
Figure 2.8: Double helical structure of the DNA

Source: Amanullah (2011).
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Ribonucleic acid is a polymeric essential in various biological roles in
coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes.The building unit
of RNA is ribonucleotide. A ribonucleotide is made up of (1) ribose
sugar, (2) nitrogenous bases namely Adenine, Uracil, Guanine and
Cytosine (Note that uracil is present instead of thymine), (3) phosphoric
acid. Ribonucleotide contains “O” (i.e. oxygen) in the carbon 2‟ of the
ribose sugar. RNA is the primary structure unlike the DNA that is a
secondary structure.
There are three types of RNA functioning to express the genetic

information contained in the DNA. Thus these RNAs play important
role in protein synthesis. They are:
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA
Figure 2.9: Structure of ribose and deoxy-ribose in RNA

Source: Amanullah (2011).
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Differences between RNA and DNA
The differences between them are highlighted below:

DNA RNA
1. Uracil Absent Present
2. Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
3. Site Nucleus, mitochondria Nucleus, ribosome, cytosol,

but never in cytosol Nucleolus, mitochondria
4. Strands Two helical strands Single strand
5. --------- Carries genetic Only m-RNA carries
information genetic information
6. Number of Equal Not equal
Bases
7. Thymine Present Absent
4.0 CONCLUSION
The genetic information is stored in DNA or RNA (RNA viruses). The

message contained in the DNA, in the form of nucleotide bases encodes
the instructions or traits are transferred from parents to their offspring
when cell divides and also provide a template for the production of
identical DNA molecules when a cell divides.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the chemical components of nucleic
acid, structure of the DNA and RNA and the differences between them.
1. Describe the chemical components of nucleic acids.

2. Give an account of Watson and Crick description of the DNA.
3. Enumerate the differences between DNA and RNA

edition.

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V. W. and Well, P.A. (2012). Harper‟s Illustrated
th
Biochemistry (29 edition) McGraw-Hill Medical.

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MODULE 3 METABOLISM OF BIOMOLECULES
Unit 1 Metabolism of Carbohydrates

Unit 2 Krebs cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation
Unit 3 Metabolism of Proteins
Unit 4 Metabolism of Lipids
UNIT 1 METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Digestion of Carbohydrates
3.2 Absorption of Carbohydrates
3.3 Glycolysis
3.4 Clinical Conditions associated with Impaired Glycolysis
3.5 Fate of Pyruvate
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference/Further reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Carbohydrates comprises of the polysaccharides such as starch and

glycogen, the disaccharides (lactose, maltose, sucrose) and
monosaccharaides (like glucose, fructose etc). The complex
polysaccharides and disaccharides are converted into simple
monosaccharaides which are absorbed by the body. This unit gives the
details of the metabolism of carbohydrates.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
No objectives
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Digestion of Carbohydrates
Liquid food materials like milk, soup, fruit juice escape digestion in
mouth as they are swallowed, but solid foods are masticated thoroughly
before they are swallowed to undergo digestion.
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1. Digestion in Mouth
Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth, where they come in
contact with saliva during mastication. Saliva contains a carbohydrate
splitting enzyme called salivary amylase (ptyalin).
Action of ptyalin (salivary amylase)
It is α – amylase that requires chloride (Cl-) ion for activation and

optimum pH 6-7. The enzyme hydrolyzes α- (1, 4) glycosidic linkage
from molecules like starch, glycogen and dextrin, producing smaller
molecules such as maltose and glucose. Ptyalin action stops in stomach
when pH falls to 3.0. There is no digestion of carbohydrates in the
stomach as the enzymes for carbohydrate digestion are absent in the
gastric secretions.
2. Digestion in Intestine
Food from the stomach reaches the duodenum where it meets the
pancreatic juice. The pancreatic juice contains a carbohydrate-splitting
enzyme called pancreatic amylase.
a. Pancreatic amylase
It is also an α – amylase with an optimum pH 7.1. Like salivary ptyalin
pancreatic amylase also requires Cl- for its activity. The enzyme
hydrolyzes α-(1, 4) glycosidic linkage situated in the polysaccharide
molecules thereby liberating free glucose molecules. The pancreatic
amylase acts only on α –1, 4 glycosidic linkages, it cannot act on the α –
1,6 glycosidic linkages which are present at the branching points of
starch and glycogen. These undigested branching points are known as
isomaltose which are digested by an enzyme called isomaltase or α–
dextrinase.
The disaccharides are hydrolyzed by respective disaccharides which are

secreted by the intestinal mucosa. The disaccharide maltose is digested
by the enzyme maltase to yield two glucose units. Lactase splits the
disaccharide lactose into glucose and galactose. Sucrose is hydrolyzed
by sucrase or invertase into glucose and fructose.
Cellulase cannot be digested by human beings as the enzyme is absent,

yet cellulose is specifically included in the diet so as to increase the bulk
(fiber) of the food and thus help in the mobility of the food through the
gastrointestinal tract. The end products of carbohydrate digestion are
glucose, fructose, mannose, ribose etc. some of the sugars are converted
into glucose before absorption.
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3.2 Absorption of carbohydrates
The monosaccharides are absorbed in the small intestine by three

mechanisms- (1) Simple diffusion (2) Active transport and (3)
Facilitated transport.
1. Simple diffusion: As the digestion proceeds, the concentration of

glucose in the intestinal lumen increases more than the blood
glucose level. This results in an osmotic difference between the
two, due to which glucose simply diffuses downhill from a region
of higher concentration of glucose (lumen) to the region of lower
concentration of glucose (blood).
2. Active transport: Simple diffusion continues till the
concentration of glucose in the lumen equals to that of the blood,
then glucose is transported by active transport. Here glucose
binds to a carrier protein situated in the outer membrane of the
intestinal wall. This carrier protein also binds two sodium (Na+)
ions. When both glucose and Na+ are bound to the carrier protein
it moves into the cell and releases glucose and Na+ into the
cytoplasm of the cell, from where glucose simply diffuses into
the blood. To continue the active process Na+ must be expelled
out of the cell, so as to maintain a low concentration of Na+
inside the cell, when compared to the lumen. Hence Na+ is
expelled out of the cell into the blood plasma, in exchange of K+
through a Na+, K+ ATPase pump, which hydrolyses ATP for
exchanging Na+ with K+. As this overall process requires energy
it is known as active transport. So, during active transport,
glucose moves against concentration gradient. Galactose is also
absorbed from the intestine in a similar manner as that of glucose
active transport.
3. Facilitated transport: Fructose is transported by a carrier
protein which does not require energy (ATP). Hence it is known
as facilitated transport.
3.3 Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose or glycogen to pyruvate or

lactate. The glycolytic pathway is also called Embden Meyerhoff
pathway. It occurs virtually in all tissues. Erythrocytes and nervous
tissues derive their energy mainly form glycolysis. This pathway is
unique in the sense that it can utilize O2 if available („aerobic‟) and it
can function in absence of O2 also („anaerobic‟). Enzymes involved in
glycolysis are present in cytoplasm.
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Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Figure 3.1: Glycolytic pathway

Aerobic phase of glycolysis

Aerobic phase of glycolysis involves the conversion of glucose to
pyruvate.
Anaerobic phase of glycolysis

This is the phase where glucose is converted to lactate.
Reactions of glycolytic pathway

The various reactions are described divided in three stages as shown in
Figure 3.1.
Stage 1
1. Phosphorylation of glucose
Glucose is phosphorylated to form glucose – 6- Phosphate. The reaction
is catalyzed by the specific enzyme glucokinase in liver cells and by
nonspecific hexokinase in the other cells.
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ATP acts as the phosphate (PO4) donor in the presence of Mg. One high
energy PO4 bond is utilized and ADP is produced. The reaction is
accompanied by considerable loss of free energy as heat.
2. Conversion of G-6-phosphate to Fructose-6-phosphate

Glucose-6-phosphate after formation is converted to fructose-6-P by
phospho-hexose isomerase.
3. Conversion of Fructose-6-phosphate to Fructose 1, 6-

disphosphate
Fructose-6-P is phosphorylated with ATP to form fructose 1, 6-
disphosphate catalyzed by the enzyme phosphofructokinase.
Note:
Reaction one is irreversible.
One ATP is utilized for phosphorylation of glucose at position 6.
Phosphofructokinase is the key enzyme in glycolysis that regulates the
pathway.
Stage 2
This stage involves the cleavage of fructose 1,6-diphosphate into two
three-carbon fragments which are glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and a
dihydroxyacetone phosphate catalyzed by aldolase. These resulting three
carbon units are readily interconvertible and are catalyzed by
phosphotriose isomerase.
Note
The reaction is reversible.
There is neither expenditure of energy nor formation ATP.
Stage 3
In this stage, ATP is harvested when the three carbon-fragments are
oxidized to pyruvate. This is an energy-yielding reaction. It consists of
the following reactions:
(1). Oxidation of Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to 1,3-

disphosphoglycerate catalyzed by Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
dehydrogenase.
(2). 1,3- diphosphoglycerate which is the end- product of the previous

stage, still retains the PO4 group originally derived from ATP in
stage 1 and is converted to 3-phosphoglycerate by the enzyme
phosphoglycerate kinase which is activated by magnesium ion
(Mg2+).
lxi
(3). 3-Phosphoglycerate formed in the above reaction is converted to

2-phosphoglycerate, catalyzed by the enzyme phosphoglycerate
mutase.
(4). 2-phosphoglycerate is converted to phospoenol pyruvate in a

reaction catalyzed by the enzyme enolase which requires the
presence of either Mg2+ or Mn2+.
(5). Phosphoenol pyruvate is converted to „Enol‟ pyruvate. The

reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme pyruvate kinase. The high
energy phosphate (PO4) of phosphoenol pyruvate is directly
transferred to ADP producing ATP.
In the absence of oxygen (anaerobic condition), pyruvate is converted to

lactic acid by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase.
Significance of glycolysis
1. It is the main route of glucose metabolism.
2. It occurs in all cells of the body.
3. The glycolytic pathway is meant for provision of energy
4. Brain and red blood cells (RBCs) depends only on glucose for
oxidation and production of oxygen
5. In the brain aerobic glycolysis occurs whereas in the RBC, there
is always anaerobic glycolysis due to the absence of the
mitochondria.
6. The initiation of glycolysis is regulated by the ATP concentration
in the cytoplasm.
7. In skeletal muscle, aerobic glycolysis occurs in normal conditions
but during vigorous muscular contraction, anaerobic glycolysis is
the major pathway for energy production as glycolysis provides
ATP. In absence of oxygen, muscles can survive under anaerobic
condition.
3.4 Clinical conditions associated with impaired glycolysis
Lactic acidosis
It occurs as a result of overproduction of lactate, underutilization of
lactate or inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase. It may also be as a
result of rare congenital disorders where the mitochondria do not
function at full capacity or diabetic ketoacidosis as well as liver/kidney
disease. It is characterized by Lactate levels > 5 mm/L and serum pH <
7.35.
Symptoms: Nausea, Vomiting, Hyperventilation, Irregular heart rate.

Pyruvate kinase deficiency
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The deficiency of pyruvate kinase causes a rare genetic defect of

glycolysis which results in hemolytic anemia. In this condition
glycolytic intermediates accumulate, whereas pyruvate and lactate
concentrations decrease.
3.5 Fate of pyruvate
Pyruvate is an important regulatory point for energy production. The

ultimate fate of pyruvate depends on the energy state of the cell and the
degree of oxidative phosphorylation taking place. When the energy state
of the cell is low (low ADP, low ATP), pyruvate enters the TCA Cycle
(Tricarboxylic cycle) as acetyl CoA via the pyruvate dehydrogenase
complex and oxidized completely to carbon dioxide and water to yield
energy. The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is one of the most
complex proteins in the body and consists of more than 60 subunits.
Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is a multi-enzyme complex made up

of three enzymes which are (1). Pyruvate dehydrogenase (2).
Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase and (3) Dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase. This
reaction requires five coenzymes which are (i) Thiamine pyrophosphate
(ii) Lipoic acid (iii) Coenzyme A (iv) Flavin adenine dinucleotide
(FAD) and (v) Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)
4.0 CONCLUSION
Complex carbohydrates (starch) are broken down during digestion into

monosaccharaides unit such as glucose and fructose. Glucose is finally
oxidized into pyruvate in an aerobic condition or lactate in anaerobic
condition both producing different amount of energy in the form of
ATP.
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5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt about the digestion and absorption of
carbohydrates, reactions of glycolytic pathway and the significance of
the pathway.
1. Explain the process of carbohydrate digestion

2. Explain the concept of aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis
3. Enumerate the different reactions which make up the pathway
and the enzymes which catalyze these reactions
4. Enumerate the significance of the glycolytic pathway
5. State the clinical conditions associated with impaired glycolysis

edition.

th

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UNIT 2 KREBS CYCLE AND OXIDATIVE

PHOSPHORYLATION
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Description of TCA Cycle
3.2 Amphibolic Nature of TCA Cycle
3.3 Anaplerotic Nature of TCA Cycle
3.4 Summary of oxidative phosphorylation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Krebs cycle also known as tricarboxylic cycle or the critic acid
cycle is named after the scientist Sir Hans Krebs (1900-1981) who
discovered it. He proposed the key elements of this pathway in 1937 and
was awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine for the discovery in 1953.
Krebs cycle is a set of continuous reactions (8 steps) occurring in a
cyclic manner in the mitochondrial matrix in eukaryotes and within the
cytoplasm in prokaryotes. Acetyl CoA, the fuel of TCA cycle, enters the
cycle inside the mitochondrial matrix, and gets oxidized to carbon (IV)
oxide (CO2) and H2O while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH
and FAD to FADH2. The NADH and FADH2 can be used by the
electron transport chain to create ATP.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should understand the TCA cycle,
amphibolic and anaplerotic nature of TCA cycle, oxidative
phosphorylation and inhibitors of the electron transport chain.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Description of Krebs cycle
In eukaryotes, Krebs cycle takes place in the mitochondria because all

the enzymes of the cycle are located inside the mitochondria matrix. The
TCA cycle is an important source of precursors or building blocks for
the synthesis of molecules such as amino acids, purine bases, cholesterol
and porphyrins. The following describes the various steps in TCA cycle.
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Step 1
Condensation: In step 1, the two-carbon compound, acetyl CoA
participates in a condensation reaction with the four-carbon compound,
oxaloacetate to produce citrate, a six-carbon compound catalyzed by
the enzyme citrate synthase. This is the first stable TCA in the cycle
and hence the name TCA cycle.
Step 2
Isomerization of citrate: Step 2 involves moving the hydroxyl group in
the citrate molecule so that it can later form α-keto acid. This process
involves a sequential dehydration and hydration reaction, to form the D-
isocitrate isomer (with the hydroxyl group now in the desired α-
location), with cis-aconitase as the intermediate. A single enzyme,
aconitase performs this two-step process.
Step 3
Generation of CO2 and NAD+ linked enzyme: Oxidative
decarboxylation takes place in the next reaction. The reaction is
catalyzed by the enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase. The reaction
involves dehydrogenation to oxalosuccinate, an unstable intermediate
which spontaneously decarboxylates to give α-ketoglutarate. In
addition to decarboxylation, this step produces a reduced nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADH) cofactor.
Step 4
A second oxidative decarboxylation step: This step is performed by a
multi-enzyme complex, the α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenation
complex. The multi-step reaction performed by the α-ketoglutarate
dehydrogenation complex is analogous to the pyruvate dehydrogenase
complex, i.e. an α-keto acid undergoes oxidative decarboxylation with
formation of an acetyl CoA i.e. succinyl CoA.
Step 5
Substrate level phosphorylation: Succinyl CoA is a high potential
energy molecule. The energy stored in this molecule is used to form a
high energy phosphate bond in a guanine nucleotide diphosphate (GDP)
molecule. Most of the GTP (Guanine triphosphate) formed is used in the
formation of ATP, by the action of nucleoside diphosphate.
Step 6
Flavin dependent dehydrogenation: The succinate produced by
succinyl CoA-synthetase in the prior reaction needs to be converted to
oxaloacetate to complete the Krebs cycle. The first step in the
conversion is the dehydrogenation of succinate to yield fumarate
facilitated by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase. FAD is covalently
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bound to the enzyme (via a histidine residue) which is converted to

FADH2 that is oxidized through the ETC producing 2 ATPs.
Step 7
Hydration of a carbon-carbon double bond: Fumarate undergoes a
stereo-specific hydration of the C=C double bond, catalyzed by
fumarate hydratase also known as (fumarase) to produce L-malate.
Step 8
Dehydrogenation reaction that will generate oxaloacetate: L-malate
(malate) is dehydrogenated to produce oxaloacetate by the enzyme
malate dehydrogenase during which one molecule of NAD+ is
converted to NADH + H+. The formation of oxaloacetate completes the
Krebs cycle.
Figure 3.2: The TCA cycle showing the enzymes and the
intermediates
Source: Murray et al. (2012).
Number of ATP’s produced in one Krebs cycle

The TCA cycle produces 3 NADH + H+ and one FADH2, known as the
reducing equivalents. These reducing equivalents are oxidized through
the electron transport chain (ETC). When NADH is oxidized through
ETC it produces 3 ATPs while oxidation of FADH2 produces 2 ATPs.
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Calculation of ATPs produced in each round of citric acid cycle
Enzyme Equivalent No. of ATPs The step in

involved produced produced TCA
Isocitrate NADH 3 Step 3
dehydrogenase
α-ketogluterate NADH 3 Step 4
dehydrogenase
Succinate GTP 1 Step 5
thiokinase
Succinate FADH2 2 Step 6
dehydrogenase
Malate NADH 3 Step 8
dehydrogenase
Total ATP produced 12 ATPs
3.2 Amphibolic role of TCA cycle
TCA cycle is the common pathway for the oxidation of carbohydrates,

fats and proteins (catabolic role). The anabolic role is synthesis of
various carbohydrates, amino acids and fats. As its takes part both in
anabolism (synthesis of large organic molecules from smaller organic
molecules which involves the utilization of energy) and catabolism
(breakdown of larger organic molecules to smaller organic molecules
accompanied with the release of energy), it is said to be amphibolic
pathway of metabolism.
3.3 The Anaplerotic nature of the TCA Cycle
Anaplerosis is the replacement of the depleted intermediates of TCA

cycle. As the TCA cycle takes part in the anabolic reactions, the
intermediates of TCA cycle are utilized for the synthesis of various
compounds. This results in the deficiency of one or more of the TCA
cycle intermediates. In order to continue the TCA cycle, those
intermediates which are deficient must be filled up by some other
process and this process is known as anaplerosis. For example
oxaloacetate is utilized for the synthesis of the amino acid aspartic acid
and oxaloacetate is replaced via anaplerosis by carboxylation of
pyruvate to oxaloacetate by the enzyme pyruvate carboxykinase as
shown below.
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3.4 Summary of oxidative phosphorylation
The reduced coenzymes (NADH) and FADH2 from the TCA cycle are
themselves oxidized when they released their protons and electrons. The
electrons are transferred to oxygen, which is the final electron acceptor
through a complex chain of electron-carrying molecules known as the
electron transport chain. During the electron transferring process, large
amount of energy is released and it is conserved in the form of ATP.
This process is called oxidative phosphorylation as shown below.
ADP + Pi ATP
Inhibitors of electron transport chain

Compounds capable of inhibiting the electron transport chain include
Amytal (a barbiturate drug), rotenone (a plant product commonly used
as an insecticide), piericidin A, oligomycin etc.
Piericidin A and oligomycin (antibiotics) block the electron flow

through the respiratory chain and thereby shut down energy production
in their respective targets.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The Krebs cycle is the cycle that takes place in the mitochondrial matrix
of cells and it is responsible for the complete oxidation of acetyl CoA to
carbon (iv) oxide and water.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the TCA cycle reactions, amphibolic
nature of the TCA cycle, anaplerotic nature of the TCA cycle, oxidative
phosphorylation and inhibitors of the electron transport chain.
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1. Describe the reactions of TCA cycle in detail

2. Explain the amphibolic nature of the TCA cycle
3. Explain the anaplerotic nature of the TCA cycle
4. Give a summary account of oxidative phosphorylation
5. List two examples of inhibitors of electron transport chain.

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UNIT 3 AMINO ACIDS METABOLISM
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Digestion and Absorption of Protein
3.2 Catabolism of amino acids
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Amino acids are produced from the breakdown of proteins catalyzed by

enzymes called proteolytic enzymes. Unlike the digestion of
carbohydrates which begins in the month, the digestion of protein starts
in the stomach this is because proteolytic enzymes that degrade proteins
are absent in the salivary secretions.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
On completion of this unit, you should have an understanding of the

digestion and absorption of proteins, catabolism of amino acids and the
reactions of urea cycle.
3. 0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Digestion and absorption of protein
The entry of proteins into the stomach stimulates the gastric mucosa to
secrete a hormone gastrin which in turn stimulates the secretion of HCl
by the parietal cells of the gastric glands and pepsinogen by the chief
cells.
The HCl thus produced lower the pH of stomach to (pH 1.5 – 2.5) and
acts as an antiseptic killing most of the bacteria and other foreign cells
ingested along with food. The acid also denatures the protein by making
them susceptible to hydrolysis by the action other proteolytic enzymes
called proteases.
Proteases are endopeptidases (a group of enzymes) that attack the

internal bonds of proteins and liberate large fragments of peptides. Then
pepsinogen, a zymogen (inactive form of an enzyme) is converted into
active pepsin which cleaves the ingested protein at their amino terminus
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of aromatic amino acids (Phe, Tyr, and Trp.) to produce large peptide
fragments and some free amino acids.
Pancreatic Digestion
As the food passes from the stomach to small intestine the low pH of the
food triggers the secretion of the hormone „secretin‟ into the blood. It
stimulates the pancreas to secrets bicarbonate HCO3 into the small
intestine in order to neutralize HCl. The secretion of HCO3 into the
intestine abruptly raises the pH from 2.5 to 7.0 the entry of amino acids
into the duodenum releases the hormone „cholecystokinin‟ which
triggers the release of pancreatic juice (that contains many pancreatic
enzymes like trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidases) by
the exocrine cells of the pancreas. Most of these enzymes are produced
as zymogens (inactive enzymes) by the pancreas in order to protect the
exocrine cells from being digested.
Subsequent to the entry of trypsinogen into the small intestine it is

activated to trypsin by enterokinase secreted in the intestinal cells.
Chymotrypsin is secreted in an inactive form called chemotrypsinogen
which is activated by trypsin. Carboxypeptidase secreted as
procarboxypeptidase is activated again by trypsin. Also aminopeptidase
secreted as inactive proaminopeptidase is once again activated by
trypsin. It is an exopeptidase that cleaves the amino acids from the free
amino terminal end.
Dipeptidase acts only on dipeptides and hydrolyzes it into 2 amino
acids.
3.2 Catabolism of amino acids
Amino acids are degradation in two steps: Removal of the α-amino

group and conversion of the carbon chain to an intermediate of lipid and
carbohydrate metabolism.
Removal of the α-amino group (Nitrogen)

Removal of the amino group from amino acids is accomplished by
variety of processes such as transamination, oxidative and non-oxidative
deamination.
Transamination
Transamination is the transfer of amino group from an amino acid to an
α-keto acid or other amino acids.
Alanine + α-Ketoglutarate Pyruvate +

Glutamate
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Oxaloacetate + Glutamate Aspartate + α-

ketoglutarate (Urea cycle)
This reaction is catalyzed by aminotransferases that are dependent on

the cofactor pyridoxal phosphate, a derivative of vitamin B6. The
importance of transamination reaction is to collect the amino groups
from different amino acid in the form of L-glutamate. The glutamate
molecules channel amino groups either into biosynthetic pathway or into
sequence of reactions to form nitrogenous compounds. Therefore,
transamination reactions are particularly important in the eventual
removal of the amino group from amino acids.
The oxidative deamination reaction is catalyzed by glutamate

dehydrogenase. This is the major reaction in mammal cells through
which ammonia is synthesized. α-ketoglutarate acts as a sink for amino
groups by accepting amino groups from various amino acids, with the
resultant formation of glutamate. In mammals, all α- amino acids can
undergo transamination, except lysine and threonine. The glutamate
dehydrogenase (GDH) in animal tissues occurs in the inner matrix of
mitochondria and will utilize NAD+ or NADP+. GDH system use NAD
or NADP but not both. The coupling of transamination and deamination
reactions, catalyzed by glutamic acid dehydrogenase account for most of
the ammonia production in animals. The combined action of amino
transferase and glutamate dehydrogenase is referred to as trans
deamination and provide a common route for removing and producing
nitrogen.
Nitrogen excretion and the Urea cycle:

Excess amino Nitrogen from amino acids is removed as ammonia,
which is toxic to the human body. Some ammonia is excreted in urine,
but nearly 90% of it is utilized by the liver to form urea, which is highly
soluble and is passed in to circulation for being excreted by the kidneys.
Daily excretion of urea amounts to about 30 g with a protein intake of
nearly 100 g in the food. It is less with lower protein intake. The urea-
cycle starts in the mitochondrial matrix of hepatocytes and few of the
steps occur in the cytosol: the cycle spans two cellular compartments.
The first amino group to enter the cycle is derived from ammonia inside
the mitochondria. Some ammonia also arrives at the liver via the portal
vein from the intestine, when it is produced by bacterial oxidation of
amino acids.
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Figure 3.3: Urea cycle

The reactions of urea cycle are described below:

Step 1 CO2 from bicarbonate and NH4 combine together in the liver
mitochondria to form carbamoyl phosphate in presence of ATP and
Mg2+ by the enzyme Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I (CPSI).
Step 2 Carbamoyl phosphate reacts with ornithine transferring the

carbamoyl moiety to produce citrulline catalyzed by the enzyme
ornithine transcarbomylase
Step 3 Argininosuccinic acid is formed by the reaction of Aspartic acid

and citrulline: the NH2 group of the argininosuccinic acid is linked to –
CO group of the aspartic acid. The enzyme that catalyzed the reaction is
argininosuccinic acid synthase.
Step 4 Argininosuccinic acid is cleaved to form Arginine and fumarate

by the enzyme arginiosuccinate lyase. Fumarate goes to the pool of
TCA-cycle.
Step 5. Arginine gets cleared off to urea and ornithine by the cytosolic
enzyme arginase. Ornithine is thus re-generated and can be transported
in to the mitochondrion to initiate another round of the urea - cycle.
Energetics of the urea cycle

The synthesis of one molecule of urea require four high energy
phosphate groups
1. 2 ATPs used up to make up carbamoyl Phosphate
2. 1 ATP and two High- energy bonds to make up Arginosuccinate.
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4.0 CONCLUSION
Amino acids are degraded by transamination and deamination processes.

Transamination of amino acid is catalyzed by transaminases while
oxidative deamination is catalyzed by glutamate dehydrogenase and
produces ammonia which is toxic to the human body. The toxic
ammonia are eliminated from the body as urea via the urea cycle which
occurs in the liver and for each molecule of urea produced in the urea
cycle, four ATP is required.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt about the digestion and absorption of
proteins and the catabolism of amino acids and the urea cycle.
Discuss:
1. Digestion and absorption of proteins
2. Catabolism of amino acids
3. Reactions of the urea cycle

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UNIT 4 LIPID METABOLISM
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
3.2 β-Oxidation of Fatty Acids
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Salivary juice produces a lipid hydrolyzing enzyme, especially in infants

and children, known as lingual lipase. Lipids are not digested in the
mouth, though lingual lipase is present because the high pH of the
mouth does not favour the action of lingual lipase and also because the
food remains here for a short period of time.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit you will learn about digestion and absorption of lipids and β-
oxidation of fatty acids.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Digestion of lipids in the stomach

As soon as the lipids enter the stomach, they get liquefied due to heat of
the stomach. The lipids get emulsified due to the peristaltic movements
of the stomach. The gastric juice contains gastric lipase, which is
inactive at low pH of the stomach, whereas lingual lipase is active at his
pH and it hydrolysis triacylglycerols of short chain fatty acids (which
are generally found in milk, so digestion in the stomach is seen only in
children). The released fatty acids are absorbed via the stomach wall and
enter the portal vein. The TAG with longer chain fatty acids dissolve
and form fat droplets and finally enter the intestine.
Digestion of lipids in the intestine

In the intestine, the bile salts (sodium glycocholate and sodium
taurocholate) and bile acids (cholic acid, chenodeoxycholic acid and
cholesterol) help in emulsifying fats thereby making them susceptible to
the digestive enzymes. The presence secretions in the intestine contain
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pancreatic lipase which along with the help of a protein called co-lipase
and lecithin acts on TAG at the water-oil interface.
Phospholipids are hydrolyzed by phospholipase A, B, C and cholesterol

is hydrolyzed by cholesterol esterase. The end products of fat digestion
are (1) monoacylglycerols (2) diacylglycerols (3) triacylglycerols (4)
free fatty acids (5) glycerol.
Digestion of lipids takes place for a longer duration of time. Until and
unless digestion of fats has not taken place, other food materials
(carbohydrates and proteins) cannot be digested because of fats will
cover the food and prevent enzymes reaching the food (hence take a
fatty meal while going on a long journey). The digested lipids enter the
intestinal epithelium by diffusion or by a process called pinocytosis. In
the intestinal wall the free fatty acids and glycerol re-aggregate to form
TAG i.e. here re-synthesis of lipids). These lipids surround a little
amount of protein around them to form chylomicrons which enters into
systemic circulation. The chylomicrons of the circulation move, towards
the adipose tissue, heart, kidney, liver and skeletal muscle. The capillary
walls of these tissues contain an enzyme called lipoprotein lipase which
hydrolyzes the lipids of the chylomicrons and help in their entry into
respective tissue. The lipids are stored as triacylglycerols mainly in the
adipose tissue.
3.2 Beta oxidation (β-oxidation) of Fatty Acids
Oxidation of the fatty acids at the β-carbon atom to a carboxylic group is

known as β-oxidation. It takes place in the matrix of mitochondria.
The steps involved in the β-oxidation of fatty acids as presented in
Figure 3.4 are summarized below:
1. Activation of fatty acids: The fatty acids are activated in the

cytosol of the cell wherein the enzyme fatty acyl CoA synthase
condenses the fatty acids with coenzyme. A esterification which
frequires two high energy bonds.
2. Formation of α-β unsaturated acyl-CoA (Enoyl-CoA): The fatty

acyl-CoA undergoes dehydrogenation at the α and β-carbon
atoms forming trans α-β unsaturated acyl-CoA.
3. Formation of β-hydroxy acyl-CoA: Enoyl-CoA is then hydrated

by the enzyme crotonase (Enoyl-CoA hydratase) which adds
water across the double bond. The product formed is β-hydroxy
acyl-CoA.
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4. Formation of β-keto acyl-CoA: β-hydroxy acyl-CoA undergoes

another dehydrogenation to form β-keto acyl-CoA catalyzed by
the enzyme β-hydroxy acyl-CoA.
5. Thiolytic cleavage of keto acyl-CoA: β-keto acyl-CoA is then

cleaved between the α and β-carbon atom releasing an acetyl
CoA and a fatty acyl-CoA catalyzed by the enzyme β-keto
thiolase.
Figure 3.4: β-oxidation of fatty acids

Source: Nelson and Cox (2009)
4.0 CONCLUSION
Digestion of lipids begins in the stomach and is acted upon by group of

enzymes called lipase which hydrolyze the lipids into triacylglycerol,
free fatty acids and glycerol.
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5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about been the digestion and absorption of
lipids, metabolism of fatty acids and triacylglycerol and β-oxidation of
fatty acids.
1. Discuss the digestion and absorption of lipids

2. Discuss β-oxidation of fatty acids

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MODULE 4 MICRONUTRIENTS (VITAMINS AND

MINERALS) AND DETOXIFICATION
Unit 1 Water Soluble Vitamins

Unit 2 Trace Elements
Unit 3 Detoxification
UNIT 1 WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Water Soluble Vitamins
3.2 Fat Soluble Vitamins
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Vitamins organic compounds which cannot be synthesized in the human

body and so must be provided in the diet. They are essential for the
normal processes of metabolism, including growth and maintenance of
health. It is known that the body is able to produce part or even all of its
requirements for some of the vitamins. Examples of vitamins such are
Vitamin D from cholesterol and Niacin (Vit. B3) from tryptophan.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
On completion of this unit you should have an understanding of what

vitamins are as micronutrients, classes of vitamins and their functions,
symptoms associated with deficiency of vitamins.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Water Soluble Vitamins
The water soluble vitamins are the Vitamin B complex and Vitamin C.
Vitamin B and C share few common properties besides their solubility
characteristics. Since they are water soluble excess can be excreted
through urine. Most of the water soluble vitamins act as coenzymes.
lxxx
The B- Vitamins are essential and must be provided through diet and
they include Thiamine (Vit B1), Riboflavin (Vit B2), Vit B3 Niacin
(Nicotinic acid (or Nicotinamide), Pantothenic acid (Vit B5), Vit B6
(Pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and Pyridoxamine), Vit B9 (Folic Acid), Vit B12
(Cobalamine).
Thiamine (vitamin B1)

Thiamine is Vitamin B1. Addition of a pyrophosphate to thiamine (from
ATP) converts it to thiamine pyrophosphate, a molecule that is the
coenzyme for all decarboxylation of keto acids.
Sources: The good sources of thamine are seeds, nuts, wheat,

leguminous plants (rich source) and lean meat.
Required daily allowance (RDA): Minimum requirement is 1.0 mg for

adults, 0.4-1.3 mg for infants and children. Requirement increases in
conditions of anoxia-shock, hemorrhage, injury, illness, fever and
hyperthyroidism.
Deficiency causes Beriberi and related deficiency syndromes. It is

mainly caused by carbohydrate rich diets. In such individuals TPP
dependent reactions are prevented, leading to accumulation of substrates
like pyruvate, pentose sugars etc.
Wernicke Korsakoff syndrome which is frequently found in Alcoholics

is associated with thiamin deficiency.
Symptoms
Symptoms include Peripheral neuropathy, exhaustion and anorexia. The
signs may progress to edema and cardiovascular disorders, neurological
and muscular degeneration.
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)

Riboflavin, also known as vitamin B2, is a component of the flavin
coenzymes, FAD (Flavin adenine dinucleotide and FMN (Flavin
monophosphate nucleotide) thereby acting as a co-factor.
Source: meats, nuts, legumes, milk, fish, egg etc.
Required daily allowance (RDA): 1.5-2.5 mg for adults, infants 0.6

mg, children 1.0-1.8 mg
Deficiency: Lack of riboflavin in the diet causes non-fatal syndrome of

inflammation of the corner of mouth (angular stomatitis), painful
glossitis of tongue (Purple) and scaly dermatitis.
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Niacin (Vitamin B3)

Niacin can be synthesized from tryptophan. However, conversion of
tryptophan to niacin is relatively inefficient (60 mg of tryptophan is
required to produce 1 mg of Niacin) and occurs only after all the body
requirements for tryptophan is met. Thus most people require dietary
sources of both tryptophan and niacin.
Source: Milk, lean meat, unrefined grains, cereals and from metabolism
of tryptophan.
Required daily allowance (RDA): Adults 17-21 mg, infants 6 mg. The
requirement increases with increased intake of calories, illness, severe
injury, infection, burns, high corn (maize) diet, pregnancy and lactation.
Deficiency
Deficiency leads to failure of growth, loss of weight and anemia.
Pellagra, a disease involving gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and CNS
(central nervous system) also develops.
Symptoms
The disease is characterized by intense irritation and inflammation of the
mucous membranes of the mouth and other parts of the GIT, leading to
gastrointestinal hemorrhage, dermatitis, dementia and diarrhea. Skin
lesion develops when exposed to sunlight, becomes red, thickened and
scaly. The patient develops gingivitis and stomatitis (tongue gets
swollen)
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
This vitamin exists in three forms: Pyridoxine, Pyridoxal and
pyridoxamine and their corresponding phosphates.
Sources: Wheat, corn, egg yolk, liver and muscle meat
RDA: 1.4-2.2 mg for adults, children 0.3-0.4 mg. Patients with anti-
tubercular treatment needs more Vitamin B6.
Deficiency
The deficiency is usually not common, but may result due to intake of
drugs like contraceptives. Alcoholics also suffer from such deficiency.
Oral contraceptives stimulate the synthesis of the enzyme which requires
this vitamin, thus causing deficiency.
Biotin
Biotin is a vitamin and a coenzyme commonly associated with enzymes
performing carboxylation reactions. Biotin is typically linked covalently
to carboxylase enzymes through the α-amino nitrogen of lysine.
lxxxii
Source: Intestinal bacteria, liver, egg, peanuts and milk.
RDA: 100-200 μg/day. Requirement increase in pregnancy and

lactation. Patients on oral antibiotics for a long period of time require
more of this vitamin.
Deficiency
The deficiency is rare since it is found in almost all food stuffs. But
large consumption of raw egg white may lead to deficiency of Biotin.
Avidin, a glycoprotein in egg white binds tightly to biotin and makes it
unavailable for the necessary carboxylation reactions.
Symptoms
Dermatitis, glossitis, Muscle pain, depression, alopecia (loss of hair),
loss of appetite and nausea.
Vit B12 (Cobalamin)

The metal cobalt in vitamin B12 is coordinated with a tetrapyrrole ring
system, called a corrin ring similar to the porphyrin ring of heme
compounds. The cyanide attached to the cobalt in the structure is an
artifact of the isolation and is replaced by water or a hyrdoxyl group in
cells. The presence of cobalt and amide nitrogens gives B12 compounds
the name cobamides or cobalamins.
Source: Synthesized by microorganisms
RDA: 3 mg/day.
Deficiency
Deficiency of vitamin B12 causes Anemia (a condition where there is
low level of red blood cells in the body).
Folic Acid (Vitamin B9)

The active form of folic acid is Tetra hydro folate (THF). Chemically,
folic acid is formed from three distinct moieties: (1) a bicyclic,
heterocyclic pteridine ring, (2) 6-methylpterin (p-aminobenzoic acid,
PABA) (3) glutamic acid.
Source: The vitamin is abundant in leafy green vegetables such as

spinach, so is named folic acid, from the same root as foliage, whole
grain cereals and Liver.
RDA: 100 μg/day. (The RDA during lactation and pregnancy is 500 –
800 μg/day)
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Deficiency
The causes of folate deficiency are inadequate intake, impaired
absorption, increased demand during pregnancy, lactation and impaired
metabolism that leads to megaloblastic anemia. In this condition
production of erythrocytes slows down, macrocytic erythrocytes with
fragile membrane are formed. Inadequate folate levels during the early
stages of pregnancy increases the risk of neural tube defects (a type of
birth defect) and spontaneous abortions.
Folate deficiency is common in alcoholics and in people who are on

drugs like anti convulsions and oral contraceptives.
Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B5) Coenzyme A

Pantothenic acid is a vitamin that forms an essential part of the acyl-
carrier moiety known as coenzyme A. Coenzyme A (A for acyl)
participates in the activation of all acyl groups in including the acetyl
group derived from pyruvate. The coenzyme is derived metabolically
from ATP, the vitamin pantothenic acid, and mercaptoethylamine.
Sources: Eggs, liver, animal tissue, whole grain cereals, yeast and
legumes
RDA: 4-7 mg/day
Deficiency
The deficiency is rare due to its wide distribution however the burning
foot syndrome in prisoners which is associated with reduced capacity for
acetylation is ascribed to pantothenic acid deficiency.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)

Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin and can act as an antioxidant (i.e.
fight/prevent against the oxidation of free radicals that causes cell.
Tissue and DNA damage in the body).
In general hydroxylation reactions require Vit C. Example:
Hydroxylation of cholesterol.
Functions
Vitamin C plays a major role in collagen biosynthesis, degradation of
tyrosine, absorption of iron, formation of steroids (Steroidogenesis),
adrenaline synthesis, bile acid formation, bone mineral metabolism and
acts as potent antioxidant.
White blood cells (WBC) are rich in vit C and play an important role in
immunity.
Source: Citrus fruits, potato, tomato and green vegetables
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RDA: 60 mg/day
Deficiency
Deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy.
Symptoms
A symptom of extreme vitamin C deficiency called scurvy is the
weakening of collagen fibers caused by the failure to hydroxylate
proline and lysine.
Fat soluble Vitamins

Fat soluble vitamins are vitamins that are not readily absorbed into the
body from diet. The fats soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E and K.
Ample reserves of fat soluble vitamins are stored in the tissues as they
are not readily absorbed from the food with the exception of Vit. K. Fat
soluble vitamins do not serve as coenzymes.
Vitamin A
The vitamin is present in the diet as retinol or as β-carotene some of
which is hydrolyzed in the intestine to form retinol. It is a generic term
for a collection of three forms of Vitamins, retinol, retinal and retinoic
acid (Retinoids) all of which are derived from animal and plant sources.
The vitamin is stored mainly in the liver.
Source: A rich source is liver, egg yolk, butter and milk but leafy
vegetables and some fruits provide the largest amount of β-carotene,
Functions
β-carotene plays as an antioxidant role and prevents the development of
diseases like cancer and cardiovascular disease.
Deficiency
Effects on eye
Vitamin A affects growth and differentiation of epithelial cells of the
leading to defective epitheliazation, (a condition affecting the cornea of
the eye). It causes formation of abnormal keratin (keratinization) in the
mucosal cells or cornea of the eye.
Effect on skin
The deficiency causes dryness and roughness of skin developing
keratosis of hair follicles with concomitant deficiency of Vit-B complex.
Effect on bone and teeth

Bone growth is markedly impaired. Osteoclastic activity is also
hampered, causing defective bone formation.
lxxxv
Vitamin D
Vitamin D is the only vitamin that is usually not required in the diet, for
this reason it is rather assumed to function as a hormone.
Sources
Sunlight, Fish oils, egg yolk are naturally rich sources of Vit D.
Functions
i. It promotes bone mineralization.
ii. It promotes absorption of calcium, phosphates.
iii. It enhances the reabsorption of calcium and phosphate by the
kidney.
Deficiency
Deficiency of vitamin D causes rickets (deformation of lower limbs).
Rickets is characterized by the production of soft pliable bones due to
defective mineralization which is secondary to calcium deficiency.
Usually deficiency of Vitamin D is due to insufficient exposure to

sunlight, inadequate dietary intake, GIT disorder, obstructive jaundice
and Partial gastrectomy.
Vit D deficiency is also characterized by low concentration of calcium

in blood in association with increased serum alkaline phosphatase.
Vitamin E
Vitamin E is required in the human diet but deficiency is rare, except in
pregnancy and the new born, where it is associated with hemolytic
anemia. It exists in the diet as a mixture of eight closely related
compounds called Tocopherols.
Source: The richest source is vegetable oils and nuts
Functions
The main function of Vitamin E is that it acts as an antioxidant.
Deficiency
Vitamin E deficiency is a rare but found in complication of prolonged
and severe steatorrhoea, and of prolonged parenteral nutrition.
Deficiency of Vitamin E causes anemia. Generally deficiency is
investigated by measuring plasma (Vitamin E).
Vitamin K
It refers to a group of related compounds, varying the number of
isoprenoid units in its side chain. There are three types, Menaquinone
(K2) present in animals, Phylloquinone (K1) present in plants. Like vit
lxxxvi
E, the absorption of Vitamin k is dependent on appropriate fat

absorption.
Functions
It is the only one acting as co-enzyme from the group of Fat soluble
vitamins. This vitamin is also synthesized by intestinal bacteria. It is
required for post translational modifications of several proteins required
in the coagulation cascade
Deficiency
It is widely distributed in nature and produced by the intestinal micro
flora. Virtually ensures that dietary deficiency does not occur in man.
However, it is found in patients suffering from liver diseases
(obstructive jaundice), in new born infants and in patients with
malabsorption. It is associated with bleeding disorders. The placenta is
inefficient at passing maternal Vit K to the fetus and immediately after
birth the circulation concentration drops, but recovers on absorption of
foods. In addition the gut of the new born is sterile, so that the intestinal
micro flora does not provide a source of vit K for several days after
birth. This is the reason why adults who are on prolonged antibiotic
treatment require supplementation of Vit.E.
Specific inhibitors of vitamin D dependent Carboxylation reactions are

used in the treatment of thrombosis related diseases. These drugs of the
dicoumarin groups e.g. Warfarin, which inhibit the action of Vit K -
probably via the mechanisms involved in the regeneration of the active
hydroquinone.
Tests to asses Vitamin K status include the prothrombin time-an

important test in the investigation and management of jaundiced patients
and of those on anticoagulant treatment.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Vitamins are one of the organic molecules required in the body from
diet for the proper functioning of the body. Some of them act as co-
enzymes that enhances biochemical reactions in the living system while
some act as antioxidants that help prevent the development of diseases.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the water and fats soluble vitamins
and symptoms of their deficiencies
lxxxvii
1. Define water soluble vitamin and list all.

2. Enumerate the sources and deficiency of all vitamin B complex.
3. State the functions of vitamin A, D and K.

edition.

Biochemistry (29th edition) McGraw-Hill Medical.

lxxxviii
UNIT 2 TRACE MINERALS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Macro and Micro minerals
3.2 Trace Elements
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References /Further reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living

organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and
oxygen present in common organic molecules.
For any nutrient, there is a range of intake between that which is clearly
inadequate, leading to clinical deficiency disease, and that which is so
much in excess of the body‟s metabolic capacity that there may be signs
of toxicity. Between the 2 extremes, there is a level of intake that is
adequate for normal health and the maintenance of metabolic integrity.
Individuals do not have the same requirement for nutrients, even when
calculated on the basis of body size or energy expenditure. Therefore, in
order to assess the adequacy of diets, it is necessary to set a reference
level of intake high enough to ensure that no one either suffers from
deficiency or is at risk of toxicity. Many of the essential minerals are
widely distributed in foods, and most people eating a mixed diet are
likely to receive adequate intakes, although supplements can be used
when some requirements are not adequately met by the diet, or when
chronic or acute deficiencies arise from pathology or injury, etc.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should have an understanding of macro and
micro minerals, functions, food sources, required daily allowance,
deficiency and toxicity symptoms of each trace mineral studied.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Macro and Micro minerals
Dietary Minerals include the macro and micro minerals. Macro minerals
are required in the diet in large amounts (>100 mg/day). They represent
lxxxix
about 80% of body organic matter and include calcium, phosphorus,

potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium.
Micro minerals or Trace elements are needed in doses < 100 mg per day.
Important "trace" or minor minerals include iron, cobalt, copper, zinc,
molybdenum, iodine, selenium and cobalt.
Some minerals are necessary for the body, but their exact functions are
unknown. Such include Chromium, Nickel, Bromine, Lithium and
Barium. Non-essential minerals found as contaminants in foodstuffs
include rubidium, silver, gold and bismuth. Toxic minerals include Al,
Pb, Cd and Hg.
3.2 Trace Elements
Zinc
Total zinc content of the body is about 2g, out of which 60% is in
skeletal muscles and 30% in bones. The highest concentration of Zinc is
seen in Hippocampus area of brain and prostate fluid. More than 300
enzymes are zinc-dependent, including RNA and DNA polymerases,
alkaline phosphatase and carbonic anhydrase. It also forms what is
known as zinc fingers (Zn2+) co-ordinated to four amino acid side
chains), which provide structural stability to many proteins and are
important for protein-protein interactions. These are found in many
signal transduction proteins. Zn is also involved in DNA and protein
synthesis as well as transport of vitamin A, taste perception, wound
healing, Zinc plays a vital role in fertility. In males, it protects the
prostate gland from infection (prostates) and ultimately from
enlargement (prostatic hypertrophy). It also helps maintain sperm count
and mobility and normal levels of serum testosterone. Zinc is important
during pregnancy, for the growing foetus whose cells are rapidly
dividing. Zinc also helps to avoid congenital abnormalities and pre-term
delivery. Zinc is vital in ensuring proper growth and development in
infants, children and teenagers.
Sources: Meat, shellfish, poultry, whole grains, vegetable, cheese
Required Daily Allowance (RDA): 11 mg for men, 8 mg for women
Deficiency: Zn deficiency in children is marked by poor growth and

impairment of sexual development. In both children and adults, it results
in poor wound healing and dermatitis as well as impaired immune
function. Toxicity effects include loss of appetite, impaired immunity,
decreased HDL, iron and copper deficiencies. Toxicity is common in
welders due to inhalation of zinc oxide fumes.
xc
Iron
Total body content is 3-5 g, 75% of this is found in blood and the rest in
liver, bone marrow and muscles. Iron is present in almost all cells.
Blood contains 14.5g of Hb per 100 ml. About 75% of total iron is in
hemoglobin, 5% is in myoglobin and 15% in ferritin. Iron carries
oxygen as part of haemoglobin in blood or myoglobin in muscles. It is
required for cellular energy metabolism. Transferrin is the transport
form while Ferritin is the storage form of iron. Transferrin is a
glycoprotein, with a mol wt of 76,500 Daltons. Total iron binding
capacity (TIBC) is a measure of the blood‟s capacity to bind iron with
transferring. The ref range is about 400mg/100ml. One third of this
capacity is saturated with iron. Transferrin has a half-life of 7-19 days,
and is a useful index of nutritional status. One molecule of transferrin
can bind two ferric ions. In blood, ceruloplasmin is the ferroxidase,
which oxidizes ferrous to ferric state. Transferrin receptors are present
on most of the body cells, especially on cells which synthesize heme.
The iron-transferrin complex is taken up by the body cells by the
receptor mechanism.
RDA: for men 8 mg, women (19-50 yrs) 18 mg, women > 50 yrs 8 mg.
Sources: Red meat, fish, poultry, eggs, dried fruits, leafy vegetables,
pulses.
Deficiency: Includes anemia characterized by weakness, fatigue,

headache and impaired mental and physical performance. It also
impaired immunity and pale skin.
Toxicity leads to GIT distress, infections, fatigue, joint pain, skin

pigmentation and organ damage.
Copper
Total body copper is about 100 mg. It is found in muscles, liver, bone
marrow, brain, kidney, heart and hair. It is a required component of
many redox enzymes. Copper containing enzymes are ceruloplasmin,
cytochrome oxidase, tyrosinase, superoxide dismutase and others.
Required for iron absorption and incorporation of iron into hemoglobin.
Only about 10% dietary copper is absorbed. Excretion is mainly through
bile.
Sources: Legumes, nuts and seeds, whole grains, organ meats, drinking
water.
RDA: 900 μg
xci
Deficiency: Results in microcytic normochromic anemia, cardiovascular

diseases, defective cross-linking of connective tissue and hypo
pigmentation of hair. Toxicity is manifested as diarrohea and blue-green
discoloration of saliva. Copper poisoning may result in hemolysis,
hemoglobinuria, proteinuria and renal failure. Toxicity could occur from
eating acid foods cooked in uncoated copper cookware or exposure to
excess copper in drinking water or other environmental sources. Could
result from Copper poisoning, or Wilson‟s disease Results in vomiting,
hematemesis, hypotension, coma, GIT distress, jaundice.
Fluoride
Fluoride is known to prevent caries. In the pits and fissures of premolar
and molar teeth, bacterial fermentation of residual food leads to acid
production. The acid removes enamel and dentine to expose the pulp,
leading to inflammation and toothache. Presence of fluoride will result
in a fluoroapatite layer on the enamel, which protects it from decay. The
safe limit of F is about 1ppm in water (= 1 mg in 1000 ml of water)
RDA: 4 mg for men, 3 mg for women.
Toxicity leads to fluorosis (pitting and discoloration of teeth with

alternate areas of osteoporosis, osteosclerosis and brittle bones),
intestinal upset, loss of appetite and loss of weight.
Selenium
Selenium (Se) intake depends on the nature of soil in which food crops
are grown. In mammals, glutathione peroxidase is the most important se
containing enzyme. 5”-de-iodinase, which converts thyroxin to T3 also
contains Se. Selenium concentration in testis is the highest in adult
tissue. It is necessary for normal development of spermatozoa. Selenium
also acts as a non specific intracellular anti oxidant, its action being
complementary to that of Vitamin E.
RDA: 50-100 μg/ day.
Deficiency: Causes Liver necrosis, cirrhosis, cardio myopathy and

muscular dystrophy.
Se Toxicity is called selenosis. Symptoms include hair loss, falling of

nails, diarrhea, weight loss and garlicky odour in breath.
Iodine
Dietary iodine is efficiently absorbed and transported to the thyroid
gland, where it is stored and used for the synthesis of triiodothyronine
and thyroxine. These hormones function in regulating the basal
metabolic rate of adults and the growth and development of children.
xcii
Also functions as antioxidant for extrathyroidal organs such as

mammary and salivary glands and for gastric juice production.
Sources: seafood, dairy products, iodized salt RDA: 150 μg
Deficiency: Very common results in an enlargement of the thyroid gland

(Goitre)
4.0 CONCLUSION
Minerals are organic molecules which are required in the body for bone
mineralization and for proper functioning of the body tissues.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been exposed to Macro and Micro minerals.
1. Distinguish between Macro and Micro minerals (Trace elements)

2. List important microminerals (Trace Elements) and enumerate
the functions, food sources, required daily allowance, deficiency
and toxicity symptoms of each trace mineral studied.

edition.

V. W. and Well, P.A. (2012). Harper‟s Illustrated Biochemistry
(29th edition) McGraw-Hill Medical.

xciii
UNIT 3 DETOXIFICATION
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Mechanism of Detoxification
3.2 Detoxification Reactions
3.3 Excretion of Detoxified Xenobiotic
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Humans are exposed to various foreign chemicals (called xenobiotic)

from air, nutrition (food additives, preservatives), therapy for disease
(drugs) etc. Hence an understanding of the ability of the body to cope
with the chemical onslaught at the cellular level is an important aspect
of metabolism. Detoxification is a series of biochemical reactions that
convert converts toxic substances into less harmful products and then
into more easily excretable forms. Detoxification is often referred to as
drug metabolism. All the detoxification reactions majorly occur in the
liver, however, the kidney and intestines are also involved to a lesser
extent. Several unwanted and harmful substances e.g. drugs get entry
into the body by absorption from the gastrointestinal tract and so need to
be eliminated regularly to prevent accumulation and prolonged
cumulative action.
Compounds that are detoxified are foreign compounds or xenobiotic

such as drugs, food additives, insecticides, pollutants etc, compounds
produced in the body which are to be eliminated e.g. bilirubin, steroids
ammonia etc and compounds produced in the intestine by bacterial
putrefaction and fermentation e.g. indole and skatole (from tryptophan),
histamine (from histidine), tyramine (from tyrosine) etc.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
On the completion of this unit you will get to know the definition of
detoxification, mechanism and reactions of detoxification, and the
excretion of xenobiotic.
xciv
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Mechanism of Detoxification
The overall mechanism of detoxification is to increase the water

solubility (polarity) of toxic products and thus facilitate their excretion
from the body mostly in urine and also through bile and faeces. Toxic
products are rendered water-soluble by adding polar functional
groups/conjugates.
Toxic compounds / products (less polar)
Addition of polar functional

groups/conjugates
Less toxic compounds

(more polar, water soluble, easily excretable forms)
Excreted through urine / bile / faces
Figure 4.1: Mechanism of detoxification
3.2 Reactions of Detoxification
Foreign substances undergo some preliminary changes which are not

different from the metabolic changes occurring to physiological
substances. Detoxification reactions are grouped into two phases namely
Phase-I and Phase-II detoxification reactions.
Phase I
Phase I detoxification reaction involves oxidation (also known as
hydroxylation), reduction or hydrolysis. Minor reactions like
deamination, desulfuration, dealkylation etc. are also induced under
Phase I
a. Detoxification by oxidation: In this reaction hydrocarbons are

oxidized to their corresponding alcohols; alcohols to aldehydes
xcv
and aldehydes to acids. Also aromatic hydrocarbons are reduced

to phenols.
Example is the oxidation of methanol to formic acid, oxidation of
benzene to benzoic acid.
Cytochrome P450 (hemeproteins) are enzymes involved in
oxidation reaction and are located in the liver microsomes
(endoplasmic reticulum). Fifty percent (50%) of drugs are
detoxified through this system.
Methanol (CH3-OH) Formic acid (H-COOH)
Benzoyl Benzoic acid
b. Detoxification by reduction: This reaction involves the addition

of hydrogen atom to hydrocarbons. Examples are given below:
Nitrobenzene Amino benzene (Aniline)
Chloral Trichloroethanol
(Chloral is a sedative)
c. Detoxification by hydrolysis: This reaction involves the

hydrolysis of ester, amide, glycosidic bond, ether bond etc by the
addition of water. Also Drugs like procaine and acetyl salicylic
(aspirin) acid and cardiac glycosides e.g. digitalin, atropine
undergo hydrolysis.
H2 O
Aspirin salicylic acid + acetic acid
H2 O
Atropine tropic acid + tropine
Phase-II
Phase-II detoxification process consists of conjugation reaction. This
reaction involves the coupling of the foreign substances after the
processes of oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis with some polar
substances in the body making the toxic compounds more water soluble
and hence easily excretable. The following are some examples:
a. Glucuronic acids: Conjugation with glucuronic acid is the most

common conjugation reaction. UDP (uridine diphosphate)-
glucuronic acid is the glucuronyl donor, UDP-glucuronyl
xcvi
transferases are the enzymes. Aromatic acids (e.g. benzoic acid)

and phenols are conjugated with glucuronic acid. The glucuronic
acid is derived from uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid. The
drug chloramphenicol and the bile pigments are among the
important substances conjugated with glucuronic acid.
Derivatives of steroid hormones also are conjugated with
glucuronic acid before excretion.
b. Active sulfate: It is used to conjugate phenolic compounds. The
derivatives are called ethereal sulfates. An increase in their
amount in urine excessive intestinal putrefaction or stasis.
Adrenal cortical hormones are also excreted after conjugation
with sulfuric acid. Yeast and mammalian liver contain enzymes
that can activate inorganic sulfate by adding it to 3-
phosphoadenosine-5-phosphate. Active sulfate is adenine-3-
phosphoribose-5-phosphosulfate. Incorporation of sulfate into
sulfated mucopolysaccharaides and conjugation of steroid
hormones and others with sulfate are brought about after
preliminary activation of sulfate.
c. Glycine: This is used to conjugate aromatic acids, cholic acid and
also nicotinic acid. The formation of bile acid (glycocholic acid)
from cholic acid is also brought about by conjugation with
glycine.
d. Cysteine: This is used in the conjugation of aromatic compounds
like benzene and halogenated ring compounds like
bromobenzene.
e. Acetic acid: Acetic acid is used to conjugate with aromatic
amino compounds like sulfanilamide.
f. Glutamine: This is conjugated with phenylacetic acid to form
phenylacetylglutamine.
g. Methyl groups: Active methionine (s-adenosyl methionine) is
used for the conjugation of certain pyridine and other
heterocyclic nitrogen containing compounds like nicotinamide.
h. Interaction of highly toxic cyanides: There may also be
conjugation with thiosulfate to form relatively nontoxic
thiocyanates. The enzyme rhodanase converts cyanide to
thiocyanate.
3.3 Excretion of detoxified xenobiotic
i. The products of phase-I reactions are either excreted directly or

undergo further metabolism by phase-II reactions and then
excreted.
ii. In some cases, a xenobiotic may undergo only phase-II reaction
without undergoing phase-I reaction.
iii. Occasionally, a xenobiotic may be excreted unchanged.
xcvii
4.0 CONCLUSION
Detoxification is the breakdown of toxic substances to less harmful

substances. Xenobiotic are detoxified by the process of oxidation,
reduction and conjugation.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt about detoxification, mechanism of

detoxification and reactions of detoxification.
1. Define detoxification.
2. Explain the mechanism of detoxification.
3. Write in details with examples reactions involved in oxidation,
reduction, hydrolysis and conjugation.

edition.

V. W. and Well, P.A. (2012). Harper‟s Illustrated Biochemistry
(29th edition) McGraw-Hill Medical.

xcviii

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: EHS207

COURSE TITLE: GENERAL BIOCHEMISTRY FOR

Course Team Dr. O. A. Saliu (Course Developer/Writer) - NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

© 2019 by NOUN Press

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

Millions of complex chemical reactions are going on in the human body

Much of biochemistry also deals with the structures and functions of

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THE COURSE

The aim of this course is to build your foundation in the knowledge of

At the completion of this course, you should be able to:

 explain the branches and relevance of biochemistry, biochemistry

WORKING THROUGH THE COURSE

Reading the reference materials will enhance your understanding of the

THE COURSE MATERIALS

The main components of the course are:

Module 1 Introduction to General Biochemistry

Unit 1 Definition of Biochemistry

Module 2 Water, Acids, Bases, Buffer and Macromolecules

Unit 1 Water, Acids, Bases and Buffer

Module 3 Metabolism of Biomolecules

Unit 1 Metabolism of Carbohydrates

Module 4 Micronutrients (Vitamins and Minerals) and

Unit 1 Water Soluble Vitamins

There are three aspects to the assessment of this course.

examination to be taken at the end of the course.

Do the exercises or activities in the unit by applying the information and

This is the continuous assessment component of this course and it

These answered assignments are to be returned to your facilitator.

You‟re expected to complete the assignments by using the information

1. It is important that each assignment reaches your facilitator on or

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

FACILITATORS/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

Do not hesitate to contact your facilitator by telephone or email if you

General biochemistry is the branch of life science that introduces you to

On completion of this course you will have an understanding of the

Furthermore, you should be able to answer the following questions:

We wish you success in this course.

Module 1 Introduction to General Biochemistry……. 1

Unit 1 Definition of Biochemistry………………...... 1

Module 2 Water, Acids, Bases, Buffer

Unit 1 Water, Acids, Bases and Buffer…………….. 14

Module 3 Metabolism of Biomolecules……………… 46

Unit 1 Metabolism of Carbohydrates……………… 46

Module 4 Micronutrients (Vitamins and

Unit 1 Water Soluble Vitamins…………………… 69

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL

Unit 1 Definition of Biochemistry

UNIT 1 DEFINITION OF BIOCHEMISTRY

The essence of studying biochemistry is for the purpose of

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Biochemistry

Biochemistry is the study of biomolecules. It can also be defined as the

organisms. Biochemistry is both a life science and a chemical science; it

Millions of complex chemical reactions are going on in the human body

3.2 Relevance of Biochemistry to other life Sciences

Biochemistry provides foundation for other life sciences such as