Motor and Diesel Trade Theory N2

Motor and Diesel Trade Theory N2
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 16

1.2 Fuel tank ......................................................................................................................................... 17
1.3 Fuel level gauge ........................................................................................................................... 18
1.3.1 The Sending Unit ........................................................................................................................ 18
1.3.2 The Gauge .................................................................................................................................. 20
1.4 Fuel pump ...................................................................................................................................... 21
1.4.1 Mechanical pump ................................................................................................................... 21
1.4.2 Electrical pump ......................................................................................................................... 24
1.5 Venturic Effect .............................................................................................................................. 25
1.6 Basic carburetor ........................................................................................................................... 27
1.6.1 Carburation ................................................................................................................................ 28
1.6.2 Parts of the downdraught carburetor ................................................................................ 31
1.7 Modern carburetor circuits........................................................................................................ 33
1.8 Operation of carburetor circuits .............................................................................................. 35
1.8.1 Float circuit ................................................................................................................................. 35
1.8.2 Idle circuit.................................................................................................................................... 38
1.8.3 Low speed circuit...................................................................................................................... 39
1.8.4 Acceleration circuit ................................................................................................................. 41
1.8.5 Power circuit............................................................................................................................... 43
1.8.6 Main metering circuit............................................................................................................... 44
1.8.7 Economisers and power systems.......................................................................................... 45
1.8.8 Air fuel mixture ........................................................................................................................... 46
1.8.9 Carburetor adjustment ........................................................................................................... 46
1.8.10 Idle speed ................................................................................................................................. 46
1.8.11 Idle mixture (air fuel mixture) ............................................................................................... 47
1.8.12 Choke circuit............................................................................................................................ 47
1.9 Curb idle speed ............................................................................................................................ 52
1.10 Throttle return dash pot ............................................................................................................ 52
Gateways to Engineering Studies

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1.11 Dieseling (run on) ....................................................................................................................... 53

1.11.1 Anti-dieseling solenoid (running on) .................................................................................. 53
1.11.2 Reasons for dieseling ............................................................................................................. 54
1.11.3 The idle shut off valve ............................................................................................................ 54
1.12 Exhaust gas analyser ................................................................................................................. 55
1.13 Engine exhaust gases (products of combustion) ............................................................. 55
1.14 Carburetor defects that will result in excessively lean mixture ..................................... 56
1.15 Methods used to reduce pulsation effect caused by a mechanical fuel pump ... 56
1.16 Two stage carburetors .............................................................................................................. 57
1.17 Methods of opening the second stage butterfly ............................................................. 57
1.17.1 Vacuum activating mechanism ........................................................................................ 57
1.17.2 Mechanical activated mechanism .................................................................................. 58
1.17.3 Auxiliary air valve .................................................................................................................... 58
1.18 Carburetor problem diagnostics ........................................................................................... 58
1.18.1 Visual inspection ..................................................................................................................... 58
1.18.2 Incorrect air fuel mixture ....................................................................................................... 59
1.18.3 Lean air fuel mixture............................................................................................................... 59
1.18.4 Rich air fuel mixture ................................................................................................................ 59
1.18.5 Exhaust gas analyser ............................................................................................................. 59
1.18.6 Float system problems ........................................................................................................... 59
1.18.7 Carburetor flooding ............................................................................................................... 60
1.18.8 Idle system problems ............................................................................................................. 60
1.18.9 Acceleration system problems ........................................................................................... 61
1.18.10 High speed system problems ............................................................................................ 61
1.18.11 Full power system problems............................................................................................... 61
1.18.12 Choke system problems ..................................................................................................... 62
1.19 Air cleaners .................................................................................................................................. 63
1.19.1 Functions of air cleaner......................................................................................................... 64
1.19.2 Types of air cleaners .............................................................................................................. 64
1.20 Fuel pump tests ........................................................................................................................... 68
1.20.1 Measuring fuel pump pressure ........................................................................................... 68
1.20.2 Factors determining fuel pump pressure ......................................................................... 68
1.21 Measuring fuel pump volume ................................................................................................ 68

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1.21.1 Factors determining fuel pump volume........................................................................... 69

1.22 Measuring fuel pump vacuum .............................................................................................. 69
1.22.1 Factors determining fuel pump vacuum ......................................................................... 69
1.23 Functions of fuel filters ............................................................................................................... 69
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 72

2.2 Functions of an ignition system ................................................................................................ 72
2.2.1 Basic ignition............................................................................................................................... 72
2.3 Main components of the ignition system and their components .................................. 74
2.3.1 The battery.................................................................................................................................. 74
2.3.2 The ignition switch ..................................................................................................................... 74
2.3.3 The ignition coil .......................................................................................................................... 76
2.3.4 The distributor unit ..................................................................................................................... 77
2.3.5 The capacitor (condenser).................................................................................................... 78
2.3.6 The spark plug ............................................................................................................................ 78
2.3.7 The rotor ....................................................................................................................................... 80
2.3.8 Ignition points ............................................................................................................................. 80
2.3.9 The ballast resistor ..................................................................................................................... 81
2.4 Ignition system circuits ................................................................................................................ 82
2.4.1 Components of the primary circuit ..................................................................................... 83
2.4.2 Secondary circuit (high tension circuit).............................................................................. 84
2.4.3 Components of the secondary circuit (HT) ....................................................................... 84
2.5 Dwell angle (angle of rest) ........................................................................................................ 86
2.5.1 Setting the dwell angle ........................................................................................................... 86
2.5.2 Sequence of adjustment ........................................................................................................ 87
2.5.3 Effect of the point gap on the dwell angle ...................................................................... 87
2.5.4 Causes for dwell angle variation .......................................................................................... 88
2.6 Ignition coil inspection ................................................................................................................ 88
2.6.1 Visual tests carried out on the ignition coil ........................................................................ 89
2.6.2 Non visual tests carried out on the ignition coil................................................................ 89
2.7 The ballast resistor ........................................................................................................................ 90

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2.7.1 Operation.................................................................................................................................... 90
2.8 Automatic advance and delay of ignition timing ............................................................. 91
2.8.1 Timing advance ........................................................................................................................ 91
2.8.2 Timing retard .............................................................................................................................. 92
2.8.3 Centrifugal Advance Mechanism ....................................................................................... 92
2.8.4 Vacuum advance .................................................................................................................... 93
2.9 Spark plugs ..................................................................................................................................... 95
2.9.1 Insulator........................................................................................................................................ 95
2.9.2 Body shell .................................................................................................................................... 96
2.9.3 Electrode ..................................................................................................................................... 96
2.10 Classification of spark plugs .................................................................................................... 97
2.10.1 Heat range ............................................................................................................................... 97
2.10.2 Spark Plug Size ......................................................................................................................... 97
2.10.3 Reach......................................................................................................................................... 98
2.10.4 Spark Plug Types...................................................................................................................... 98
2.11 Spark plug fouling .................................................................................................................... 100
2.11.1 Carbon fouling ...................................................................................................................... 100
2.11.2 High speed or lead fouling ................................................................................................ 100
2.11.3 Oil and carbon fouling ........................................................................................................ 100
2.12 High firing voltage at the spark plugs ................................................................................ 100
2.13 Characteristics indicated by the letter code on a spark plug ................................... 100
2.13.1 Champion spark plugs ........................................................................................................ 101
2.13.2 Bosch spark plugs ................................................................................................................. 101
2.13.3 NGK spark plugs .................................................................................................................... 102
2.14. Testing the spark plug leads ....................................................................................... 105
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 107

3.2 Functions of the gearbox ......................................................................................................... 107
3.3 Gear ratios ................................................................................................................................... 107
3.4 Gear reduction and overdrive ............................................................................................... 109
3.4.1 Planetary Gearbox ................................................................................................................. 109

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3.5 Types of gears used in a gearbox ......................................................................................... 110

3.5.1 Spur gears ................................................................................................................................. 110
3.5.2 Helical gears............................................................................................................................. 111
3.5.3 Double helical gears .............................................................................................................. 112
3.6 Basic gearbox parts ................................................................................................................... 112
3.6.1 Gearbox input shaft (spigot shaft) ..................................................................................... 112
3.6.2 Countershaft gear assembly ............................................................................................... 113
3.6.3 Output shaft ............................................................................................................................. 114
3.6.4 Synchroniser unit ..................................................................................................................... 114
3.6.5 Gears inside the gearbox ..................................................................................................... 117
3.6.6 Gear selector fork ................................................................................................................... 117
3.6.7 Selector rod .............................................................................................................................. 118
3.6.8 Gearbox housing .................................................................................................................... 118
3.6.9 Thrust washers .......................................................................................................................... 118
3.7 Types of bearings used in the gearbox................................................................................ 119
3.7.1 Radial ball bearings ............................................................................................................... 119
3.7.2 Parallel (cylindrical) roller bearings .................................................................................... 119
3.7.3 Needle roller bearings ........................................................................................................... 120
3.8 The four speed constant mesh synchro gearbox ............................................................. 120
3.8.1 Neutral ....................................................................................................................................... 121
3.8.2 First gear .................................................................................................................................... 121
3.8.3 Second gear ............................................................................................................................ 122
3.8.4 Third gear .................................................................................................................................. 123
3.8.5 Fourth gear ............................................................................................................................... 123
3.8.6 Reverse gear (not synchronised) ....................................................................................... 123
3.8.7 Reverse gear (synchronised) ............................................................................................... 124
3.8.8 Speedometer drive gear ...................................................................................................... 124
3.8.9 Selector mechanism .............................................................................................................. 124
3.8.10 Interlocking mechanism ..................................................................................................... 125
3.9 Gearbox problem diagnosis ................................................................................................... 126

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4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 130

4.2 Conventional rear wheel drive arrangement.................................................................... 130
4.2.1 Open type propeller shaft.................................................................................................... 131
4.3 Advantages of a hollow shaft to a solid section shaft .................................................... 132
4.4 Reasons for vibrations on a prop shaft................................................................................. 132
4.5 Types of drive shafts................................................................................................................... 132
4.5.1 Hotchkiss drive ......................................................................................................................... 132
4.5.2 Torque tube drive ................................................................................................................... 133
4.5.3 Two piece Hotchkiss ............................................................................................................... 134
4.5.4 Semi torque tube .................................................................................................................... 134
4.5.5 Differences between a torque tube and Hotchkiss drive ........................................... 135
4.6 Torque effect on the drive line ............................................................................................... 136
4.6.1 Under acceleration (torque action) ................................................................................. 136
4.6.2 Under deceleration (braking torque reaction) .............................................................. 136
4.7 Sliding joint of a prop shaft ...................................................................................................... 137
4.7.1 Function of a slip joint ............................................................................................................ 137
4.7.2 Types of slip joints .................................................................................................................... 137
4.8 Hooke's type universal joint ..................................................................................................... 138
4.8.1 Disadvantage of a Hooke’s joint........................................................................................ 138
4.8.2 Yokes must be in phase ........................................................................................................ 138
4.9 Rubber and fabric universal joints ......................................................................................... 140
4.10 Front wheel drive vehicles ..................................................................................................... 141
4.10.1 Front wheel drive shafts ...................................................................................................... 141
4.10.2 Unequal length drive shafts ............................................................................................... 141
4.10.3 Disadvantages of unequal length drive shafts ............................................................ 142
4.10.4 Droop angle ........................................................................................................................... 143
4.10.5 Constant velocity joints ....................................................................................................... 144
4.11 Types of axles for rear wheel drive vehicles ..................................................................... 146
4.11.1 Half Floating Axle .................................................................................................................. 146
4.11.2 Three-quarter Floating Axle ............................................................................................... 147

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4.11.3 Full floating.............................................................................................................................. 148
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 150

5.2 Dead and live axles ................................................................................................................... 150
5.3 Final drive ..................................................................................................................................... 151
5.3.1 Functions of the final drive assembly ................................................................................ 151
5.3.2 Functions of the differential ................................................................................................. 151
5.4 Types of final drives .................................................................................................................... 152
5.4.1 Straight tooth bevel gear (spur gear) ............................................................................... 152
5.4.2 Spiral bevel gear ..................................................................................................................... 153
5.4.3 Hypoid gear ............................................................................................................................. 153
5.4.4 Worm and wheel .................................................................................................................... 154
5.4.5 Helical gears............................................................................................................................. 154
5.4.6 Classification of final drives by the way the reduction in the final drive is obtained
................................................................................................................................................ 155
5.5 The differential ............................................................................................................................ 155
5.5.1 Pinion gear ................................................................................................................................ 155
5.5.2 Crown wheel ............................................................................................................................ 156
5.5.3 Differential carrier ................................................................................................................... 156
5.5.4 Differential housing ................................................................................................................. 157
5.5.5 Gears inside the differential ................................................................................................. 157
5.6 Differential action ...................................................................................................................... 158
5.6.1 Driving straight ahead ........................................................................................................... 158
5.6.2 When cornering....................................................................................................................... 159
5.6.3 No drive conditions ................................................................................................................ 160
5.6.4 Reverse turning when jacked up ....................................................................................... 160
5.7 Tooth pressure and friction ...................................................................................................... 161
5.8 Final drive and differential service ........................................................................................ 161
5.9 Checks before stripping the final drive assembly ............................................................. 161
5.9.1 Axial runout ............................................................................................................................... 161
5.9.2 Radial run-out .......................................................................................................................... 161
5.9.3 Tooth contact pattern........................................................................................................... 162

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5.10 Backlash between pinion and crown wheel ................................................................... 164

5.11 Pinion bearing pre-load ......................................................................................................... 165
5.11.1 Functions of pinion bearing pre-load ............................................................................. 166
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 168

6.2 Functions of the suspension system....................................................................................... 168
6.3 Various forms of springs ............................................................................................................ 169
6.3.1 Coil springs ................................................................................................................................ 169
6.3.2 Leaf springs ............................................................................................................................... 170
6.3.3 Torsion bars ............................................................................................................................... 172
6.3.4 Rubber springs ......................................................................................................................... 173
6.4 Components of the basic suspension system .................................................................... 174
6.4.1 Control arm .............................................................................................................................. 175
6.4.2 Steering knuckle ...................................................................................................................... 175
6.4.3 Ball joint ...................................................................................................................................... 175
6.4.4 Spring .......................................................................................................................................... 176
6.4.5 Shock absorber or damper .................................................................................................. 176
6.5 Non-independent suspension ................................................................................................ 177
6.5.1 Solid axle ................................................................................................................................... 177
6.6 Independent suspension.......................................................................................................... 178
6.6.1 Advantages of independent front suspension .............................................................. 179
6.7 Spring terminology ..................................................................................................................... 181
6.7.1 Spring rate ................................................................................................................................. 181
6.7.2 Sprung weight .......................................................................................................................... 181
6.7.3 Unsprung weight ..................................................................................................................... 181
6.8 Independent front suspension................................................................................................ 181
6.8.1 Strut suspension ....................................................................................................................... 182
6.8.2 Short/long arm suspension ................................................................................................... 183
6.8.3 Torsion bar suspension ........................................................................................................... 183
6.9 Radius rod..................................................................................................................................... 185
6.10 Ball joints ..................................................................................................................................... 186

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6.11 Torsion bar suspension (rear) ................................................................................................ 186

6.11.1 Adjusting the rear torsion bar ............................................................................................ 187
6.11.2 Advantages and disadvantages of torsion bar suspension .................................... 188
6.12 Rear suspension ........................................................................................................................ 188
6.12.1 Leaf springs ............................................................................................................................. 188
6.12.2 Types of rear axle suspension ............................................................................................ 189
6.13 Independent rear-axle coil springs ..................................................................................... 190
6.13.1 Trailing arm design ............................................................................................................... 190
6.13.2 Semi-trailing arm design ..................................................................................................... 191
6.13.3 Transverse swing arm design ............................................................................................. 192
6.14 Shock absorbers ....................................................................................................................... 192
6.14.1 Hydraulic shock absorbers ................................................................................................. 193
6.14.2 Telescopic shock absorbers............................................................................................... 195
6.14.3 Double acting shocks .......................................................................................................... 195
6.14.4 Operation of the shock absorber .................................................................................... 196
6.14.5 Lever type shock absorber ................................................................................................ 197
6.14.6 Friction dampers ................................................................................................................... 197
6.14.7 Functions of shock absorbers ............................................................................................ 198
6.14.8 The dangers of worn shock absorbers ............................................................................ 199
6.14.9 Checking the condition of shock absorbers ................................................................ 200
6.15 Reasons for excessive tyre wear .......................................................................................... 202
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 204

7.2 Steering systems.......................................................................................................................... 204
7.3 Components of a steering system ........................................................................................ 206
7.3.1 Steering arms............................................................................................................................ 206
7.3.2 Steering linkage ....................................................................................................................... 207
7.3.3 Pitman arm (also called Drop arm) ................................................................................... 207
7.3.4 Centre link ................................................................................................................................. 208
7.3.5 Idler arm..................................................................................................................................... 208
7.3.6 Tie rods ....................................................................................................................................... 208

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7.4 Types of steering boxes ............................................................................................................ 209

7.4.1 Worm and sector .................................................................................................................... 209
7.4.2 Screw and nut.......................................................................................................................... 209
7.4.3 Recirculating ball .................................................................................................................... 209
7.4.4 Cam and peg .......................................................................................................................... 210
7.4.5 Worm and roller ....................................................................................................................... 210
7.4.6 Rack and pinion steering system........................................................................................ 211
7.4.7 Steering damper ..................................................................................................................... 212
7.5 Steering box adjustments and maintenance .................................................................... 213
7.5.1 End float of the inner column bearings ............................................................................ 213
7.5.2 End float of the rocker shaft ................................................................................................ 213
7.5.3 Correct mesh or backlash between the worm and gear .......................................... 214
7.5.4 Lock stops.................................................................................................................................. 214
7.5.5 Steering wheel play................................................................................................................ 214
7.5.6 Testing for looseness (play on the steering wheel) ........................................................ 214
7.5.7 Wheel alignment..................................................................................................................... 215
7.6 Over-steer and under-steer ..................................................................................................... 226
7.6.1 Over-steer ................................................................................................................................. 226
7.6.2 Under-steer ............................................................................................................................... 228
7.7 Preliminary checks before doing wheel alignment ......................................................... 229
7.7.1 Curb height (also called kerb-height) .............................................................................. 230
7.7.2 Curb mass/weight .................................................................................................................. 231
7.7.3 Reasons why wheel alignment is of great importance ............................................... 231
7.7.4 Order of checking wheel alignment angles ................................................................... 232
7.8 Wheel balance and imbalance ............................................................................................ 233
7.8.1 Static balance deliberating................................................................................................. 234
7.8.2 Dynamic balance .................................................................................................................. 234
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 237

8.2 Hydraulic brake fluid ................................................................................................................. 238
8.3 Components of the braking system ..................................................................................... 240

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8.3.1 Brake lines ................................................................................................................................. 240

8.3.2 Master cylinder ........................................................................................................................ 241
8.3.3 Wheel cylinders ....................................................................................................................... 241
8.3.4 Disc brake ................................................................................................................................. 242
8.3.5 Drum brake ............................................................................................................................... 242
8.4 The master cylinder (residual-pressure type)...................................................................... 242
8.4.1 Residual pressure..................................................................................................................... 244
8.4.2 Function of the check valve assembly ............................................................................. 245
8.4.3 Operation of the master cylinder when the brakes are applied.............................. 246
8.4.4 Operation of the master cylinder when the brakes are released ............................ 246
8.4.5 Reason for brake pedal free play ...................................................................................... 247
8.5 Tandem brake master cylinder .............................................................................................. 248
8.5.1 Operation of the tandem master cylinder ...................................................................... 248
8.6 Vacuum servo brakes ............................................................................................................... 249
8.6.1 Operation of the vacuum-servo unit (brake booster) when the brakes are
applied ................................................................................................................................. 250
8.7 Disc brakes ................................................................................................................................... 251
8.7.1 Advantages and disadvantages of disc brakes ........................................................... 251
8.7.2 Disc brake callipers ................................................................................................................ 252
8.7.3 Seals found on disc brake callipers ................................................................................... 253
8.8 Drum brakes................................................................................................................................. 254
8.8.1 Self-energisation ...................................................................................................................... 257
8.9 The wheel cylinder ..................................................................................................................... 261
8.9.1 Single piston wheel cylinder ................................................................................................ 261
8.9.2 Double-piston wheel cylinder ............................................................................................. 262
8.10 The hand brake ........................................................................................................................ 262
8.11 Brake system problem/defects diagnosis ......................................................................... 264
8.12 Changing disc brake pads ................................................................................................... 267
8.12.1 Replacing brake pads ............................................................................................................. 267
8.12.2 After the brake pads have been replaced .................................................................. 270
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 272

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9.2 Comparison between a diesel engine and a petrol engine ........................................ 273
9.2.1 Ignition ....................................................................................................................................... 273
9.2.2 Construction ............................................................................................................................. 273
9.2.3 Regulation of engine speed ................................................................................................ 273
9.2.4 Fuel system ................................................................................................................................ 273
9.2.5 Safety ......................................................................................................................................... 274
9.2.6 Reliability.................................................................................................................................... 275
9.2.7 Compression ratio ................................................................................................................... 275
9.2.8 Compression Pressures .......................................................................................................... 275
9.2.9 Thermal efficiency .................................................................................................................. 275
9.2.10 Engine speed ......................................................................................................................... 276
9.3 Advantages and disadvantages of a diesel engine ...................................................... 276
9.3.1Advantages............................................................................................................................... 276
9.3.2 Disadvantages ........................................................................................................................ 277
9.4 The fuel system ............................................................................................................................ 278
9.5 Components of the fuel system ............................................................................................. 279
9.5.1 Fuel tank .................................................................................................................................... 279
9.5.2 Primary filter .............................................................................................................................. 279
9.5.3 Lift pump.................................................................................................................................... 280
9.5.4 Secondary filter ....................................................................................................................... 280
9.5.5 Pressure-relief valve or permanent bleed orifice........................................................... 281
9.5.6 Injection pump ........................................................................................................................ 281
9.5.7 High-pressure pipes ................................................................................................................ 283
9.5.8 Injector units ............................................................................................................................. 283
9.5.9 Glow plugs ................................................................................................................................ 283
9.5.10 Glow plug operation ........................................................................................................... 284
9.5.11 Leak-off pipes ........................................................................................................................ 285
9.5.12 Return-pipe ............................................................................................................................. 285
9.5.13 Gravity fuel tanks .................................................................................................................. 286
9.6 Combustion of fuel in the diesel engine.............................................................................. 286
9.7 Phases of combustion of diesel fuel ..................................................................................... 287
9.7.1 Phase 1....................................................................................................................................... 288
9.7.2 Phase 2....................................................................................................................................... 288

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9.7.3 Phase 3....................................................................................................................................... 288

9.8 Types of combustion chamber .............................................................................................. 288
9.9 Petrol and diesel combustion ................................................................................................. 289
9.10 Direct injection.......................................................................................................................... 289
9.10.1 Phases of combustion on direct injection systems ...................................................... 290
9.10.2 Combustion chamber air turbulence for direct injection ......................................... 290
9.10.3 Methods used to improve turbulence of air during the intake stroke ................... 291
9.10.4 Achieving turbulence on compression stroke.............................................................. 292
9.10.5 Advantages and disadvantages of direct injection .................................................. 293
9.11 Indirect injection....................................................................................................................... 293
9.11.1 Operating principle of the four stroke direct combustion chamber design
engine .................................................................................................................................. 293
9.11.2 Advantages and disadvantages of indirect-injection .............................................. 297
9.12 Types of indirect injection systems ...................................................................................... 297
9.12.1 Swirl chamber type .............................................................................................................. 297
9.12.2 Divided pre-combustion type ........................................................................................... 301
9.12.3 Energy cell or air cell type .................................................................................................. 303
9.13 Fuel injectors .............................................................................................................................. 303
9.13.1 Diesel injector nozzle operation ....................................................................................... 304
9.13.2 High pressure injector pipes ............................................................................................... 305
9.13.3 Injector and cylinder head sealing ................................................................................. 305
9.14 The complete injector ............................................................................................................ 306
9.15 Injector nozzle types ................................................................................................................ 309
9.16 Other types of nozzles ............................................................................................................. 312
9.16.1 Delay nozzles and injectors................................................................................................ 312
9.16.2 Cooled nozzles ...................................................................................................................... 312
9.16.3 Two-stage injector ................................................................................................................ 313
9.16.4 Unit injectors ........................................................................................................................... 314
9.17 Testing diesel injection operation ........................................................................................ 316
9.17.1 Cylinder balance test .......................................................................................................... 316
9.17.2 Nozzle testing ......................................................................................................................... 317
9.17.3 Opening pressure (also called pop test) ....................................................................... 317
9.17.4 Back leakage ........................................................................................................................ 317

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9.17.5 Spray pattern ......................................................................................................................... 318

9.17.6 Dry seat test ............................................................................................................................ 318
9.17.7 Injector nozzle opening pressures .................................................................................... 318
9.17.8 Injector troubles in service.................................................................................................. 318
9.17.9 Diesel engine diagnostics .................................................................................................. 319
9.17.10 Diesel tests ............................................................................................................................ 321
9.17.11 Diesel injector service ........................................................................................................ 322
9.18 Injector-pump test room ........................................................................................................ 322
9.18.1 Cleanliness .............................................................................................................................. 322
9.18.2 Constant temperature ........................................................................................................ 322
9.18.3 Extractor fans ......................................................................................................................... 322
9.18.4 Safety ....................................................................................................................................... 323
9.18.5 Tools .......................................................................................................................................... 323

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Icons used in this book

We use different icons to help you work with this book; these are shown in the table
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Learning Outcomes
On the completion of this module the student must be able to:
x Describe the parts and operation of the two different fuel pumps
x Explain the venturi effect
x Explain in detail the carburetor; the various parts, different circuits and
how they operate
x Describe and label what is involved in a full power circuit
x Explain the importance of and describe in detail choke circuits,
mechanisms and parts
x Have, in detail, knowledge and understanding of dieseling
x Describe the methods used to reduce pulsation effect caused by a
mechanical fuel pump
x Explain in detail; ‘two stage carburetors’ and their ‘problem diagnostics’
x Describe the functions and types of air cleaners, labeling their parts
x Understand how to measure fuel pump pressure, volume and vacuum,
considering the determining factors
x List the functions of fuel filters
1.1 Introduction
The basic fuel system contains the fuel tank, fuel pump and
carburetor, as seen in Figure 1.1. The other components that make
up the complete fuel system consist of the fuel lines, filters (both fuel
and air) and the fuel level indicator.
These items will be discussed in detail in this module.
Figure 1.1 The basic fuel system components

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1.2 Fuel tank

Most fuel tanks are in two parts joined by a weld around the flanges where the
parts fit together. Baffles make the tank more rigid, prevent surging of fuel, and
ensure fuel is available at the pickup tube. See Figure 1.2 (a).
Figure 1.2 (a) The fuel tank and other fuel system components
Where the tank is mounted depends on where the engine is, and on space
and styling. Safety demands that it is positioned well away from heated
components, and outside the passenger compartment.
Most tanks are made of tinned sheet steel that has been pressed into shape.
Some passenger car tanks are made of non-metallic materials.
Aluminum or steel is used on commercial vehicles. The tank is usually in two

parts, joined by a continuous weld around the flanges where the parts fit
together. Baffles make the tank more rigid.
They also stop surging of fuel and ensure fuel is available at the pickup-tube.
Fuel expands and contracts as temperature rises and falls.
So fuel tanks are vented to let them breathe. Modern emission controls prevent
tanks being vented directly to the atmosphere.

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They must use evaporative control systems. Vapor from the fuel tank is trapped
in a charcoal canister, and stored there, until it is burned in the engine. A
vapor or vent line with a check valve connects the space above the liquid fuel
with the canister, see Figure 1.2 (b).
This valve opens when pressure starts to rise, and lets vapor through, but not
liquid. Liquid fuel closes the check valve and blocks the line, stopping liquid
fuel reaching the charcoal.
Figure 1.2 (b) The fuel tank
Some systems have a small container, called a liquid-vapor separator, above

the fuel tank. It also prevents liquid fuel reaching the charcoal. This fuel tank
has a small separator tank and a number of vents.
They’re from different parts of the tank so that for as many vehicle positions as
possible, at least one is always above the level of fuel in the tank.
1.3 Fuel level gauge

The fuel level gauge basically consists of two units; the sender unit mounted in
the fuel tank (see Figure 1.2), and the fuel gauge, mounted on the dashboard.
1.3.1 The Sending Unit

The sending unit (Figure 1.3) is located in the fuel tank of the car. It consists of a
float, usually made of foam, connected to a thin, metal rod, see Figure 1.4.
The end of the rod is mounted to a variable resistor. A resistor is an electrical

device that resists the flow of electricity. The more resistance there is, the less
current will flow.
In a fuel tank, the variable resistor consists of a strip of resistive material

connected on one side to the ground. A wiper connected to the gauge slides
along this strip of material, conducting the current from the gauge to the
resistor.

18
Figure 1.3 The sending unit
If the wiper is close to the grounded side of the strip, there is less resistive
material in the path of the current, so the resistance is small. If the wiper is at
the other end of the strip, there is more resistive material in the current's path,
so the resistance is large.
In the sending unit, the fuel has to drop below a certain level before the float
starts to drop. When the float is near the top of the tank, the wiper on the
variable resistor rests close to the grounded (negative) side.

19
This means that the resistance is small and a relatively large amount of current
passes through the sending unit back to the fuel gauge. As the level in the tank
drops, the float sinks, the wiper moves, the resistance increases and the
amount of current sent back to the gauge decreases.
Figure 1.4 Components of the sending unit
This mechanism is one reason for the inaccuracy of fuel gauges. You may
have noticed how your gauge tends to stay on full for quite a while after filling
up. When your tank is full, the float is at its maximum raised position -- its
upward movement is limited either by the rod it's connected to or by the top
of the tank.
This means that the float is submerged, and it won't start to sink until the fuel
level drops to almost the bottom of the float. The needle on the gauge won't
start to move until the float starts to sink.
Something similar can happen when the float nears the bottom of the tank.
Often, the range of motion does not extend to the very bottom, so the float
can reach the bottom of its travel while there is still fuel in the tank.
This is why, on most cars, the needle goes below empty and eventually stops
moving while there is still gas left in the tank. Another possible cause of
inaccuracy is the shape of the fuel tanks.
Fuel tanks on cars today are made from plastic, molded to fit into very tight
spaces on the cars. Often, the tank may be shaped to fit around pieces of the
car body or frame.
This means that when the float reaches the halfway point on the tank, there
may be more or less than half of the fuel left in the tank, depending on its
shape.
1.3.2 The Gauge

The gauge is also a simple device. The current from the sender passes through
a resistor that either wraps around or is located near a bimetallic strip. The
bimetallic strip is hooked up to the needle of the gauge through a linkage, see
Figure 1.5.

20
Figure 1.5 The fuel gauge
As resistance increases, less current passes through the heating coil, so the
bimetallic strip cools. As the strip cools, it straightens out, pulling the gauge
from full to empty.
The bimetallic strip is a piece of metal made by laminating two different types
of metal together. The metals that make up the strip expand and contract
when they are heated or cooled.
Each type of metal has its own particular rate of expansion. The two metals
that make up the strip are chosen so that the rates of expansion and
contraction are different.
When the strip is heated, one metal expands less than the other, so the strip
curves, with the metal that expands more on the outside. This bending action is
what moves the needle.
Some newer cars, instead of sending the current directly to the gauge, use a
microprocessor that reads the output of the resistor and communicates with
the dashboard. These systems actually help improve the accuracy of the
gauge.
1.4 Fuel pump

With the fuel tank located at a lower level than the carburetor, it is necessary
to draw the fuel via a lift pump.
This is done either with a mechanical or an electric fuel pump with an

approximate operating pressure of between 28 and 48kpa.
1.4.1 Mechanical pump

The mechanical fuel pump, as seen in Figure 1.6, has a diaphragm separating
two chambers. As the diaphragm is moving down, it draws fuel into the
pumping chamber.

21
Figure 1.6 The mechanical pump
A spring then moves the diaphragm up, forcing fuel from the pump, into the
carburetor. Fuel pumps on carbureted systems can be electrical or
mechanical.
The mechanical fuel pump for the carburetor system is usually mounted on the
cylinder head or the engine block. It has a flexible diaphragm. That’s a flexible
piece of neoprene rubber separating 2 chambers.
This diaphragm is operated by an eccentric on the camshaft. It rotates,

making the rocker arm move. This movement is transferred to the diaphragm,
pulling it down. That draws fuel into the pumping chamber, above the
diaphragm.
The diaphragm spring moves the diaphragm up, and this forces fuel from the
pumping chamber, out of the pump and into the carburetor.

22
When the engine needs more fuel, the diaphragm moves through a long
stroke to pump a designated amount of fuel.
Figure 1.7 The single and twin fuel pipe system
When less fuel is needed, pressure builds up in the fuel line to the carburetor,
and in the pumping chamber above the diaphragm. The diaphragm spring
can’t push the diaphragm up so far, and the pumping stroke is reduced.
Some pumps also have a return line to send excess fuel back to the tank, see
Figure 1.7. As the fuel circulates, it cools the fuel pump and lines, and reduces
the chance of vapor locks.

23
x Operation
The camshaft has an eccentric lobe that is designed to operate the pump's
lever arm.
The arm's fulcrum point is very close to the part that actuates the diaphragm,
so very little movement of the arm at the camshaft results in significant
movement of the diaphragm.
Each 360-degree rotation of the camshaft results in one complete cycle of the
diaphragm itself.
x As the diaphragm is pushed up, fuel above it is pressurized and moved out
of the pump and into the fuel line to the carburetor.
x The pressure of the fuel is typically designed to be 2-6 psi, depending upon
the manufacturer.
x As the lever arm allows the diaphragm to return to its rest position, one-way
valves in the pump body prevent the return of fuel from the carburetor and
open a path for fuel to be drawn from the gas tank.
x The vacuum created by the diaphragm's movement draws fuel into the
chamber, helped by the siphon already present in the fuel system.
1.4.2 Electrical pump

An electric fuel pump (see Figure 1.8) operates with the ignition switched on. It
can be controlled so that it operates only if the engine is running.
Carburetor systems can also use electric fuel pumps. Most of these pumps are
located outside the tank, though some are inside the tank.
One widely-used pump is the diaphragm type. It has an electrical section, and
a mechanical section.
x Operation
When the ignition is switched on, current magnetizes the solenoid. The
magnetic field energizes the armature, which pulls down the diaphragm. This
creates an area of low-pressure that draws fuel into the pump.
Pulling down the diaphragm breaks the circuit and stops the current. The
solenoid is no longer an electromagnet. The armature is released, and the
diaphragm spring forces up the diaphragm, which forces fuel out of the pump
and on its way to the carburetor.
This action continues, delivering fuel each time. When the engine needs less
fuel, pressure builds up in the fuel lines to the carburetor, and reduces how
much fuel is delivered.
Some carburetor-equipped vehicles with electric pumps have a safety switch

that prevents the pump continuing to run if the engine stops.

24
Figure 1.8 The Electrical pump
1.5 Venturic Effect

A venture, as seen in Figure 1.9, is the name for a narrower more restricted
area in a fluid passage. As fluid passes through a venturi, the fluid pressure
drops and its speed increases.
Bernoulli's principle says that as a fluid flows through a tube or pipe, when the
pipe narrows the speed of the flow increases, but its pressure drops.
Figure 1.9 The venturi
A venturi is the name for the restricted, or narrowed, area of a container

through which a fluid flows, and its purpose can be to take advantage of
either the increase in fluid speed, or the drop in pressure, or both.
A typical application of a venturi is inside a carburetor. When air is being

drawn into the cylinders of the engine, it passes through a venturi in which
there is an inlet connected to a source of fuel vapor.

25
Figure 1.10 The venturi effect
The lower pressure of the air causes some of the higher pressure fuel vapor to
be pushed into and mixed with the stream of air.
As air flows through the air horn of the carburetor, a partial vacuum is
produced at the venturi, see Figure 1.10. At the venturi there is a decrease in
cross-sectional area of the air horn.
The decrease in area causes an increase in the speed of air flow. When there is
an increase in speed, there is a decrease in pressure. Suppose we watch two
of the air particles entering the air horn of the carburetor.
One particle is somewhat behind the other. The leading particle, entering the
venturi, first speeds up tending to leave the second particle behind. The
second particle entering the venturi also increases in speed, but the first
particle has, in effect, a head start.
The second particle cannot catch up. They are further apart in passing through
the venturi than they were when entering the air horn.
Now visualise a great number of particles going through the same action, and
you can understand that in the venturi they are somewhat further apart than
when they first entered the air horn.

26
This is just another way of saying that a partial vacuum exists in the venturi. A
partial vacuum is thinning out the air, a more-than-normal distance between
the air particles.
The open end of a fuel nozzle is placed in the venturi. The other end of the
nozzle is placed in the float bowl of the carburetor.
With a vacuum at the upper end of the nozzle and atmospheric pressure
acting on the fuel in the reservoir, the fuel is pushed through the nozzle into the
high-speed incoming air stream.
The fuel leaves the nozzle in the form of a fine spray, which rapidly turns into
vapour as the droplets of fuel evaporate. The more air that moves through, the
faster it moves and the greater the amount of fuel the nozzle delivers.
A butterfly valve is fitted below the venturi to control the flow of air through the
venturi and into the engine. The butterfly valve is connected to the
accelerator pedal inside the vehicle by means of a linkage or a cable.
1.6 Basic carburetor

The carburetor atomizes the fuel and mixes it with air, and controls the delivery
of the correct mixture to the engine, see Figure 1.11.
The carburetor supplies the engine with the correct air-fuel mixture for all
conditions of operation.
x It atomizes the fuel and mixes it with air.

x It controls the delivery of this correct mixture to the engine.
x Carburetors come in different designs.
Figure 1.11 The carburetor and fuel system

27
In a basic downdraft carburetor, with a fixed-size venture, fuel is pumped to

the float bowl where a float and a needle valve control its level.
The float bowl is open to the atmosphere. The barrel of the carburetor has an
air horn and a venturi. A throttle valve below the venturi is linked to the
accelerator pedal. Its action allows airflow into the carburetor barrel.
The shape of the venturi constricts air-flow and lowers pressure there. The
pressure difference between the bowl and the venturi causes fuel to spray out
of the fuel discharge nozzle.
It mixes with the air, and the mixture passes the throttle valve and enters the
intake manifold, and the engine. Depressing the accelerator increases air
speed through the carburetor.
This lowers air pressure at the nozzle. Atmospheric pressure on fuel in the float
bowl stays constant, so more fuel is forced into the venturi to mix with the
increased air. This keeps the air-fuel ratio roughly constant for a range of
throttle openings.
The throttle valve also controls flow of mixture into the engine. Opening it lets
more mixture be delivered, which increases engine power and speed. Closing
it has the opposite effect.
1.6.1 Carburation
A light vehicle under normal conditions needs an air-fuel ratio, by mass, of
about 15 to 1. By volume, that's 11000 to 1. A basic carbureted system consists
of:
x a fuel tank to store the fuel

x fuel lines or pipes to carry fuel in the system
x a pump to move fuel from the tank to the engine
x a filter to clean the fuel
x an air cleaner to supply clean air
x a carburetor to mix the air and fuel and to control how much mixture enters
the engine
x And an intake manifold to carry the air-fuel mixture to the engine.
The carburetor turns liquid fuel into a fine spray and mixes it with air, and it has
to supply the correct mixture of air and fuel to suit all operating conditions. It
also controls how much air-fuel mixture is delivered to the engine.
This is done by the throttle valve near the bottom of the carburetor, which is
connected to the accelerator or gas pedal. The downdraft carburetor is the
most common kind. The side-draft model is less common.

28
The down-draft carburetor is usually mounted on the intake manifold, and it

has a float bowl for fuel. One end of a tube is immersed in the fuel. The other
end is a fuel discharge nozzle, in the venturi.
As the piston moves through its intake stroke, it makes a low pressure area and
as a result, air from the atmosphere flows through the venturi.
The venturi here is narrower than the rest of the barrel, and it is shaped to make
the air speed up as it passes through.
A similar effect occurs around the wings of aircraft. The shape of the wing
section speeds up the airflow over the top of the wing, and creates a low-
pressure area there, lower than the atmospheric pressure below.
The result is an upward force that provides lift for the aircraft. The shape of the
venturi is designed to apply the same principle, known as the 'Bernoulli effect'.
It creates a low pressure area where the end of the nozzle protrudes into the
airflow.
Atmospheric pressure on fuel in the float bowl is now greater than the pressure
on the end of the nozzle. This forces fuel to flow from the nozzle. It mixes with
the passing air, breaking up into droplets, or atomizing.
A light vehicle under normal conditions needs an air-fuel ratio, by mass, of

about 15 to 1. That means that the ratio is 15lbs or 15Kg of air for every pound
or kilogram of fuel.
Because air is much lighter than fuel, that same ratio of air to fuel appears
much greater when looked at by volume. The volume of air to fuel needed is
11,000 gallons or liters of air to every one gallon or liter of fuel – a ratio of
11,000:1.
This ratio can vary to suit engine operating conditions. Too much fuel for the
volume of air will waste fuel and cause pollution. Too little fuel will cause loss of
power and possible engine damage.
The carburetor is the small engine component that mixes liquid fuel with air.
When liquid gasoline is mixed with enough air to form a fine spray, the fuel
becomes explosive and very easy to burn.
The ideal mix of fuel and air for use in an engine is approximately one part
gasoline to fifteen parts air.
An air and fuel mixture that contains more fuel than this ideal amount is called
rich, and an air and fuel mixture that has less fuel than the ideal is called lean.

29
Figure 1.12 The basic carburetor
The main functions of the carburetor are discussed below:
1. Suck Air into Engine

An automotive carburetor is basically nothing more than a large, vacuum-
operated suction device. One of the main functions of a carburetor is to suck
in outside air and inject it directly into a car's engine.
A typical, gas-operated engine requires both air and fuel (gasoline) in order to
function. A carburetor provides this.
2. Suck fuel into Engine

In addition to injecting air into a car's engine, a carburetor is responsible for
supplying a steady flow of fuel (gasoline) to a car's engine.
Connected to a car's gas tank by a long fuel line and a fuel pump, a
carburetor is supplied with an ongoing source of fuel, which it meters out in
specific dosages directly to a car's engine.
One of the most important functions of a carburetor is its creation of a car

engine's air/fuel mixture. An air/fuel mixture is a specific ratio of air and fuel
(gasoline) that a car's engine needs in order to function.
For an engine to run and operate, it's air/fuel mixture has to be constantly
adjusted, metered out and restricted depending on engine operating
conditions. A carburetor performs all of these functions.

30
3. Speed Vehicle Warm-Up

A carburetor speeds up a vehicle's warm-up by elevating the vehicle's idle
speed for a few minutes and by altering its air/fuel ratio.
A carburetor has a small vacuum-operated choke that increases the ratio of

fuel to air in a cold vehicle's air/fuel mixture and also increases its idle speed,
both of which help a cold vehicle to start and warm-up.
4. Activate Transmission Passing Gear

When a vehicle's accelerator is pressed to the floor, a sudden rush of power is
generated by the transmission passing gear, a special vacuum-operated gear
that is triggered by the passing gear assembly, an assembly located directly
within the carburetor.
This passing gear, which is simply the downshifting of the transmission from drive
into second gear, enables a car to speed up quickly or, as its name implies,
pass another vehicle in a hurry.
1.6.2 Parts of the downdraught carburetor

The main components in most carbureted systems are a float chamber, a
venturi, the throttle, idle circuit, main circuit, a choke and an accelerator
pump, see Figure 1.13.
Figure 1.13 Parts of the downdraught carburetor
x Float chamber
The float chamber holds a quantity of fuel at atmospheric pressure ready for
use.

31
Its supply is refilled by a float driven valve; as the level drops the float drops
too and opens an inlet which allows the fuel pump to deliver more fuel to the
float chamber. The float rises with the replenished fuel level, closing off the
inlet.
x Diaphragm chamber
With some carbureted engines – such as those that drive power tools like brush
cutters or chainsaws – a float chamber is unsuitable, as the engine needs to
work even if it is upside down. In that case, a chamber with a flexible
diaphragm on one side is used.
Atmospheric pressure pushes the diaphragm inwards as the fuel is used. A

needle valve connected to the diaphragm opens to allow the fuel to be
replenished as the diaphragm moves inwards, pushing the diaphragm out
again and maintaining consistent fuel pressure.
x Venturi and throttle

A venturi is the name for a narrower more restricted area in a fluid passage. As
fluid passes through a venturi, the fluid pressure drops and its speed increases.
Bernoulli's principle says that as a fluid flows through a tube or pipe, when the
pipe narrows the speed of the flow increases, but its pressure drops.
A venturi is the name for the restricted, or narrowed, area of a container

through which a fluid flows, and its purpose can be to take advantage of
either the increase in fluid speed, or the drop in pressure, or both.
A typical application of a venturi is inside a carburetor. When air is being

drawn into the cylinders of the engine, it passes through a venturi in which
there is an inlet connected to a source of fuel vapor.
The lower pressure of the air causes some of the higher pressure fuel vapor to
be pushed into and mixed with the stream of air. In a carburetor, air passes
through a pipe – in the form of a venturi – into the inlet manifold of the engine.
A butterfly valve called the throttle, which is connected to the accelerator or

gas pedal, rotates to restrict the airflow almost completely, or turns end-on to
the airflow to allow free flow of air.
This valve controls the amount of air/fuel mixture delivered to the engine
through the venturi, and therefore also controls the engine's speed and power.
x Idle and off-idle circuits

When the throttle valve is closed or nearly closed, the manifold vacuum
created behind the throttle is sufficient to pull a small amount of fuel and air
through small openings located after the butterfly valve.

32
This is called the idle circuit and it enables the engine to keep running when
there is no pressure on the accelerator.
As the rotating valve moves forward to a slightly open throttle position, the
vacuum is reduced, so additional small openings are revealed to compensate
for this. This is the 'off-idle' circuit.
x Main circuit
When the throttle is progressively opened, more and more air is allowed to flow
through the pipe and into the engine. The idle and off-idle circuits cease to
function because the manifold vacuum is now lowered.
As the airflow through the venturi increases, the Bernoulli effect, which lowers
the pressure in the pipe as the velocity increases, sucks fuel into the airstream
through a jet in the center of the throat.
x Accelerator pump
If the throttle is opened wide very quickly, the idle circuit stops working
immediately, but the main circuit does not become effective until the airflow
has had time to build sufficiently.
To bridge that gap in fuel flow, an accelerator pump delivers a squirt of fuel
under low pressure to smooth the transition from idle circuit to main circuit.
x Choke
Fuel ignites less readily when cold, and if the engine is also cold, then some fuel
vapor can condense out of the air fuel mixture onto the intake manifold and
cylinder walls.
This makes the mixture leaner, so to compensate for this, a valve known as the
'choke' restricts the flow of air at the entrance to the carburetor, keeping the
manifold pressure low even though the throttle valve has been opened.
In this way, fuel is sucked into the incoming air through all the fuel circuits at
once – idle, off-idle, and main. In some engines, instead of using a choke
valve, an additional fuel circuit behind the throttle valve can enrich the air fuel
mixture.
1.7 Modern carburetor circuits

Since all late model cars and light trucks are using downdraft carburetors, this
text will apply only to them. However, the principles of carburetion do not
change.
The only difference between the terms updraft and downdraft, is the direction
in which air enters the carburetor throat or air horn. It either enters from the
bottom or travels up into the engine or from the top down into it.

33
In as much as updraft carburetors are in the minority as far as equipment on

present day cars and trucks is concerned, it is of little value to discuss them in
this book.
All downdraft carburetors regardless of size and shape operate in the same
general manner. This being the case, we can break their construction into five
separate circuits for easier discussion and understanding. The circuits are as
follows:
1. Float
2. Low Speed
3. High Speed (and power on Zenith and Stromberg)
4. Pump
5. Choke
Since we have listed the circuits in sequence, let us discuss them in this manner.
In the part of the carburetor known as the body is located the float bowl or
chamber. This chamber is used for the storage of a certain quantity of fuel.
It serves two purposes, namely, to keep all the other circuits of the carburetor
supplied with the amount of fuel they need and to absorb the pulsation of the
fuel pump, as it delivers the fuel to the carburetor.
Though its construction is simple, it plays a very important part in the proper
functioning of the engine.
The float system consists of the following: float chamber or bowl, fuel inlet,
needle valve and seat, float, float pin and on some carburetors a float pin
retainer, and the float chamber or bowl cover which contains the float
chamber vent.
For petrol engines, different air-fuel ratios are required under various conditions
of load.
1. Air-Fuel Ratio for Starting:

Very rich mixture (10:1) is required at starting of engine. During starting very
small amount of fuel is vaporises and rest of it stay in the liquid state so as to
give an ignitable mixture.
2. Air-Fuel Ratio for Idling:

An idling, engine demands a rich mixture, which can be made leaner as the
throttle is gradually opened. During idling, the pressure in the inlet manifold is
about 20 to 25% of atmospheric pressure.
At suction stroke, inlet valve opens and the product of combustion trapped in
the clearance volume, expands in the inlet manifold. Latter when the piston
moves downwards, the gases along with the fresh charges go into the cylinder.

34
A rich mixture must be supplied during idling, to counteract the tendency of

dilution and to get an ignitable mixture.
3. Air-Fuel Ratio for Medium Load:

Most of the time, engine is running in medium load condition, therefore, it is
desirable that the running should be most economical in this condition.
So a lean mixture can be supplied, as engine has low fuel consumption at

medium load. For multi cylinder engine, slightly more fuel is required due to mal
distribution of fuel.
4. Air-Fuel Ratio for Maximum Power Range:

When maximum power is required, the engine must be supplied with rich
mixture as the economy is of no consideration. As the engine enters in the
power range, the spark must be retarded otherwise knocking would occur.
A lean mixture burns at latter part of working stroke. As the exhaust valve
expose to high temperature gases and have very less time to cool down.
Moreover, the excess air in the lean mixture may cause an oxidising action on
the hot exhaust valve and leads to failure.
5. Air-Fuel Ratio for Acceleration:

Even during normal running, sometimes more power is required for a short
period such as to accelerate the vehicle for overtaking etc. During this period
rich mixture is required.
1.8 Operation of carburetor circuits
1.8.1 Float circuit

The purpose of the float system, see Figure 1.14, is the maintenance of the fuel
at a predetermined level in the carburetor at all times, under any operating
conditions.
Since the float system controls the flow of fuel into all the other circuits of the
carburetor, its setting and operation must be correct. If the float is set too low,
the engine will starve for fuel at higher speeds.
On the other hand, should the float be set too high, too much fuel will flow
through the carburetor circuits and the engine will load or a mileage
complaint will be the result.
The float system can only operate properly, if there is little or no wear in the
operating parts such as needle valve and seat, float pin or float lever holes. A
positive setting of the float level cannot be made if there is wear in any of
these parts.

35
Figure 1.14 The Float circuit
The only way a sure repair job can be done, is to replace all worn parts with
new ones. A loaded float, one that has developed a leak in its air chamber
and is partially filled with fuel, will definitely give trouble.
This will cause the float to become heavy and lose its buoyancy. When this
happens, the float no longer has the power to rise and fall with the fuel in the
float bowl and of course cannot control the flow of fuel, through the needle
valve and seat. Replace float with a new one.
Another part of the float circuit that might cause trouble due to wear, is the
float pin boss on the bowl cover. On Stromberg BX type carburetors, a round
wire retainer is used, to hold the float pin and float against the recess in the
casting.

36
This retainer must be in place when float and pin are installed. If not, the float
pin will bob out of the casting bosses and the float will not operate the needle
valve and seat assembly. This also is true of the Ball and Ball carburetors. Make
sure the retainer is in place correctly.
If the serviceman is attempting to set a float without manufacturers'

specifications, here is a quick procedure. On floats that are attached to the
body casting, set the top of the free end of the float about 4 inch below
parallel of the machine surface of the casting, with the needle valve seated.
On carburetors where the float is attached to the bowl cover with the gasket
removed and needle valve seated, set float clearance at 3/8 inch. It is best to
set the float level a trifle below specifications because as the needle and seat
wears the float level rises.
Downdraft carburetors fall into two types, one the unbalanced type and the
other a balanced type unit. In the bowl cover of the unbalanced type
carburetor, is a hole drilled to a definite dimension. It is through this hole that air
flows and exerts pressure, or pushes against the fuel in the float bowl.
The air going through the air horn has no effect on the fuel in the float bowl of
the unbalanced type of carburetor. As a result, should the air filter on the
carburetor be restricted with dirt, oil, or any foreign substance the air flow into
the air horn would be slowed down or reduced in volume.
When this happens, the carburetor not getting sufficient flow of air runs rich,
because the pressure on the fuel in the float bowl remains the same as normal.
In the balanced type of carburetor this cannot happen.
The vent hole in the bowl cover is internal and the float chamber is vented by
means of a tube into the air horn. If the flow of air into the air horn is restricted,
by this internal venting, the pressure on the fuel is also restricted.
Consequently, the pressure in the air horn and the pressure in the float
chamber are balanced.
A float level that is set too high will cause the float chamber to overfill and
seep out the top of the carburetor. This can be very dangerous as it can flow
onto the hot engine with disastrous results. see Figure 1.11.
x The engine will flood because of fuel entering the air horn rapidly.
x A high float setting will cause the engine to misfire with excessive black
smoke emitted via the tail pipe, stutter or even stall completely.
A float setting that is too low will cause the following:
x A lean or low fuel flow to supply the need of the carburetor circuits.

37
x Sluggish engine performance especially on high speeds.

x The engine may misfire, stutter or even stall completely.
1.8.2 Idle circuit

Low speed and idling ports allow the engine to operate with a low throttle
opening before the main system is operating fully, see Figure 1.15.
Figure 1.15 The Idle circuit
x The carburetor supplies the engine with the correct mixture to suit all
operating conditions, from idling to high speed. To do this it has a number of
systems.
x With the engine stopped, the throttle valve is closed but fuel is still held in
the bowl. With the engine running, fuel is held at a set level by the float and
a needle valve. Fuel supplied to the engine when it is running is replaced by
fuel from the tank.
x A passage from the air horn to the float bowl balances air pressure
between the air cleaner and the float bowl. The idle air passage and the
main discharge nozzle are above the level of the fuel.
x The first stage of the idle system uses the idle and low-speed circuit, plus an
idle adjustment screw.

38
x The throttle valve is almost closed, so air-flow through the carburetor is very
small. The action of a piston creates a low-pressure area below the throttle,
and this is concentrated at the edge of the throttle valve as the air passes
the idle port. Fuel flows from the float bowl, through the idle passages and
into the carburetor below the throttle valve at the idle port. The air bleed
lets air enter the fuel on its way from the float bowl. This helps aerate the
fuel before it reaches the idle port.
x Engine idle speed is set by two different adjustments. The amount of fuel is
adjusted by the mixture adjustment screw at the idle port.
x The amount of air is adjusted by changing the throttle stop screw.
x Second-stage idling starts as the throttle valve opens. This is similar to idle,
but with the low-speed port uncovered. Both ports discharge fuel to mix
with incoming air. Low-speed ports help the transition from idling, to low-
speed, to high speed. Without them, the engine tends to hesitate until the
main system comes fully into action.
1.8.3 Low speed circuit

The low speed circuit, see Figure 1.16, controls all the flow of fuel going into the
engine during idle and light load speeds. It partially controls the flow for light
load speeds, between twenty and thirty miles per hour. Above thirty miles per
hour, it stops operating completely.
Figure 1.16 The low speed circuit
Low speed systems in general, consist of the low speed jet, economizer, air
bleed, idle passage, upper idle port and the lower idle port, which contains
idle adjusting screw or needle.
During idle and light load speeds, fuel flows from the float bowl into the low
speed jet opening, which is drilled to a definite size to meter the amount of fuel
for this range of engine operation.

39
The fuel travels through the jet into the idle passage. Here it is mixed with air
from the air bleed and vaporized. The mixture then flows down the idle
passage, through the lower idle port and into the throat of the carburetor
under the throttle valve.
The idle needle or adjusting screw is used in the low speed circuits for the
purpose of adjusting the mixture. This helps to compensate for changes in the
engine operation due to wear.
When fuel of different grades is used, the idle mixture must be corrected. The
idle adjusting screw does this.
Since the low speed system also contains an upper idle port, its function is
explained in the following: The mixture emerging from the lower idle port is not
sufficient to operate the engine at speeds above idle, that is, engine speeds
up to twenty miles per hour.
Because we cannot change the mixture ratio for idle, we must use a larger
quantity of this mixture. To secure this increase, as the throttle valve opens, it
uncovers a portion of the upper idle port and more of the mixture enters the
throat of the carburetor and flows into the engine.
As we continue to open the throttle, more mixture continues to flow until the
upper port is entirely uncovered, supplying sufficient fuel to operate the
engine, up to the point where the high speed circuits come into operation.
Since the low speed circuit plays so great a part in proper engine operation
the passages and air bleeds must be kept clean and the dimension must not
be tampered with or changed.
Worn or damaged idle jets must be replaced. Loose jets or wrong sized jets
make trouble shooting a dif-ficult problem. When in doubt use new parts and
be certain of a proper repair job.
We must always bear in mind at idle speed, only the idle system should
operate. This is not true in cases of badly worn carburetors or carburetors that
have been badly mishandled by incompetent, inexperienced mechanics.
On the early carburetors the by-pass and air bleed holes were drilled vertically
in the casting. This caused them to accumulate dirt quickly and upset the idle
system to such an extent, that the engine could not be made to idle regardless
of any amount of adjusting on the idle screw.
This condition, however, was eliminated in the later production carburetors, by

drilling the top openings horizontally in the casting. A good rule to go by in
setting a carburetor idle is the following: Turn the idle screw in until the engine
runs smoothly.

40
If the engine responds to this adjusting, you can be sure the carburetor is
operating as it should. Also, it has been found in many cases, an idle needle
turned into the casting so tight that it has ridges cut into it.
This is absolutely unnecessary. If, when the idle needle is fully closed, the
engine still continues to run, thoroughly check for other trouble. Carbon
accumulation around the upper idle port will also cause trouble when it is
changed from idle to off-idle speeds up to thirty km per hour.
To check for any leaking or bleeding in the carburetor during idle, remove the
air filter and look down inside the carburetor throat. It should be perfectly dry if
the carburetor is working properly with the engine at idle speed.
Caution:
Do not accelerate the engine while making this last test, as a pop-
back can cause serious personal injury.
Shrunken gaskets can also cause a poor idle. The Carburetors on late model
cars, that have two screws holding the body to the throttle flange, have
trouble with the screws working loose, allowing air to bleed into the carburetor
throat and lean the mixture out. This will definitely affect the performance of
the engine.
1.8.4 Acceleration circuit

For acceleration, suddenly depressing the accelerator delivers extra fuel into
the airstream. Extra fuel is also needed for accelerating. Suddenly opening the
throttle increases the air flow, but fuel cannot flow from the discharge nozzle
quickly enough to match it.
An extra jet of fuel is needed. Depressing the pedal compresses a duration

spring that exerts a force on the plunger of a small plunger pump. This
pressurizes fuel below the plunger and closes off the inlet valve.
Fuel flows through a bypass jet and enters the air stream from a discharge
nozzle above the venture, see Figure 1.17. The duration spring extends the time
for delivering the fuel.
Releasing the pedal lets the linkage move the plunger upwards. The bypass jet
closes and the inlet valve opens, to let fuel refill the pump chamber from the
float bowl.
When a cold engine is being started, little air flows through the venturi, and
there is no heat to assist in vaporizing any fuel that is delivered. This makes the
effective mixture of fuel and air too weak to be readily ignited by the spark
plug.

41
Figure 1.17 The acceleration circuit
An excess of fuel must be supplied temporarily to ensure that the proportion of

fuel that does vaporize will form an ignitable mixture. A choke valve is fitted to
help. Closing the choke valve closes the carburetor intake.
The pumping action of the pistons creates a low pressure area below the
valve, even without venturi action.
This low pressure causes fuel to flow from the discharge nozzle and from the
idle and low-speed ports, and provides the rich mixture needed to start the
cold engine.
The choke can be controlled manually by a cable that operates the valve.
Most are controlled automatically, so that the valve is closed when the engine
is cold, and opens progressively as the engine warms up.

42
When the engine is warm, the fuel drawn into the manifold during starting
vaporizes readily, and the engine can be started without the aid of a choke.
The choke should operate as briefly as possible.
Overusing it produces rich mixtures that cause exhaust pollution, and increase
fuel consumption. Flooding a carburetor also produces rich mixtures.
This can be caused by wear, or by dirt trapped in the needle and seat that
causes the level in the float bowl to rise, and fuel to discharge from the nozzle -
with little or no venturi action.
1.8.5 Power circuit

A carburetor doesn't really need a power-enrichment circuit, see Figure 1.18.
However, the main metering system is required to supply fuel to the engine
both at maximum demand under wide open throttle (WOT), and also at part-
throttle.
Figure 1.18 The power circuit
WOT metering, dictated by the jet size and other variables, determines the
amount of fuel necessary to maintain the proper air/fuel ratio at this maximum
demand.
But this means that at part-throttle when fuel demand is reduced, the jet will
flow more than necessary. The power circuit creates an on-demand
enrichment circuit that adds more fuel during WOT operation.

43
This circuit uses manifold vacuum to keep a small valve closed during part-
throttle operation.
When the throttles are opened far enough to lower the manifold vacuum to a
certain level, a small spring in the valve opens the valve and additional fuel is
introduced into the main metering circuit.
All carburetors employ a power circuit, but the way they make this work is
slightly different.
1.8.6 Main metering circuit

The main metering circuit consists of a jet that restricts the total amount of fuel
introduced into the main metering well. Inside the well is a small tube with even
smaller holes drilled in it. This emulsion tube is designed to mix air with the fuel.
Figure 1.19 The metering rod
The air comes from a high-speed air bleed located at the top of the idle well.
This air bleed acts as both an emulsifier and a suction break to prevent fuel
from siphoning into the engine after the engine is shut off.
The air and fuel is then directed to a discharge nozzle that's part of the booster
venturi located in the throttle-bore airstream.
As the throttle is opened, air moves past the booster venturi, creating a low-
pressure area that pushes fuel through the main circuit into the airstream. The
high-speed air bleed contributes additional air into the main well to improve
fuel atomization and circuit activity.

44
1.8.7 Economisers and power systems

Under ideal conditions a carburetor that supplied a chemically correct mixture
(15:1) would cause the engine to produce maximum power and economy at
all speeds and loads.
The devices used in carburetor to vary the mixture strength to suit either the
power or cruising conditions are called economisers or power systems.
In all cases the weak cruising mixture is obtained by reducing the petrol flow
through the main jet system. This can be achieved by either using a smaller jet
or by reducing the pressure difference across the jet.
x Power valve (vacuum controlled economiser)

Restoration of the air/fuel ratio of 15:1for power is achieved either by providing
an additional path from the float chamber to the choke or by exposing the
main jet to the normal pressure difference.
A power valve, see Figure 1.20, also known as an economiser valve, performs
the same function as a metering rod; it provides a variable high speed fuel
mixture. A power valve consists of a fuel valve, a vacuum diaphragm and a
spring.
Figure 1.20 The power valve
o Operation of the power valve

Engine intake manifold vacuum is high when engine is cruising at normal
speed. This high vacuum act on the diaphragm of the power valve to close
the fuel valve.
Under normal driving conditions no additional fuel is added to the main

metering system. However, when the accelerator pedal is depressed, manifold
vacuum drops.

45
When this happens, the power valve pushes the fuel valve open. The fuel then
flows through the power valve and into the main metering system. This extra
fuel is needed for extra engine power to overtake or climb a hill.
1.8.8 Air fuel mixture

In the internal combustion engine, atmospheric air is essentially required to
burn the fuel. The Oxygen in air helps for proper burning of fuel. To obtain
excellent combustion result from fuel, the air and the fuel must be mixed in
proper ratio.
For complete combustion, the air-fuel ratio is approximately 15: 1 by weight.

This ratio is known as chemically correct air-fuel ratio, and it is the ideal ratio in
any internal combustion engine.
However, the air-fuel ratio can be range from 20: 1 to 8:1 in this range also
combustion of fuel can occur. Any ratio outside of this range is either too rich
or too lean to sustain flame propagation.
As per requirement of engine, the carburetor provides an air-fuel ratio, which

must be within combustion range. Engine is cold at the time of starting so, very
rich mixture is required.
Rich mixture is also required at time of idling and producing maximum power.
During the normal running, a comparatively lean mixture can be used.
1.8.9 Carburetor adjustment

Carburetor adjustments can only be done if the following is in order:
1. The ignition system must be in good shape

2. The intake manifold is free of leaks
3. The float level is set according to specifications
4. Cylinder compression is within 10% of each other
5. The engine is at operating temperature.
1.8.10 Idle speed

To meet current regulations final adjustment of the idling speed requires a
tachometer to set the engine speed accurately and an exhaust gas analyser
to measure the quantity of carbon monoxide present in the exhaust gas.
The adjustment of the idling speed varies from engine to engine, but the main
points are as follows:
x Check that the ignition timing is set according to specifications.

x The engine must be at operating temperature.
x Make sure the choke is wide open.

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1.8.11 Idle mixture (air fuel mixture)

Connect the tachometer and with the engine running adjust the throttle stop
screw to obtain the recommended idling speed. Adjust the volume control
screw until the highest and smoothest speed is found.
Turning the screw outwards enriches the mixture and when it is moved too far
the engine speed surges in a manner called “hunting.” Weaken the mixture
from the point where it runs the fastest until the speed drops by the small
amount recommended.
Reset the throttle stop screw to make the engine idle at the recommended
speed. The choke system is incorporated in the carburetor, for the purpose of
richening the mixture ratio for cold and semi-warm engine starting and
operation.
1.8.12 Choke circuit

The choke is built into the carburetor air horn and consists of a round flat valve
that has almost the same circumference as the inside of the air horn, see
Figure 1.21.
Figure 1.21 The choke circuit
It is mounted on a shaft that reaches from side to side in the air horn. One end
of the shaft extends out of the air horn and has a linkage attached to it for
either manual or automatic operation.

47
x Manual choke
When the engine is cold, the fuel tends to condense into large drops in the
manifold, rather than vaporizing. By supplying a richer mixture (8:1 to 9:1), there
will be enough vapor to assure complete combustion.
Figure 1.22 Manual choke
The carburetor is fitted with a choke system to provide this richer mixture. The
choke system provides a very rich mixture to start the engine and to make the
mixture less rich gradually, as the engine reaches operating temperature. The
two types of choke systems are the manual and automatic:
The manual choke system (Figure 1.22) was once the most popular way of
controlling the choke plate; however, because of emissions regulations the
possible danger when used with catalytic converters and technological
advances in automatic choke systems, manual chokes are not often used
today.
In the manual choke system, the choke plate is operated by a flexible cable
that extends into the operator’s compartment. As the control is pulled out, the
choke plate will be closed, so the engine can be started.
As the control is pushed back in, the position of the choke plate is adjusted to
provide the proper mixture. The following are two features that are
incorporated into the manual choke to reduce the possibility of the engine
flooding by automatically admitting air into the engine.
A spring-loaded poppet valve is automatically pulled open by the force of the

engine intake strokes.
An off-center choke valve creates a pressure differential between the two

sides of the choke plate when it is subjected to engine intake, causing it to be
pulled open against the force of spring loaded linkage.

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x Automatic choke
There are two general types of automatic chokes (see Figure 1.23):
1. Manifold type-mounted on engine manifold and connected by linkage to

carburetor choke valve.
2. The type built integral with the carburetor.
Figure 1.23 Automatic choke
The manifold type most commonly used is the "Sisson Choke." There is only one
adjustment the mechanic can make on this unit without the factory
recommended equipment.
That is the "full" choked setting. This can be done as follows: The choke linkage
operating shaft has a hole drilled through it. The base of the choke housing has
a recess cut in it.
Using a cotter pin or drift pin, insert whichever one used in the shaft hole and
drop it through so it will fit into the recess in the housing hole. The choke is now
set for full choking action.
Loosen the nut of the arm on the choke shaft with the link rod connected.
Close choke valve in carburetor. Holding the choke valve closed, tighten arm
nut. Remove cotter or drift pin from shaft hole. The choke is now ready for
operation.
The automatic choke built as part of the carburetor is a simple, ingenious

device and is practically fool proof. Its greatest enemies are dirt, carbon and
improper adjustment.
The parts of the automatic choke are as follows: choke housing and air horn
assembly which has the hot air inlet and vacuum piston cylinder and vacuum
inlet port cast in it, off set choke valve, fast idle linkage, hot air passage screen,
choke valve shaft, screws and vacuum piston and link.

49
It also includes thermo-static coil spring housing and mounting screws and
retainers. The last two parts of the automatic choke circuit are the hot air
passage and the vacuum passage.
The automatic choke principle is very simple. When the engine is cold, the
thermostatic coil spring contracts or coils up. The spring has a bend in the end
which fits over a projection on the choke valve shaft.
This causes the spring to wind up and the choke valve closes. When the engine
is started, vacuum is ap-plied to the vacuum piston which is also connected by
a link to the choke shaft.
This piston tries to pull the choke valve open, but due to the tension of the
thermostatic spring, the choke valve is held in just the correct position, for
proper starting mixture in accordance with weather or engine temperature.
As the engine warms up, heat from the exhaust manifold is piped into the
choke operating housing, and as the thermostatic spring grows warm it uncoils.
The vacuum piston pulls on the choke shaft and finally opens the choke all the
way.
x Methods of warming the thermostatic spring
1. Heat from the engine

2. Engine coolant
3. An electric thermostatic coil operated from a temperature-sensitive switch.
x Methods of opening the choke plate

The unloading of the choke refers to the opening of the choke plate when the
throttle butterfly opens via the accelerator pedal. This is important as the close
choke plate will cause engine flooding resulting in the engine stalling.
x Mechanical choke unloader

If for some reason the engine should flood when it is cold, a device is needed
to open the choke, so air may be admitted to correct the condition. This is
accomplished by the choke unloader (fig. 4-38).
The choke unloader can be either mechanical- or vacuum-operated. A

mechanical choke unloader physically opens the choke plate any time the
throttle swings fully open. It uses a metal lug on the throttle lever.
When the throttle lever moves to the fully opened position, the lug pushes on
the choke linkage (fast idle linkage). This provides the operator a means of
opening the choke.
Air can then enter the air horn to help clear a flooded engine (engine with too
much liquid fuel in the cylinders and intake manifold).

50
x Vacuum choke unloader

A vacuum choke unloader (Figure 1.24) also called a choke brake uses engine
vacuum to crack open the choke plate as soon as the engine starts. It
automatically prevents the engine from flooding.
Figure 1.24 Vacuum choke unloader
Before the engine starts, the choke spring holds the choke plate almost
completely closed. This action primes the engine with enough fuel for starting.
Then as the engine starts, the intake manifold vacuum acts on the choke
brake diaphragm.
The diaphragm pulls the choke linkage and lever to swing the choke plate
open slightly. This action helps avoid an overly rich mixture and improves cold
engine drivability.
x Choke function of the small piston connected to an automatic

On many older carburetors, a vacuum operated piston in the choke housing
or carburetor casting was used to pull the choke plate partially open so the
engine could receive sufficient air to keep running.
These pistons were prone to gum up and stick, causing hard starting and
stalling problems.
In most later model carburetors (but not all), the vacuum piston has been
replaced with an external "choke pull-off" vacuum diaphragm.

51
The choke pull-off is also attached to the choke linkage where it pulls the
choke plate open slightly as soon as the engine starts.
x Functions of the choke mechanism
1. The choking effect also creates an area of low pressure inside the throat of
the carburetor that helps to pull additional fuel through the main metering
circuit.
2. The butterfly valve or plate located near the top of the carburetor limits or
restricts the amount of air allowed to enter the carburetor, thus enriching
the fuel-air mixture and enabling the vehicle to start and run more easily
when cold. Automatic chokes have a Thermostatic coil or Thermostatic
spring that activates a Butterfly valve at the top of the Carburetor barrel.
3. The choke mechanism activates a fast idle cam, which increases engine
idle speed when the choke is closed to prevent flooding.
4. At idle there isn't enough air flowing through the venturi to pull fuel through
the venturi discharge nozzle. By temporarily choking off the air supply,
however, manifold vacuum rather than venturi vacuum helps to draw the
extra fuel through the main metering circuit.
1.9 Curb idle speed

This refers to the engine idling speed when the engine is at operating
temperature and it ranges between 750 and 900 rpm dependent on
manufacturers specifications.
1.10 Throttle return dash pot

The throttle return dashpot (see Figure 1.25) also known as an anti-stall dashpot
acts as a damper to keep the throttle from closing too quickly when the
accelerator pedal is suddenly released.
It is commonly used on carburetors for automatic transmission equipped

vehicles. Without the throttle return dashpot, the engine could stall when the
engine quickly returned to idle.
The drag of the automatic transmission could kill the engine. The throttle return
dashpot works something like a shock absorber. It uses a spring-loaded
diaphragm mounted in a sealed housing.
A small hole is drilled into the diaphragm housing to prevent rapid movement
of the dashpot plunger and diaphragm. Air must bleed out of the hole slowly.
When the vehicle is traveling down the road (throttle plates open), the spring
pushes the dashpot plunger forward.
When the engine returns to idle, the throttle lever strikes the extended dashpot
plunger, and air leaks out of the throttle return dashpot, returning the engine
slowly to curb idle.

52
This action gives the automatic transmission enough time to disconnect

(torque converter releases) from the engine without the engine stalling.
Figure 1.25 Throttle return dash pot
1.11 Dieseling (run on)

Dieseling or engine run-on is a condition that can occur in spark plug, gasoline
powered internal combustion engines, whereby the engine keeps running for a
short period after being switched off, due to fuel ignition without a spark.
1.11.1 Anti-dieseling solenoid (running on)

A fast idle solenoid, also known as an anti-dieseling solenoid, as seen in Figure
1.26, opens the carburetor throttle plates during engine operation but allows
the throttle plates to close as soon as the engine is turned off.
Figure 1.26 Anti-dieseling solenoid (running on)
In this way, a faster idle speed can be used while still avoiding dieseling
(engine keeps running even though the ignition key is turned off).

53
This is a particular problem with newer emission controlled vehicles due to

higher operating temperatures, higher idle speeds, leaner fuel mixtures, and
lower octane fuel.
When the engine is running, current flows to the fast idle solenoid, causing the
plunger to move outward. The throttle plates are held open to increase engine
speed. The plunger is adjustable, so the idle speed can be adjusted.
When the engine is turned off, current flow to the solenoid stops. The solenoid
plunger retracts and the throttle plates are free to swing almost closed.
1.11.2 Reasons for dieseling

Dieseling can occur for several reasons:
x Built-up carbon in the ignition chamber can glow red after the engine is off,
providing a mechanism for igniting unburnt fuel. Such a thing can happen
when the engine runs very rich, depositing unspent fuel and particles on the
pistons and valves.
x Similarly, rough metal regions within the piston chamber can cause this
same problem, since they can glow red.
x It has also been suggested that an improperly rated spark plug can retain
heat and cause the same problem.
x A carburetor that does not completely close can contribute to running
once the engine is off, since the extra fuel and oxygen mixture can
combust easily in the warm piston chamber.
x Similarly, hot vaporized oil gases from the engine crankcase can provide
ample fuel for dieseling.
x Incorrect timing.
x An engine that runs too hot or too lean may produce an environment
conducive to allowing unspent fuel to burn.
x An idle speed that is too fast can leave the engine with too much angular
momentum upon shutdown, raising the chances that the engine can turn
over and burn more fuel and lock itself into a cycle of continuous running.
1.11.3 The idle shut off valve

The valve is mounted on the side of the carburetor that provides air to the idle
circuit. The valve closes when the key is off, preventing "Run on". If it doesn't
open the engine won't idle. Figure 1.27 illustrates the idle fuel cutoff valve
(solenoid).
It is located low on the carburetor, close to the throttle arm. This valve shuts off
the flow of fuel when you turn off the engine, to prevent "running on."
Be sure the wire is connected and has a good electrical contact, and that it
runs to the (+) terminal on the coil. (Also attached to this terminal is the black
wire that provides power to the automatic choke, and the car's reverse lights if
equipped).

54
Make sure that the idle cutoff valve is snugly screwed into the carburetor body
(they do come loose).
Be careful not to over tighten it, the threads are fine and brass, screwed into
an aluminum carb body, both are relatively soft and can/will strip if over
tightened.
You can test the operation of the idle cutoff valve solenoid very easily. Turn on
the ignition (don t start the car), and pull off the wire on the solenoid.
Touch the wire back onto the connector, and you should hear a clicking
sound as the valve inside moves.
If you do not hear a clicking sound, check to make sure there is power (12
volts) to the wire (small trouble light, voltmeter, etc.). Replace the solenoid if it
is not working.
Figure 1.27 The idle shut off valve
1.12 Exhaust gas analyser

An exhaust gas analyzer is a testing device that draws a sample and then
measures the chemical content of the engine exhaust gasses.

55
It can be used to determine the air-fuel mixture of a carburetor or fuel injection

system. The chemically correct air-fuel ratio by mass for complete combustion
is known as stoichio-metric ratio.
1.13 Engine exhaust gases (products of combustion)

The five common gases produced by the internal combustion engine are listed
below in Table 1.1, with the dangerous three shown first:
Harmful Products Other by products (not harmful)
1. NOx - Oxides of Nitrogen 1. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

2. CO2 - Carbon Dioxide, measured 2. Oxygen (O²)
as percentage (%CO2 3. Water (H²0)
3. O² - Oxygen, measured as
percentage (%O²)
4. HC - Hydrocarbons, measured as
parts per million (ppm)
5. CO - Carbon Monoxide, measured
as percentage (%CO)
Table 1.1 Five common gases produced by the internal combustion engine
By measuring HC, CO, O2 and CO2 content in the exhaust gasses, we can find
out whether the engine and emission systems are working properly.
1.14 Carburetor defects that will result in excessively lean mixture
1. Vacuum leak in one of the hoses, in one of the emission components or

between the carburetor and intake manifold or between the intake
manifold and cylinder head.
2. A dirty carburetor
3. Incorrect float level setting
4. Main jet too small
5. Air correction jet too big
1.15 Methods used to reduce pulsation effect caused by a

mechanical fuel pump
The bypass system used is in the form of a T-piece which directs the excess fuel
delivered by the fuel pump back to the fuel tank.
The diameter of the T-piece to the outlet to the fuel tank is smaller than the
diameter to the carburetor and from the fuel pump, and this prevents all the
fuel to be pumped back into the fuel tank, see Figure 1.28.

56
Figure 1.28 A fuel bypass system used in the form of a T-piece
1.16 Two stage carburetors

A two-stage carburetor has a primary throttle open only from idle to medium
speeds. At higher speeds, the secondary throttle opens to admit more air-fuel
mixture.
1.17 Methods of opening the second stage butterfly
1.17.1 Vacuum activating mechanism

When the engine is being started, the throttle on the secondary side is already
closed, so a choke isn’t needed.
Figure 1.29 Vacuum activating mechanism
From idle to medium speeds, only the primary throttle is open. When engine
speed rises to where additional breathing capacity is needed, the secondary
throttle opens to admit more air-fuel mixture.
By the time the primary throttle is wide-open, so is the secondary throttle. This
can be controlled by a vacuum unit, connected by pullrod, to a lever on the
secondary shaft.

57
When air flows past ports in the venturis, it produces low-pressure areas. A hose
transmits this low pressure to a diaphragm chamber. This low pressure acts on
the diaphragm and opens the secondary throttle, see Figure 1.29.
1.17.2 Mechanical activated mechanism

A two-stage carburetor has a primary throttle open only from idle to medium
speeds. At higher speeds, the secondary throttle opens to admit more air-fuel
mixture.
The first stage and second stage throttle butterflies are connected by means
of two inter-locking gears. The gears are designed in such a way so that the
primary throttle can open to approximately 45° before the second stage can
open, see Figure 1.30.
Figure 1.30 Mechanical activated mechanism
1.17.3 Auxiliary air valve

The auxiliary throttle valve stops the second stage butterfly operation until the
first stage air is high enough to allow efficient operation.
The auxiliary air valve is held close by a light spring or counter-weight and it is
only fitted over the second stage throttle valve.
1.18 Carburetor problem diagnostics
1.18.1 Visual inspection

Visual inspection of the carburetor may provide causes and the remedial
action needed to perform the repairs. With the air filter removed, check the
following:
x Fuel leakage
x Missing or disconnected hoses.

58
x A sticking choke (cable or linkages)

x Bent linkages.
1.18.2 Incorrect air fuel mixture

Many internal carburetor problems show up as an air-fuel mixture that is too
rich or too lean.
1.18.3 Lean air fuel mixture

Lean Mixtures means the carburetor is delivering too much air. Typical
symptoms of a lean mixture are:
x Backfires as the throttle is closed (primarily during coast-downs)

x Lurching acceleration
x White or light grey spark plugs
x Requires excessive amounts of choke to run/start
x White or light grey muffler end pipes
x Bluing (on chrome systems) of the exhaust header down-pipes
1.18.4 Rich air fuel mixture

Rich Mixture means the carburetor is delivering too much gasoline. Typical
symptoms of a rich mixture are:
x Poor fuel economy

x Sluggish acceleration
x Choke not needed from cold starts
x Sooty or black spark plugs
x Sooty or black muffler end pipes
x Strong smell of fuel when the engine is at idle
x Uneven running (will often slow from regular idle rpm's and stop)
1.18.5 Exhaust gas analyser

Exhaust gas analysers work by testing a tiny part of the exhaust gases using a
sampling probe.
Most portable gas analyzers used an infrared technique that isolates the
various emissions by temperature. A four-gas analyzer, unlike a five-gas
analyzer, does not detect nitrogen oxides.
A four gas analyzer is an exhaust gas analyzer that measures the levels of four
types of gas, CO (carbon monoxide), HCs (hydrocarbons), O2 (oxygen), and
CO2 (carbon dioxide) in the tail-pipe emission of a vehicle.
1.18.6 Float system problems

An incorrectly adjusted float can cause a number of problems such as:
x Flooding
x Over rich fuel mixture

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x Lean fuel mixture

x Insufficient fuel in the float chamber
x Stalling
x Fuel starvation
x Needle valve stuck in the close position
x Needle valve stuck in the open position
x Miss firing on low speeds
x Miss firing on high speeds
x A defective fuel pump that does not deliver the correct volume
x Cracked fuel line to the carburetor
1.18.7 Carburetor flooding

A flooded engine is an internal combustion engine that has been fed an
excessively rich air-fuel mixture that cannot be ignited. This is caused by the
mixture exceeding the upper explosive limit for the particular fuel.
An engine in this condition will not start until the excessively rich mixture has
been cleared. It is also possible for an engine to stall from a running state due
to this condition.
Engine flooding was a common problem with carbureted cars, but newer fuel-
injected ones are immune to the problem when operating within normal
tolerances.
Flooding usually occurs during starting, especially under cold conditions or

because the accelerator has been pumped.
It can also occur during hot starting; high temperatures may cause fuel in the
carburetor float chamber to evaporate into the inlet manifold, causing the
air/fuel mixture to exceed the upper explosive limit.
High temperature fuel may also result in a vapor lock, which is unrelated to
flooding but has a similar symptom. A severe form of engine flooding occurs
when excessive liquid fuel enters the combustion chamber.
This reduces the dead volume of the combustion chamber and thus places a
heavy load on the starter motor, such that it fails to turn the engine.
Damage (due to excessive compression and even dilution of the lubricating oil
with fuel) can also occur. This condition is known as the engine "flooding out."
1.18.8 Idle system problems

The idle system can manifest the following problems:
x An erratic idling
x Engine cutting out at low speeds.
x Incorrect idle rpm setting

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Reasons for idle problems:
x Restricted fuel flow idle passage

x A clogged air bleed
1.18.9 Acceleration system problems

The function of the accelerator pump is to momentarily provide the additional
quantity of fuel needed during acceleration, until the flow delivered from the
main metering system increases. This is required whenever the throttle is
suddenly opened.
The pump is a piston type pump, operated through the throttle linkage. It is
used in stage I only. Located inside the float chamber, it is constantly
surrounded by gasoline.
When the pump lever is actuated, the pump piston forces fuel through
channels and out through the calibrated injection pipe into the carburetor
throat. Examine pump plunger for damage and sticking. A faulty accelerator
pump will cause:
x Hesitation on acceleration
x Stalling
x Incorrect fuel consumption
The pump lever should have tension if not; the pump is binding in the bore.
1.18.10 High speed system problems

High-speed system problems manifest itself as engine misfiring at cruising speed
because of a lean air-fuel mixture or a rich air-fuel mixture with a poor fuel
economy as the result.
Reasons for these problems are:
x Clogged high-speed air bleed

x Clogged main metering jet
x Incorrect sized main metering jet
x Clogged discharge nozzle
1.18.11 Full power system problems

Full power system problems can limit power, especially when trying to overtake
another car for example. The problem can be any of the following:
x Mechanical metering rod,

x Vacuum metering rod,
x or Solenoid metering valve.
x A bad power valve can leak fuel into the vacuum passage which causes
rough idle and poor fuel consumption.

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1.18.12 Choke system problems

When the choke is defective or not adjusted properly, it can make an engine
hard to start. The engine may also stall or die after it is started.
Problems with the operation of the choke will result whenever heating is lost at
the choke housing. On carburetors that draw heated air through a pipe in the
exhaust manifold, rust can corrode the inside of the pipe blocking air flow.
Or the pipe can simply rust off. When this happens, the bimetal spring doesn't
heat up quickly enough causing the choke to open too slowly. The result is a
rich fuel condition resulting in a rough idle, excessive fuel consumption and
high emissions.
On carburetors that use an electric heating element, a loose wire or poor

ground connection can prevent the choke from opening. The choke housing
should feel hot to the touch within a minute or so after the engine is started if its
heat source is working correctly.
The choke can be adjusted to alter the temperature at which it closes and
opens which also enriches or leans the starting fuel mixture.
The choke is adjusted by loosening the screws that hold the choke housing
and then rotating the housing. This changes the relative position of the bimetal
spring inside which puts either more or less tension on the choke.
Rotating the housing to increase tension on the choke (which you can detect
by holding the choke plate or watching it move) will make it close at a higher
temperature and enrich the mixture.
Rotating the choke housing to decrease tension will make it close fully at a
lower temperature and produce a somewhat leaner mixture. Notches are
provided on some housings for reference.
The vehicle manufacturer will often specify how many notches rich or lean the
choke is to be adjusted. On many late model carburetors, rivets are used
instead of screws to discourage tampering with the choke housing adjustment.
But this doesn't prevent adjustments because the rivets can be drilled out.
Once the adjustment is made, new rivets or screws can be installed. The rate
at which the choke opens is critical.
If the choke doesn't open quickly enough, especially during warm weather,
the mixture becomes too rich and increases carbon monoxide emissions.
On the other hand, if the choke comes off too quickly, especially during cold
weather, the mixture can lean out causing the engine to stall or to stumble
when the throttle is opened quickly.

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The choke pull-off plays an important role here by modifying the rate at which
the choke opens during warm weather. Some carburetors are equipped with
two choke pull-offs.
The combination of two choke pull-offs provides a progressive rate of opening

that changes according to temperature. The primary pull-off opens the choke
a bit when the engine starts to keep it running.
The second choke pull-off operates through a thermal vacuum switch that
senses the temperature of the heated air entering the carburetor.
During cold weather, the bimetal spring in the choke housing will open the
choke fully before the second choke pull-off has any effect because the
choke housing warms up faster than the air entering the carburetor.
So during cold weather, the second choke pull-off has no effect. But during
warm weather, the air entering the carburetor is already warm. This causes the
thermal vacuum valve to open, passing vacuum to the second choke pull-off
which pulls the choke open sooner than it would open otherwise.
A vacuum delay valve is often used in the secondary choke pull-off vacuum
line to delay full choke opening for 8 to 20 seconds (to give the engine a little
more time to warm up).
1.19 Air cleaners

Air that gets sucked into a car engine needs to be as clean as possible to
prevent engine contamination and, in some cases, engine damage.
Figure 1.31 The circulating system

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An air filter is the main line of defense against preventing damaging

particulate matter from entering a vehicle's engine. Dirty air can reduce
engine efficiency and cause damage; an air filter prevents this, see Figure
1.31.
1.19.1 Functions of air cleaner
x The main purpose of an automotive air filter is to filter and clean outside air
before it gets sucked into a car engine and burned along with fuel to
produce combustion.
x It also dampens the noise of the air rushing into the engine
x In the event of the engine backfiring through the carburetor, the air cleaner
must act as a flame arrester.
1.19.2 Types of air cleaners

There are three types of air cleaners used on small fuel engines. The oil- bath
type is probably most common on older engines. The oiled filter or foam type
may be more common today. Dry filter types are used on some small engines
and certainly are universally used on automobile engines.
x Oil-Bath type
Unfiltered air entering the cleaner impacts the surface of the oil in a small cup
at the bottom of the cleaner. Some of the dust and dirt is deposited here. Oil is
picked up by the air and deposited on the filtering element.
Oil coated dirt particles lodge in the filtering element. Excessive oil and dirt
drain back into the cup. The clean air flows out of the filter into the engine.
When using the engine under dusty conditions air cleaners should be checked
frequently. It should be cleaned at least every 25hours of operation or more
often if necessary.
In servicing this air cleaner, check your owner’s manual and follow the
recommendations:
1. Disassemble the cleaner

2. Throw away the dirty oil
3. Clean cup, filter and other parts with petroleum solvent
4. Refill the cup with oil of the same grade used in the crankcase to the oil
level mark.
5. Reassemble the cleaner, making sure the gaskets are in place and
everything is tight.
x Paper element (dry type)

It has a porous element usually made of paper. The element has minute
openings that keep all except extremely small particles from passing through,
see Figure 1.32.

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Figure 1.32 Paper element (dry type)
Servicing the dry type is relatively easy. It should also be checked regularly.
Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations, see Figure 1.33.
Figure 1.33 Servicing the paper air cleaner

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Figure 1.33 Servicing the paper air cleaner (continued)
1. Remove the element.

2. Inspect and tap free of dust particles.
3. If a paper element, do not wash or use compressed air, and if still dirty after
tapping replace with a new one. Handle the paper element with care
4. If the filter element is moss or fiber, you can use compressed air directing it
from inside out. Wash it with soap and water.
5. Clean the cover and case and reassemble the unit.
x Oil bath air cleaner

Unfiltered air entering the cleaner impacts the surface of the oil in a small cup
at the bottom of the cleaner. Some of the dust and dirt is deposited here.
Oil is picked up by the air and deposited on the filtering element, see Figure
1.34. Oil coated dirt particles lodge in the filtering element.
Excessive oil and dirt drain back into the cup. The clean air flows out of the
filter into the engine.
When using the engine under dusty conditions air cleaners should be checked
frequently. It should be cleaned at least every 25hours of operation or more
often if necessary.

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Figure 1.34 Oil bath type air cleaner
In servicing this air cleaner, check your owner’s manual and follow the
recommendations:
1. Disassemble the cleaner

2. Throw away the dirty oil
3. Clean cup, filter and other parts with petroleum solvent
4. Refill the cup with oil of the same grade used in the crankcase to the oil
level mark.
5. Reassemble the cleaner, making sure the gaskets are in place and
everything is tight.
x Oil wetted polyurethane air cleaner

This filter consists of filtering material such as aluminium foil mesh, or a sponge
like plastic material called polyurethane. Either material is coated with oil
before being installed. The dust or dirt in unfiltered air becomes trapped in the
element.
Servicing is equally important with this type of filter. Follow the manufacturer’s
recommendations. You might use this procedure as a guide.
1. Remove any holding screws and cover.

2. Remove air cleaner and element. Be careful to prevent any dirt from
entering the carburetor.
3. Wash the filtering element in kerosene or liquid detergent and water to
remove the dirt.
4. Dry the element and re-oil with engine oil. The foam element can be
wrapped in clean dry absorbent cloth and squeezed to spread the oil
evenly and to remove excess oil.

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5. Reassemble and fasten to carburetor. This type of air cleaner has a no spill
feature which is desirable when tilting the engine.
1.20 Fuel pump tests

The fuel pump tests involve measuring the following:
x Fuel pump pressure

x Vacuum and
x Volume.
1.20.1 Measuring fuel pump pressure

To measure the fuel pump pressure on a mechanical fuel pump, you need to
connect the gauge to the outlet line of the pump.
Make sure the float chamber is filled as there won’t be any fuel supply to the
carburetor for the engine to idle. Test the pressure at a specific rpm according
to specifications and record.
With the test on the electric fuel pump activate the supply voltage to the
pump motor. Fuel pressure should read between 28 and 41kpa for a
carburetor engine.
1.20.2 Factors determining fuel pump pressure
1. The pressure at which the fuel is expelled from the pump is thus limited (and
therefore regulated) by the force applied by the diaphragm spring.
2. The different type of fuel system used: Fuel injection, carburetor or diesel
injection.
Note:
If fuel pump pressure is not within specifications, check the lines
and pump volume as well as filters first before replacing the fuel
pump.
1.21 Measuring fuel pump volume

A fuel pump volume test is performed by opening the fuel pressure line,
energizing the fuel pump and collecting a sample in an approved measuring
container.
The fuel pump should deliver a specific quantity of fuel within a specified
period of time. The volume of the gasoline measured should be compared
with manufacturer’s specification.
An example of a volume specification would read as one pint of fuel in a 15-

second period (or the equivalent). Restricted fuel filters or clogged/damaged

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fuel lines can cause excessive resistance in the fuel pump circuit and adversely
affect fuel volume.
In cases when these items prove to be in good working order, additional

diagnostics of the fuel pump and fuel pump circuit will be necessary.
1.21.1 Factors determining fuel pump volume
1. The size of the engine and the carburetor.

1. The correct specifications for the particular fuel system and vehicle.
2. Restricted fuel filters or clogged/damaged fuel lines can cause excessive
resistance in the fuel pump circuit and adversely affect fuel volume. In
cases when these items prove to be in good working order, additional
diagnostics of the fuel pump and fuel pump circuit will be necessary.
1.22 Measuring fuel pump vacuum

The fuel pump vacuum is checked when the fuel pump pressure and vacuum
test fails. Fuel pump vacuum is checked with the vacuum gauge connected
to the inlet or suction side of the fuel pump.
Please ascertain that the float chamber is full before attempting the vacuum
test. Allow the engine to idle until the highest vacuum reading is recorded on
the vacuum gauge.
The readings must be compared to specifications. A good vacuum reading

indicates a sound fuel pump. The reading should be between 7 to 10 mm hg.
1.22.1 Factors determining fuel pump vacuum
1. The suction line is restricted or leaking air.

2. The valves and diaphragm do not seal properly.
3. Reading outside of specifications.
Important Note:
If the fuel pump passed the vacuum test but failed the pressure or
volume test, the fuel supply lines and filters may then be the
problem.
1.23 Functions of fuel filters

The main function of a fuel filter is to filter out, or trap, debris particles and/or
contaminants from flowing fuel, see Figure 1.35.
Fuel filters are a common addition to automotive engines, where they are
placed in varied locations between a car's fuel tank and its carburetor or fuel
injection system. Fuel filters ensure that fuel entering a car's engine is as clean
and pure as possible.

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Figure 1.35 A fuel filter in a fuel system
Activity 1.1
1. Name two different fuel pumps

2. What is the venture effect?
3. How does the carburetor function?
4. List three different types of carburetor circuits.
5. Describe and label what is involved in an acceleration circuit.
6. Describe mechanical and electrical fuel pump.
7. Name two different types of air cleaners.
8. List two factors to determine fuel pump pressure.

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Self-Check
I am able to: Yes No

x Describe the parts and operation of the two different fuel pumps
x Explain the venturic effect
x Explain in detail the carburetor; the various parts, different
circuits and how they operate
x Describe and label what is involved in a full power circuit
x Explain the importance of and describe in detail choke circuits,
mechanisms and parts
x Have, in detail, knowledge and understanding of dieseling
x Describe the methods used to reduce pulsation effect caused
by a mechanical fuel pump
x Explain in detail; ‘two stage carburetors’ and their ‘problem
diagnostics’
x Describe the functions and types of air cleaners, labeling their
parts
x Understand how to measure fuel pump pressure, volume and
vacuum, considering the determining factors
x List the functions of fuel filters
If you have answered ‘no’ to any of the outcomes listed above, then speak to
your facilitator for guidance and further development.

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Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this module, you should be able to:
x State the functions and main components of an ignition system

x Describe the primary and secondary ignition system circuits and their
respective components
x Define; ‘dwell angle’ and describe the setting, sequencing and effect of
the point gap on it
x State the visual and non-visual tests involved in ignition coil inspection
x Describe, in detail, the operation of the ballast resistor
x Explain automatic advance and delay of ignition timing and the tests
involved thereof
x Describe the components, classification and characteristics of spark plugs
x Identify the characteristics indicated by the letter code on a spark plug
x Explain spark plug fouling
x Describe testing the spark plug leads
2.1 Introduction
This module covers the vehicle ignition system where you as the
student will learn about the high voltage needed to ignite the fuel
mixture in the internal combustion engine.
The ignition system must create an electric firing voltage across the spark plug
gaps at the exact position when the piston reaches the timing mark at the
compression stroke.
2.2 Functions of an ignition system
2.2.1 Basic ignition

The ignition system ignites the fuel in the fuel engine. There are three general
types of ignition system: breaker ignition; electronic ignition; and direct ignition.
A basic ignition system (see Figure 2.1) consists of:
x the battery

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x low-tension cables
x the ignition coil
x distributor
x coil high-tension cable
x spark plug cables
x and spark plugs
Figure 2.1 The ignition system
The ignition system provides high-intensity sparks at the spark plugs, to ignite
the fuel charges in the combustion chambers.

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The sparks must be supplied at the right time, and they must have sufficient
energy over a range of conditions to ignite the charges. The energy comes
from the battery and alternator, and the voltage is increased by the ignition
coil.
The system has two circuits. The primary or low-tension circuit initiates the spark.
The secondary or high-tension circuit produces the high voltage and distributes
it to the spark plugs.
There are three general types of ignition systems:
x Breaker ignition uses contact breaker points in a distributor to initiate the

spark.
x Electronic ignition doesn’t need contact points. When a signal is received,
triggering occurs through transistors in an ignition module.
x Direct ignition has no distributor and uses coils to supply high-voltage direct
to the spark plugs.
2.3 Main components of the ignition system and their components
2.3.1 The battery

The battery, see Figure 2.2, supplies the Electro-Motive Force (EMF) to the
ignition circuit. The battery needs a constant flow of air around it to keep it
cool, and must be well maintained if it is to keep the ignition system functioning
properly, see Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.2 Parts of a battery
2.3.2 The ignition switch

The common points on an ignition switch include: Lock, Off (not on all
vehicles); Accessories, On and Start, as seen in Figure 2.3. The key can only be
removed from the 'Lock' position.
The ignition switch has more functions than simply starting the vehicle. The
common points on an ignition switch include:

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x Lock
x Off (not on all vehicles)
x Accessories
x On
x Start
x Lock/Off
Figure 2.3 The ignition switch
The key can only be removed from the "Lock" position. When this occurs, all
non-essential electrical circuits are disabled, and the steering column lock is
enabled. If fitted, the engine immobilizer and theft deterrent systems are
normally activated at this time.
Many modern vehicles also include an "Off" ignition point. Turning the key from
"Lock" to the "Off" position unlocks the steering column, but it does not enable
any electrical systems or disable the engine immobilizer or theft deterrent
system.
x Accessories
The "Accessories" position allows power to be supplied to the vehicle
entertainment system, blower fan and in some vehicles the electric windows
and sunroof. This is mainly for passenger convenience but prolonged use of
any of these without the motor running will drain the battery.
x On
When the switch is turned to the "On" position all warning lamps on the
instrument panel should illuminate. This is to test the operation of the lamps.
On vehicles that are not fitted with engine immobilizers, this position also
activates the charging and ignition system required for engine starting.
Vehicles that are fitted with engine immobilizers do not normally activate these
systems until the key is turned to the "Start" position.
x Start
The "Start" position activates the starter motor solenoid, which enables the
engine to crank and start the engine. Vehicles without engine immobilizers will
be able to start immediately, as the required electrical systems will have
already been activated when the key was turned to the "On" position.

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In vehicles fitted with engine immobilizers a number of the essential electrical

systems are not normally enabled until the key is turned to the "Start" position.
When this occurs communication between various control units determines
whether to allow the engine to start or not.
This is then achieved by deactivating the immobilizer, and activating the

ignition, fuel, and charging systems. There may be a slight delay while this
communication is occurring.
The Key itself can consist of two parts. The first is a mechanical tine that works in
the key barrel and turns to unlock the steering column and switch through the
various stages of “Off”, Accessories, "On" and "Start".
On later models, there can be a second electronic key that uses a randomly
selected 'rolling code' that is communicated with the engine immobilizer and
security system.
If the correct code is sent, the

vehicle will start, if not the
vehicle will not respond. In
many automatic transmission
vehicles, the ignition switch
also has a transmission shift
interlock device connected
to it.
In these vehicles the gear

selector must move into the
PARK location before the key
can be removed from the
lock in the OFF position. In the
same way the transmission
shift lever cannot be moved
into gear until the engine has
started.
2.3.3 The ignition coil

There are many sources for
the production of the high-
tension spark. In this case it is
in the form of an ignition coil;
see Figure 2.4 In this coil the
primary and secondary
terminals are connected
inside the can.
Figure 2.4 The ignition coil

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Coils and Coil Packs are basically step-up transformers, increasing the vehicle's
12-volt supply to the voltage required to fire the spark plugs.
2.3.4 The distributor unit
Figure 2.5 The distributor
The distributor, as seen in Figure 2.5, has been an integral component of an

ignition system for many years. But, with today’s advances in electronics, it is
being phased out.
Its primary function is to distribute the spark to the spark plugs in the correct
sequence and at the correct time. To complete the distributor assembly, a
distributor cap and rotor are fitted.

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2.3.5 The capacitor (condenser)

A capacitor or condenser (see Figure 2.6) is used to assist in the rapid collapse
of the magnetic field in the ignition coil.
The capacitor (also called a condenser), is a self-contained unit which is

connected electrically in parallel with the contact breaker.
Figure 2.6 The condenser
It is made up of two "plates" constructed from narrow strips of aluminum foil

which are insulated from each other by a special waxed paper, called a "di-
electric."
The plates and insulating paper are rolled up tightly together and sealed in a
metal can by crimping the end over onto a gasket.
A spring in the base forces the plates and insulation against the gasket to keep
out moisture. One plate is connected to the capacitor case and, through its
retaining screw, to ground.
The other plate is connected to the external connecting lead. When the
capacitor is fitted, any voltage surge across the contacts will charge the
capacitor, rather than cause damaging sparking.
2.3.6 The spark plug

Spark plugs (see Figure 2.7) deliver the spark that initiates combustion in an
engine cylinder. They are identified by thread size or diameter, the reach or
length of the thread, and by their heat range.

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Figure 2.7 The spark plug
The spark plug consists of a plated metal shell with a ceramic insulator and an
electrode extending through the center of the insulator.
Threads on the metal shell allow it to be screwed into the cylinder head and a
short earth electrode attached to one side is bent in towards the center
electrode.
The electrodes are of special alloy wire with a set recommended gap
between them. The spark bridges this gap to ignite the air-fuel mixture in the
combustion chamber.
Spark plugs are identified by three different features. These are:
1. Thread size or diameter.

2. Reach or length of the thread.
3. Heat range or operating temperature.
Spark plugs should operate between average temperatures of 750 to 1500

degrees Fahrenheit or 400 to 800 degrees Celsius. This is referred to as the heat
range.
The temperature that a spark plug will reach depends on the distance the
heat must travel from the insulator to reach the outer shell of the plug and
enter the cylinder head and the water jacket.

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If the heat path is long, the plug will retain more heat and therefore will run at
a higher temperature than one with a short heat path.
2.3.7 The rotor

The rotor distributes secondary voltage from the centre of the distributor cap to
individual segments inside the distributor can leading to the spark plugs,
through the high-tension (HT) leads, see Figure 2.5.
2.3.8 Ignition points

The contact breaker, as seen in Figure 2.8 below, is a mechanically operated
electrical switch in the primary ignition circuit. The contacts open and close
automatically with engine rotation.
Figure 2.8 The contact breaker
The contact breaker is a mechanically operated electrical switch which is fixed

to the distributor base plate.

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It is opened and closed by the distributor cam with the rotation of the engine.
The contacts normally form a self-contained unit, fixed to the base plate by a
retaining screw engaged in a slot in the fixed contact.
The slot allows for adjusting the contact breaker gap and setting the dwell
angle when fitting or servicing.
2.3.9 The ballast resistor

The ballast resistor (see Figure 2.9 and 2.10) is used to reduce the voltage to
the ignition coil during normal running conditions.
Figure 2.9 Ballast resistor
A ballast resistor limits the amount of current flowing in an electrical circuit. The
most common automotive use for a ballast resistor is as to regulate the voltage
to the ignition system by being inserted in series in the primary circuit between
the ignition switch and the positive terminal of the ignition coil.
Figure 2.10 A detailed diagram of the ballast resistor
It is usually located in the open near the ignition coil so that it can dissipate its
heat into the air.
Cranking an engine causes a heavy load on a battery which can cause the
voltage to drop. Ignition systems needed to be designed so they can fire on
this reduced voltage, but when the engine is running normal operating voltage
is restored, which is then too high for the ignition system.

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The ballast resistor helps the engine to fire more easily by being bypassed
during cranking, and then lowering the voltage when it is inserted into the
circuit after the engine has started to minimize wear on ignition components.
More modern solid state ignition systems do not need a ballast resistor,
because they have been designed to cope with a wider range of voltages.
2.4 Ignition system circuits

The ignition system is divided into 2-circuits, see Figure 2.11:
Figure 2.11 Primary and secondary circuit
1. Primary Circuit: It consists of 6 or 12 V battery, ammeter, and ignition switch,

primary winding it has 200-300 turns of 20 SWG (Sharps Wire Gauge) gauge
wire, contact breaker, capacitor.
2. Secondary Circuit: It consists of secondary winding. Secondary Ignition

Systems winding consists of about 21000 turns of 40 (S WG) gauge wire.
Bottom end of which is connected to bottom end of primary and top end
of secondary winding is connected to centre of distributor rotor. Distributor
rotors rotate and make contacts with contact points and are connected to
spark plugs which are fitted in cylinder heads (engine earth).
x Operation of the low tension circuit (LT)

The contact breaker operates as a “switch” in the low tension circuit. With the
ignition switched on and with the contact breaker points closed, low-voltage
current flows from the battery through the ignition switch and into the primary
windings of the ignition coil.

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From there the current flows through the contact breaker points and finally to
earth through the distributor body mounted in a recess in the engine.
The distributor being driven by the camshaft rotate and the fibre block of the
contact breaker point is opened by the lobe of the distributor shaft.
The sudden opening of the points causes the magnetic field to collapse inside
the coil and it induces a high voltage charge in the secondary windings of the
coil.
2.4.1 Components of the primary circuit
x Battery
Function: The battery supplies the Electro-Motive Force (EMF) to the ignition
circuit. The battery needs a constant flow of air around it to keep it cool, and
must be well maintained if it is to keep the ignition system functioning properly
x Ignition switch
Function: The common points on an ignition switch include: Lock, Off (not on
all vehicles); Accessories, On and Start.
The key can only be removed from the 'Lock' position. The ignition switch has
more functions than simply starting the vehicle. The common points on an
ignition switch include:
x Lock
x Off (not on all vehicles)
x Accessories
x On
x Start
x Ballast resistor
Function: The ballast resistor is used to reduce the voltage to the ignition coil
during normal running conditions. A ballast resistor limits the amount of current
flowing in an electrical circuit.
x Primary ignition coil windings

Function: When battery current flows through the ignition coil primary windings,
a strong magnetic field is produced.
x Ignition points
Function: The contact breaker is a mechanically operated electrical switch in
the primary ignition circuit. The contacts open and close automatically with
engine rotation.

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x Capacitor (condensor)
Function: A capacitor or condenser is used to assist in the rapid collapse of the
magnetic field in the ignition coil. The capacitor (also called a condenser), is a
self-contained unit which is connected electrically in parallel with the contact
breaker.
2.4.2 Secondary circuit (high tension circuit)

The secondary circuit of the ignition circuit is the high voltage section. It
consists of the wire and components between the coil output and the spark
plug ground.
Wiring in the secondary circuit must have a thicker insulation than that of
the primary circuit to prevent leaking (arcing) of the high voltage.
x Operation of the high tension circuit (HT)

A secondary coil winding consisting of several thousand turns of fine
enamelled wire, is wound under a primary coil.
One end of this winding is joined to the contact breaker terminal the other end
is connected in series with the distributor and spark plugs.
A return path from the plug, via the earth electrode passes through the battery
and primary winding and so EMF induced in the primary winding is added to
the large EMF produced in the secondary winding.
This gives the coil a higher efficiency. When the ignition is switched on and the
contact breaker points is close, the current flowing in the primary winding sets
up a magnetic field around the iron core of the coil.
Opening the contacts interrupts the current flowing in the primary circuit, and
causes the magnetic field to collapse. During this collapse, the lines of force
cut the secondary winding and induce an EMF in the secondary circuit.
A higher EMF than that acting in the primary is obtained since the secondary
coil contains more turns. The HT current is conveyed from the ignition coil to the
rotor arm.
The rotor arm should be pointing to the correct distributor segment, which is
connected to the spark plug of the cylinder that requires the ignition HT
charge.
2.4.3 Components of the secondary circuit (HT)
x Coil wire
Function: High voltage from the coil is carried by an insulated wire to the
centre terminal of a distributor cap.

84
x Rotor
Function: The rotor is connected to the distributor shaft and also to the ignition
coil. It rotates inside the distributor cap which consists of number of contacts
surrounded in its periphery.
As the rotor passes along these contacts, the high voltage supplied to the
rotor, by the ignition coil, is transferred to the contacts and then it is made to
flow to the respective spark plugs through ignition wire.
x High tension pickup

Function: The fixed carbon rod used in the distributor cap contains the coil
terminal and a small metal connector or brush which forms the connection
between the coil and rotor.
x High tension leads

Function: The spark plug wires carry the high voltage current from the
distributor cap to the spark plugs. Spark plugs wires are converted with a thick
layer of insulation to protect the wire and reduce the possibility of arcing.
Original equipment plus wires contain a built-in resistance to reduce radio

interference. The plug wires are arranged in the distributor cap in that order.
Direction of rotor rotation dictates whether a clockwise or counter clockwise
order is required.
x Secondary ignition coil windings

Function: The primary current flowing through the primary winding is switched
on or off via the contact breaker points. The amount of current flowing is
determined by the coil‘s resistance and the voltage applied at the positive
terminal on the coil.
The very fast current direction changes the magnetic field in the coil and
induces a voltage impulse that is transformed by the secondary winding into a
high-voltage impulse.
This passes through the high tension lead to the spark plugs spark gap and
ignites the fuel-air mixture in a spark-ignition engine.
Since the secondary have more windings than the primary, 30 000 volts of high
voltage current for the spark plugs is generated when the primary current is
interrupted by the contact-breaker points.
x Spark plugs
Function: A spark plug is a device for delivering electric current from an ignition
system to the combustion chamber of a spark-ignition engine to ignite the
compressed fuel/air mixture by an electric spark, while containing combustion
pressure within the engine.

85
x Distributor cap
Function: A distributor cap is used in an automobile's engine to cover the
distributor and its internal rotor, see Figure 2.5.
The distributor cap has one post for each cylinder, and in points ignition
systems there is a central post for the current from the ignition coil coming into
the distributor.
It is a moulded plastic or Bakelite cap that fits on

top of the distributor body and carries the high
tension leads from the coil and to the spark-plugs.
2.5 Dwell angle (angle of rest)

The dwell angle is the time period when the points
are close to when it opens again, see Figure 2.12.
It is referred to as the state of rest.
This closing period is measured in degrees and it is

needed in order for the coil to build up a
magnetic field to produce a strong spark to ignite
the air fuel mixture. Figure 2.12 The dwell angle
2.5.1 Setting the dwell angle
Figure 2.13 Setting the dwell angle

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1. Adjust the point gap with a feeler gauge according to specifications.

2. Connect the dwell meter to the ignition circuit as according to the
manufacturer's instructions. One lead of the meter is to be connected to a
ground and the other lead is to be connected to the distributor post on the
coil. An adapter is usually provided for this purpose.
3. If the dwell meter has a set line on it, adjust the meter to zero the indicator.
4. Start the engine.
5. Be careful when working on any vehicle while the engine is running. Make
sure that the transmission is in neutral and that the parking brake is on. Keep
hands, clothing, tools, and the wires of the test instruments clear of the
rotating fan blades.
6. Observe the reading on the dwell meter, see Figure 2.13. If the meter does
not have a scale for 4-cylinder engines, multiply the 8-cylinder reading by
two. If the reading is within the specified range, turn off the engine and
remove the dwell meter.
7. If the reading is above the specified range, the breaker point gap is too
small. If the reading is below the specified range, the gap is too large. In
either case, the engine must be stopped and the gap adjusted in the
manner previously covered.
2.5.2 Sequence of adjustment

Before the ignition timing is adjusted, the dwell angle must be set as an
incorrect dwell angle will affect the timing. An incorrect dwell angle will either
cause the points to open too soon or too late.
This will definitely affect the engine performance. If the ignition timing is
adjusted without checking the dwell angle, after setting the dwell angle this
will alter the ignition timing.
Also note that as the fibre block of the points wears down, the timing also
changes. As the point gap becomes smaller, the dwell angle becomes larger.
This result in the points opening later, thus retarding the ignition timing.
2.5.3 Effect of the point gap on the dwell angle

The dwell angle alters with the adjustment of the point gap. If the point gap is
adjusted smaller, the dwell will be bigger and vice versa.
If the point gap is too small, the points will stay open too long and the primary
current flow can cause the points to burn.
If the point gap is too enlarged, the flow of the primary current will be for a
shorter period resulting in a weak magnetic field build-up in the coil.
Dwell angle readings vary between 48º to 52 º for 4 cylinder engines and 36 º
to 40 º for a six cylinder engine.

87
2.5.4 Causes for dwell angle variation

Excessive wear of the distributor mechanical parts may cause variations in
dwell that affect ignition timing, see Figure 2.14. The following is the procedure
for a dwell variation test.
1. Disconnect the vacuum line at the distributor, connect the dwell meter,
and run the engine at its idle speed.
2. Slowly increase engine speed to 1,500 rpm and then slowly reduce to idle
speed while noting the dwell meter reading.
3. If the dwell reading varies more than two degrees, wear in the distributor
shaft, bushings, or breaker plate is probably excessive.
4. The distributor will have to be removed for a complete inspection and test.
Dwell variation at speeds above 1,500 rpm does not necessarily indicate
distributor wear.
Figure 2.14 Causes for dwell angle variation
2.6 Ignition coil inspection

A faulty ignition coil may manifest the following results:
x a weak spark,
x intermittent spark,
x Or no spark at all.
x The engine may miss fire,
x Stop running when the coil heats up, (the windings inside the coil can break
and produce a resistance or open coil circuit).
x Or refuse to start at all.

88
2.6.1 Visual tests carried out on the ignition coil

See Figure 2.15 when reading the following tests:
1. Test the ignition coil for mechanical damage.

2. Check the housing for hairline cracks or casting compound escaping.
3. Check electrical wiring and plug-type connections for damage or
oxidation.
4. Check voltage supply to the ignition coil.
5. Read out the fault store using a diagnosis unit.
Figure 2.15 Visual tests carried out on the ignition coil
2.6.2 Non visual tests carried out on the ignition coil
x Supply voltage
Supply voltage measures the flow that reaches the positive side of the ignition
coil.
x Spark test
To set up the test, remove coil secondary wire and hold it with insulated pliers
to a good engine grounding point. Have somebody crank the engine with the
key, and look for a bright blue spark to jump across the lead.
If you see a nice, bright spark (clearly visible in daylight) your coil is doing its
job. If not, check the primary side of the ignition coil.
x Internal resistance test

Use an ohmmeter to measure the internal resistance of the coil windings.
Infinity or out of spec reading indicate a faulty ignition coil.
x Current draw test

The current draw test is done while the engine is idling and when the engine
stops. The following faults may be revealed:

89
o Internal short circuiting

o Grounds
o Open circuits
o Insulation breakdown
o And loose or corroded connections.
2.7 The ballast resistor

The ballast-resisted system utilises a 6 (commonly called the 'cold start' system)
or 9-volt coil instead of the older style 12-volt item.
When you hit the starter button/key, the coil is still seeing maximum current so
produces a nice, big, fat, 12-volt induced spark to start the engine. Kind of
'super-charging' the coil by increasing the voltage to way above it's normal
supply - by some 30%+.
When the key is released, the ballast resister ensures the voltage passed to the
coil stays at 6 or 9 volts.
It also significantly increases points life by massively reducing the EMF

contained in the system when the points trigger the ignition system (the spark
you see at the points when they open) and therefore the intensity of the 'arc'
across the points.
2.7.1 Operation
Most contact breaker systems incorporate a ballast resistor in the primary
circuit. The ballast resistor is inserted in series in the primary circuit between the
ignition switch and the positive terminal of the ignition coil.
When the engine is running, its resistance provides a voltage drop in the
primary circuit, which lowers the voltage applied to the coil. The coil is
designed to operate at this lower voltage level and still provide the step-up
transformer action needed, for secondary circuit operation.
However, during cranking, a parallel connection from the starting circuit by-
passes the ballast resistor. The voltage available at the battery terminals at this
time, will now be applied to the positive terminal of the ignition coil. This
voltage will give a boost to the current flowing in the primary circuit.
Figure 2.16 Operation

90
The increased current flow strengthens the magnetic field to increase the
voltage induced in the primary winding, and consequently increase the
voltage in the secondary winding. So even under adverse conditions, sufficient
ignition energy is available to ignite the air-fuel mixture and start the engine.
2.8 Automatic advance and delay of ignition timing

Ignition timing is very important, since the charge is to be ignited just before
(few degrees before TDC) the end of compression, since when the charge is
ignited, it will take some time to come to the required rate of burning.
The purpose of spark advance mechanism is to assure that under every

condition of engine operation, ignition takes place at the most favourable
instant in time i.e. most favourable from a standpoint of engine power, fuel
economy and minimum exhaust dilution.
By means of these mechanisms the advance angle is accurately set so that

ignition occurs before TDC point of the piston. The engine speed and the
engine load are the control quantities required for the automatic adjustment
of the ignition timing.
Most of the engines are fitted with mechanisms which are integral with the
distributor and automatically regulate the optimum spark advance to account
for change of speed and load. The two mechanisms used are:
(a) Centrifugal advance mechanism, and

(b) Vacuum advance mechanism.
2.8.1 Timing advance

"Timing advance" refers to the number of degrees before top dead center
(BTDC) that the spark will ignite the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber
during the compression stroke.
Timing advance is required because it takes time to burn the air-fuel mixture.
Igniting the mixture before the piston reaches TDC will allow the mixture to fully
burn soon after the piston reaches TDC.
If the air-fuel mixture is ignited at the correct time, maximum pressure in the
cylinder will occur sometime after the piston reaches TDC allowing the ignited
mixture to push the piston down the cylinder with the greatest force.
Ideally, the time at which the mixture should be fully burnt is about 20 degrees
ATDC. This will utilize the engine's power producing potential.
If the ignition spark occurs at a position that is too advanced relative to piston
position, the rapidly expanding air-fuel mixture can actually push against the
piston still moving up, causing knocking (pinging) and possible engine
damage.

91
2.8.2 Timing retard

Retarded timing can be defined as changing the timing so that fuel ignition
happens later than the manufacturer's specified time.
For example, if the timing specified by the manufacturer was set at 12 degrees
BTDC initially and adjusted to 11 degrees BTDC, it would be referred to as
retarded.
In a classic ignition system with breaker points, the basic timing can be set
statically using a test light or dynamically using the timing marks and a timing
light.
If the spark occurs too retarded relative to the piston position, maximum
cylinder pressure will occur after the piston is already traveling too far down
the cylinder. This results in lost power, high emissions, and unburned fuel.
2.8.3 Centrifugal Advance Mechanism

The centrifugal advance mechanism controls the ignition timing for full-load
operation, see Figure 2.17. The adjustment mechanism is designed so that its
operation results in the desired advance of the spark.
The cam is mounted, movably, on the distributor shaft so that as the speed
increases, the flyweights which are swung farther and farther outward, shift the
cam in the direction of shaft rotation.
As a result, the cam lobes make contact with the breaker lever rubbing block
somewhat earlier, thus shifting the ignition point in the advance direction.
Depending on the speed of the engine, and therefore of the shaft, the weights
are swung outward a greater or a lesser distance from the centre.
They are then held in the extended position, in a state of equilibrium

corresponding to the shifted timing angle, by a retaining spring which exactly
balances the centrifugal force.
The weights shift the cam either on a rolling contact or sliding contact basis; for
this reasons we distinguish between the rolling contact type and the sliding
contact type of centrifugal advance mechanism.
The beginning of the timing adjustment in the range of low engine speeds and
the continues adjustment based on the full load curve are determined by the
size of the weights by the shape of the contact mechanisms (rolling or sliding
contact type), and by the retaining springs, all of which can be widely differing
designs.
The centrifugal force controlled cam is fitted with a lower limit stop for purposes
of setting the beginning of the adjustment, and also with an upper limit stop to
restrict the greatest possible full load adjustment.

92
Figure 2.17 Centrifugal advance
x Testing the centrifugal advance
1. Connect a timing light and with the vacuum hose disconnected from the
unit, increase the revolutions to 4000 rpm. If the advance is working it should
advance smoothly against the direction of engine rotation.
2. Alternatively remove the distributor cap and twist the rotor in the direction
of engine rotation. If released, it will return to its original position. A slow
return may indicate a sticky advance unit. If the rotor cannot be turn either
way, the unit is seized.
2.8.4 Vacuum advance

Vacuum advance mechanism shifts the ignition point under partial load
operation. The adjustment system is designed so that its operation results in the
prescribed partial load advance curve.
In this mechanism the adjustment control quantity is the static vacuum

prevailing in the carburetor, a pressure which depends on the position of the
throttle valve at any given time and which is at a maximum when this valve is
about half open.
This explains the vacuum maximum. The diaphragm of a vacuum unit is moved
by changes in gas pressure. The position of this diaphragm is determined by
the pressure differential at any given moment between the prevailing vacuum
and atmospheric pressure.
The beginning of adjustment is set by the pre-established tension on a

compression spring. The diaphragm area, the spring force, and the spring
rigidity are all selected in accordance with the partial –load advance curve
which is to be followed and are all balanced with respect to each other.

93
The diaphragm movement is transmitted through a vacuum advance arm

connected to the movable breaker plate, and this Support plate,
Yoke and Weight return spring Cam movement shifts the breaker plate an
additional amount under partial load Ignition Systems condition in a direction
opposite to the direction of rotation of the distributor shaft.
Limit stops on the vacuum advance arm in the base of the vacuum unit restrict
the range of adjustment. The vacuum advance mechanism operates
independent of the centrifugal advance mechanism.
The mechanical interplay between the two advance mechanisms, however,

permits the total adjustment angle at any given time to be the result of the
addition of the shifts provided by the two individual mechanisms operates in
conjunction with the engine is operating under partial load.
A typical vacuum advance mechanism is shown in Figure 2.18 below.
Figure 2.18 Vacuum advance
x Testing the vacuum advance
1. Connect a timing light and with the vacuum advance pipe disconnected
increase the engine speed to 1200 rpm. Note the position of the timing
mark.
2. Now connect the vacuum advance hose and note the increase in timing
advance. If there is no advance, the vacuum advance unit diaphragm is
leaking and the unit must be replaced.
3. Alternatively connect a mechanical operated vacuum pump and apply a
controlled vacuum to the unit. The vacuum advance unit should hold a

94
position until the controlled vacuum is released. If any sign of leakage is

observed, the unit should be replaced, see Figure 2.19 below.
Figure 2.19 Testing the vacuum advance
2.9 Spark plugs

The spark plug is a device for
delivering electric current from an
ignition system to the combustion
chamber of a spark-ignition engine
to ignite the compressed fuel/air
mixture by an electric spark, while
containing combustion pressure
within the engine. The spark plug
consists of three main components:
x The insulator
x Body or shell, see Figure 2.20
x The electrodes (centre electrode
and side electrode).
2.9.1 Insulator
x The main part of the insulator is
typically made from sintered
alumina, a very hard ceramic
material with high dielectric
strength, printed with the
manufacturer's name and
identifying marks then glazed to
improve resistance to surface
spark tracking. Figure 2.20 Spark plug

95
x Its major function is to provide mechanical support and electrical insulation

for the central electrode,
x while also providing an extended spark path for flashover protection. This
extended portion, particularly in engines with deeply recessed plugs, helps
extend the terminal above the cylinder head so as to make it more readily
accessible.
2.9.2 Body shell

The centre electrode, surrounded by the insulator, is placed in a steel shell. The
steel shell is generally crimped to the insulator tightly and also forms a pressure
seal at both the top and bottom of the insulator.
This prevents combustion leaks and arcing. The side electrode is welded to the
steel shell. The shell is threaded so it will screw into a threaded hole in the
cylinder head.
The shell`s threaded area will vary in length and thread pattern to conform to
the cylinder head in which it is installed.
The shell forms a seal with the head by means of a cooper or aluminium
gasket, or by a bevelled edge that wedges against a similar bevel in the
cylinder head.
2.9.3 Electrode
x Central electrode
The central electrode is connected to the terminal through an internal wire
and commonly a ceramic series resistance to reduce emission of RF noise from
the sparking.
The tip can be made of a combination of copper, nickel-iron, chromium, or

noble metals. In the late seventies, the development of engines reached a
stage where the ‘heat range’ of conventional spark plugs with solid nickel alloy
centre electrodes was unable to cope with their demands.
A plug that was ‘cold’ enough to cope with the demands of high speed
driving would not be able to burn off the carbon deposits caused by stop-start
urban conditions, and would foul in these conditions, making the engine
misfire.
Similarly, a plug that was ‘hot’ enough to run smoothly in town could melt
when called upon to cope with extended high speed running on freeways.
The central electrode is usually the one designed to eject the electrons (the
cathode) because it is the hottest (normally) part of the plug; it is easier to emit
electrons from a hot surface, because of the same physical laws that increase
emissions of vapour from hot surfaces.

96
x Side (ground, earth) electrode

The side electrode is made from high nickel steel and is welded or hot forged
to the side of the metal shell. The side electrode also runs very hot, especially
on projected nose plugs.
Some designs have provided a copper core to this electrode, so as to increase

heat conduction. Multiple side electrodes may also be used, so that they don't
overlap the central electrode.
2.10 Classification of spark plugs
2.10.1 Heat range

A spark plug is said to be "hot" if it is a better heat insulator, keeping more heat
in the tip of the spark plug. A spark plug is said to be "cold" if it can conduct
more heat out of the spark plug tip and lower the tip's temperature, see Figure
2.21.
Whether a spark plug is "hot" or "cold" is known as the heat range of the spark
plug. The heat range of a spark plug is typically specified as a number, with
some manufacturers using ascending numbers for hotter plugs and others
doing the opposite, using ascending numbers for colder plugs.
The heat range of a spark plug is affected by the construction of the spark
plug:
x the types of materials used

x the length of insulator
x And the surface area of the plug exposed within the combustion chamber.
Figure 2.21 Spark plug heat range
2.10.2 Spark Plug Size

The different sizes of the spark plug (10 mm, 14 mm, and 18 mm) are
determined by the diameter of the threaded part which screws into the
cylinder head, see Figure 2.22.

97
Figure 2.22 Spark plug size
2.10.3 Reach
The reach of a plug is as important as its size and heat range. Reach refers to
distance from the tip of the threads to their base and is the distance the plug
reaches into the cylinder.
A plug that does not enter the cylinder far enough will not give efficient
ignition. If the plug reaches into the cylinder too far, it may be struck by the
piston or valve during engine.
2.10.4 Spark Plug Types

Table 2.1 below provides an example of the characteristics and service life of
resistor spark plugs when used in a modern unleaded engine:
Centre Ground Service

Type Benefits Image
Electrode Electrode Life
20,000 -
Nickel Standard style
Nickel Nickel 40,000
Alloy Spark Plug
kms

98
Improved
Nickel
20,000 - ignitability due
Alloy
Nickel Nickel 40,000 to sparking at
(V-
kms periphery of
Groove)
the electrode
Long service
life and even
better
60,000
Iridium IX Iridium tip Nickel ignitability due
kms
to a small
diameter centr
e electrode
Extremely long
service life.
High
Laser Platinum Platinum 100,000
ignitability due
Platinum tip pad/chip kms
to fine tipped
centre
electrode
Extremely long
service life.
Improved high
Laser Platinum 100,000
Iridium tip ignitability due
Iridium pad/chip kms
to fine tipped
centre
electrode
Superior
ignitability due
Iridium to fine tip
(Double Platinum 100,000 centre and
Iridium tip
Fine tip kms ground
Electrode) electrodes.
Excellent
service life.
Table 2.1 Spark plug types

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2.11 Spark plug fouling

Within the combustion chamber of the spark plug, products of combustion
accumulate, which results in three different types of plug fouling.
2.11.1 Carbon fouling

Carbon fouling is caused by:
1. Extended operation at a low speed.

2. The mixture of the fuel is too rich.
3. An incorrect heat range of spark plug has been used.
2.11.2 High speed or lead fouling

High speed or lead fouling is caused by:
1. Extended operation at a high speed.
Spark plugs with lead fouling will work at low or medium loads, if full load is
applied missing occurs.
2.11.3 Oil and carbon fouling

Oil and carbon fouling results in excess oil reaching the combustion chamber.
This is caused by:
1. Badly worn engines.
2.12 High firing voltage at the spark plugs

Voltage, in electricity, is like pressure in water. It’s a measure of how much push
there is. In order to fire, a spark plug must be supplied a certain minimum
electrical voltage, called the plug’s firing voltage.
Firing voltage varies with plug design, how clean it is, how worn it is,
combustion chamber temperature, how much load the engine is under, and
how much fuel is mixed with the air.
When the engine is under a full-throttle load, firing voltage goes way up. When
your foot is off the accelerator pedal, firing voltage goes way down. It can
vary from about 4000 to 18,000 volts.
If the firing voltage is higher than available voltage that is being produced by
the rest of the ignition system, the plug will misfire. It is like trying to squirt a
stream of water across your yard. If the water pressure is too low, you just
cannot do it.
2.13 Characteristics indicated by the letter code on a spark plug

Manufacturers use a code to identify their brand products; the letters and
numbers stamped on the insulator provide the following information:

100
1. Diameter and reach

2. Seat sealing and radio interference features
3. Centre electrode features such as the incorporation of a resistor or auxiliary
gap
4. Heat range
5. Firing end configuration
6. Information can be obtained from the individual manufacturers.
2.13.1 Champion spark plugs

R N 9 BYC 4
R - resistor
N - 14mm
9 - heat range reference (the higher the number, the hotter the
plug):
1-25: general use
26-50: aviation
51-75: racing
76-379: special features
BYC - Copper cored around electrode and 3 earth electrodes
4 - 4 = I mm electrode gap
5 = 1,3 mm
6 = 1,5 mm
2.13.2 Bosch spark plugs

WR7DCX
w - Type of seat and thread; W-M 14 x 1,25 mm
R - Version; R- with resistor
7 - Heat range code number - the number ranges from 1 to 13.
The higher the number, the hotter the plug
D - Thread length and spark position

101
C - Electrode material - C - Bosch super
- P - Platin
- S - Bosch silber
X - Version (plug gap) - C - 1,1 mm
2.13.3 NGK spark plugs

NGK spark plug codes generally consist of six fields, which break down as
follows: [B C] [P R] [6] [E] [S] - [11]. Some fields (e.g., the second field) are
optional, and some fields may have multiple letters, see Tables 2.2 – 2.7.
Remember:
You must be able to:
x describe the components, classification and characteristics of

spark plugs and be able to
x identify the characteristics indicated by the letter code on a
spark plug
Field one: Thread Diameter and Wrench Size

Thread dia. Hex socket
A= 18.0mm 25.4mm
B= 14.0mm 20.6 or 20.8mm
C= 10.0mm 16.0mm
D= 12.0mm 18.0mm
E= 8.0mm 13.0mm
G= PF 1/2 23.8mm
AB = 18.0mm 20.6 or 20.8mm
BC = 14.0mm 16.0mm
DC = 12.0mm 16.0mm
BM-F = 18.0mm 16.0mm
B-F = 14.0mm 16.0mm
A-F = 10.0mm 20.8mm
Table 2.2 Thread Diameter and Wrench Size

102
Field two: Spark plug shape

L= Short type
M= Compact type (hex. 19mm)
P= Projected insulator type
R= Resistor type
U= Surface or semi-surface
discharge
Z= Inductive suppressor
Table 2.3 Spark plug shape
Field three: Heat Rating

2= "hot" to
14 = "cold" (See Heat Range Chart)
Table 2.4 Heat rating
Field four: Thread Reach

E= 19.0mm
H= 12.7mm (1.5")
L= 11.2mm (7/16")
EH = half thread (19.0mm total; 12.7mm threaded)
None = A type: 12.0mm; B, BM, B-F types: 11.2mm; G type: 22.5mm;

A-F type: 10.9mm; B-EF types: 17.5mm; BM-F type: 7.8mm
Table 2.5 Thread reach

103
Field Five: Firing and Construction

A, B, D, Z = special design (no details given)
C= short ground electrode
F= tapered seat
G= fine-wire center electrode, nickel
J= 2 ground electrodes (special shape)
K= 2 ground electrodes for certain Toyotas
-L = half heat range
-LM = insulator length = 14.5mm
M= insulator length = 18.5mm
-N = special ground electrode
P= platinum tip
Q= 4 ground electrodes
R= delta ground electrode S = super copper core
T= 3 ground electrodes
V= fine-wire centre electrode, gold palladium
VX = platinum center electrode
W= tungsten electrode
X= booster gap
Y= v-grooved center electrode with extra projection
Table 2.6 Firing and construction
Field Six: Spark Gap (from factory)

8= 0.8mm 0.032"
9= 0.9mm 0.036"

104
10 = 1.0mm 0.040"
11 = 1.1mm 0.044"
13 = 1.3mm 0.050"
14 = 1.4mm 0.055"
15 = 1.5mm 0.060"
20 = 2.0mm 0.080"
None = Std. gap
Table 2.7 Spark gap (from factory)
2.14. Testing the spark plug leads

x Remove only one wire at a time. If it is a used wire, start by wiping down the
wire, since your visual inspection will be easier with a clean wire. Be sure the
metal clips within the boots at each end of the wire are clean, corrosion
free and in good condition.
x Prepare your tester and set up on the OHM test section on the meter at
20,000, or 20k. Measure the length of the wire, since the length is a factor
you must know to determine test results. To test, hold the positive, or red,
probe into one end, being sure to have contact with the metal clip in the
boot and the negative, or black, probe into the other end, see Figure 2.23.
x Watch the readings. The readings may jump around at first but should
stabilize after a few moments. A shorter wire with a length of 30 centimeters
may test out between 6.00 to 7.00 ohms and a longer wire of 75 centimeters
may measure out between 9.00 and 11.00. A 60 centimeter wire may come
in between 7.50 and 9.00 ohms. All of the above readings would put you in
a normal range. Any reading of less than 6.00, regardless of the length,
would represent low resistance, and that wire should be replaced.
x Install the wires if your readings are satisfactory. Apply a small amount of
dielectric grease on the inner portion of the metal clips within the boot to
help ensure the boot will not get stuck to the plug and to prevent arcing.
x Install your wire back to the plug and location on the distributor cap from
which it came and be sure that the wire is secure at both ends. Tug on it a
bit after installation to be sure you have a proper fit. If you have a problem
securing a connection, work it with needle-nose pliers to reshape the metal
clips within the boots for a more secure fit.

105
Figure 2.23 Ohm meter
Activity 2.1
1. Name the main components in the ignition system

2. Draw primary and secondary ignition system circuits.
3. Draw a dwell angle.
4. List the visual tests involved in ignition coil inspection
5. Draw and label a ballast resistor.
6. Draw a spark plugs
7. Explain how to test the spark plug leads
Self-Check

x State the functions and main components of an ignition
system
x Describe the primary and secondary ignition system circuits
and their respective components
x Define; ‘dwell angle’ and describe the setting, sequencing
and effect of the point gap on it
x State the visual and non-visual tests involved in ignition coil
inspection
x Describe, in detail, the operation of the ballast resistor
x Explain automatic advance and delay of ignition timing and
the tests involved thereof
x Describe the components, classification and characteristics
of spark plugs
x Identify the characteristics indicated by the letter code on a
spark plug
x Explain spark plug fouling
x Describe testing the spark plug leads

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Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this module, as a learner you will be able to:
x List the functions of the gearbox

x Define gear ratios
x Explain gear reduction and overdrive
x List and describe the different types of gears
x Describe the basic gearbox parts, describing the functions, construction
and operation of the synchroniser unit
x Describe the types of bearings used in the gearbox
x Identify and describe the various gears and parts of the four speed
constant mesh synchro gearbox
x State gearbox problems, listing their respective reasons
3.1 Introduction
The gearbox should more aptly perhaps be called a reduction box

as it makes it possible to reduce the engine speed to the wheels,
so that the engine can remain at a relatively high speed while
driving at slower speeds.
This way the engine torque can remain at optimum levels while transmitting
most of the power to the wheels.
3.2 Functions of the gearbox

The gearbox allows the following functions:
1. to increase the engine torque

2. to enable a free-wheel or neutral position
3. to be able to reverse.
3.3 Gear ratios

The gear ratio can be calculated by dividing the number of teeth on the
driven gear, by the number of teeth on the driver gear, see Figure 3.1.

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Figure 3.1 The driven and driver gear
In light vehicle applications, the engine operates over a wide speed range,
but produces maximum torque only within a relatively narrow RPM band. A
relatively large turning effort must be applied to the driving road wheels to
move the vehicle.
Then the turning effort must vary, to overcome air and gradient resistance and
rolling resistance. A manual transmission allows the driver to directly vary the
gear ratio, between the engine and the driving road wheels.
This allows engine torque to be varied, to suit load and speed requirements.
The transmission also provides a means of reversing the vehicle.
And it has a neutral position, which disconnects the engine from the driving
wheels. When two gears are in mesh, one is a driven, or “output” gear. The
other, providing the turning action, is the driver or “input gear”.
A gear ratio is the number of turns of the input gear, necessary to achieve one
turn of the output gear. Here it is 1 to 1 since the gears have the same number
of teeth.
In rotation, they also turn at the same speed, and the turning effort of the
output gear, will equal the effort applied by the input gear.
The gear ratio can also be calculated, by dividing the number of teeth on the
driven gear, by the number of teeth on the driver gear. In this case, the driven
gear has 30 teeth and the driver gear has 10. So the ratio is 3 to 1.
The driver gear has to turn three times, to turn the driven gear once. In
continuous rotation, the driven gear turns three times slower than the driver.
Lower speed produces higher torque.
So torque at the output is higher. For this gear ratio of 3-to-1, if input torque is
100 Newton Meters, then output torque is 3 times that: 300 Newton Meters.

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When three gears are in mesh, the input and output gears are meshed with
an “idler” or intermediate gear. The idler transfers’ movement between the
input and output gears, but has no effect on the ratio, or the torque
multiplication. These remain unchanged.
3.4 Gear reduction and overdrive
3.4.1 Planetary Gearbox

Planetary gearboxes, as seen in Figure 3.2, are named so due to their
resemblance to the solar system. The components of a planetary gearbox
include a sun gear, ring gear and planetary gears.
The sun gear is the central gear which is fixed in the center, ring gear (annulus
ring) which is the outer ring with inward-facing teeth, and the planetary gears
which rotate around the sun gears and mesh with both the sun and ring gear.
Figure 3.2 A planetary gearbox
x Physical Properties
The sun, ring and planetary gears of a planetary gearbox are constructed of
aluminum, stainless steel or brass. The material used varies depending on the
manufacturer.
Important note:
Gears made from steel materials can be noisy when coming into
contact with other gears and also make them prone to wear.

109
x Applications of Planetary Gearboxes

Planetary gearboxes are used in applications requiring low backlash,
compact size, high efficiency, resistance to shock, and a high torque to
weight ratio.
o Slewing Drive
o Lifts
o Cranes
o Machine Tools
o Automotive
x Advantages of Planetary Gears
o High power density

o Compact
o Highly efficiency in power transmission
o Greater stability
o Load distribution among planetary gears
x Disadvantages of Planetary Gears
o High bearing loads

o Complex design
o Inaccessibility
3.5 Types of gears used in a gearbox

Gears are manufactured of case-
hardened alloy steel, to provide a hard
surface with a tough casing.
3.5.1 Spur gears

Spur gear, see Figure 3.3, is the simplest
type of gear which consists of a cylinder or
disk. Its form is not straight-sided, thus, the
edge of each tooth is straight and aligned
parallel to the axis of rotation. Only gears
fit to parallel axles, can rotate together
correctly. Figure 3.3 Spur gears
x Advantages
o As the most common type, spur gears are often used because they are the
simplest to design and manufacture.
o Besides, they are the most efficient.
o When compared to helical gears, they are more efficient. The efficiency of
a gear is the power output of its shaft divided by the input power of its shaft
multiplied by 100. Because helical gears have sliding contact between their
teeth, they produce axial thrust, which in turn produces more heat. This

110
causes a loss of power, which means efficiency is lost. In addition to these,

they also have many other advantages.
o Spur gears have a much simpler construction than helical gears because
their teeth are straight rather than angular. Therefore, it is much easier to
design and produce them.
o And they will not fail or break easily. And this makes them cheaper to
purchase and to maintain which then leads to less cost.
x Disadvantages
o Although they are common and efficient, spur gears have disadvantages
as well.
o Firstly, they are very noisy when used at some speeds because the entire
face engages at once. Therefore, they're also known as slow-speed gears.
o Secondly, they can only be used to transfer power between parallel shafts.
They cannot transfer power between non-parallel shafts.
o Thirdly, when compared with other types of gears, they are not as strong as
them. They cannot handle as much of a load because the teeth are small
and situated parallel to the gear axis, rather than being large and situated
diagonally as the teeth on a helical gear are.
3.5.2 Helical gears

Helical gears (see Figure 3.4) are cut at angles which allow for gradual contact
between each of the helical gear teeth. This type of innovation provides for a
smooth and quiet operation. Gearboxes using helical gears are applicable in
high horsepower and efficient applications.
Figure 3.4 Helical gear
x Advantages
o Can be meshed in parallel or cross orientation.
o Smooth and quiet operation.
o Efficient.
o High horsepower

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x Disadvantages
o Resultant thrust along axis of gear
o Additives to lubrication
3.5.3 Double helical gears

A type of helical gear, see Figure 3.5, with two sets
of teeth cut at opposing angles, separated by a
groove that runs around the centre of the gear.
Double helical gears are used to provide

smoother operation and avoid side loads.
Even though these gears are rather expensive,

they are much stronger and are normally found
on heavy commercial vehicle gearboxes.
3.6 Basic gearbox parts Figure 3.5 Double helical gears
3.6.1 Gearbox input shaft (spigot shaft)

The input shaft, as seen in Figure 3.6, extends from the front of the transmission.
An external parallel-splined section engages with internal splines on the clutch-
driven plate. This shaft transmits the drive from the clutch to the gearbox.
Figure 3.6 Gearbox input shaft
At the end, the shaft is supported by a spigot bearing positioned close to the
splines on to which the clutch driven plate is connected. The main load on this
shaft is taken by a bearing; normally a sealed radial ball type, positioned close
to an input gear called a constant mesh pinion.

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The gear is so named because it is always in mesh with a larger gear, a c

constant mesh wheel, that I part of the layshaft gear cluster. Note that a small
driving gear is called a pinion and a large gear a wheel.
3.6.2 Countershaft gear assembly

The layshaft which is normally fixed to the gearbox so that it cannot rotate
supports the driving gears (of various sizes) of the layshaft cluster gear. The
cluster gear rotates around the layshaft.
Bearings are placed on the layshaft and the cluster gear rotates on these
bearings. The type of bearing depends on the loads.
For a comparatively light load a phosphor-bronze plain bush is suitable, but

heavy duty applications call for a more efficient bearing such as a caged
needle roller.
As well as allowing the cluster gear to rotate freely; there are considerable
loads applied to the gears and the bearings when the meshed teeth of the
gears are forced apart during rotation of the gears.
The bearings must therefore be capable of resisting these loads. Suitable

bearings will also help reduce the noise that can be produced when the
meshed teeth are forced apart.
In most cases the end float of the layshaft gear assembly and in consequence
the alignment of the gears is controlled by flat thrust washers situated between
the cluster gear and the gearbox casing, see Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7 Countershaft gear assembly
x Cluster gear
The function of the cluster gear is to provide gear ratios in combination with
the gears on the main shaft.

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x Counter shaft
It positions the cluster gear.
3.6.3 Output shaft

The main shaft carries spur gears that slide along splines thus allowing them to
engage with the appropriate layshaft gears when required, Figure 3.8.
The engagement of the gears with the layshaft cluster gear provides the
selection of the various gear ratios. The front end of the layshaft is supported
be a spigot bearing which is situated in the centre of the primary shaft.
A heavy duty radial ball bearing is fitted on the other end to withstand the
forces created as the meshed teeth move apart during rotation.
The load on this bearing is at its highest when first gear is engaged and high
torque is being produced.
Figure 3.8 Output shaft
3.6.4 Synchroniser unit

A baulk-ring type of synchromesh unit is commonly used to synchronize the
speeds of two gears before engagement. Three metal inserts, with a ridge, fit
into slots in the hub, see Figure 3.9.
A radial spring at each end holds them out, so that the ridges locate in a
groove inside the sleeve, and hold it centrally on the hub.
When the synchronizer is assembled, the hub is splined to the main shaft, and
the engagement sleeve is splined to the hub.

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Figure 3.9 Synchroniser unit
x Functions
1. It prevent the gears from grinding during coupling

2. It locks the output gear to the output shaft
3. It synchronises the speed of the gears before gear selection.

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x Construction of the synchroniser unit

A bronze baulk ring, with recesses to accommodate the ends of the inserts, is
located in each end of the hub, and a conical inner surface faces a matching
steel cone on the gear, see Figure 3.10 (a).
Fine grooves are machined on the conical surface, and the teeth on the outer
edge are the same size as the dog teeth on the gear, and the spline on the
sleeve.
Figure 3.10 (a) Construction of the synchroniser unit
Figure 3.10 (b) Construction of the synchroniser unit

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The recesses are wider than the inserts, to allow the baulk ring to move radially,
see Figure 3.10 (b). Then the teeth on the baulk ring can be out of register with
the teeth on the sleeve.
x Operation
When the sleeve is moved to select a gear, the spring-loaded inserts move the
baulk ring into contact with the conical face of the gear.
The grooves in the face of the baulk ring help to break through the oil film, and
the difference in speed of the two components causes the baulk ring to be
dragged around with the gear to the limit of the recesses, where it is held by
the inserts.
Since the teeth of the baulk ring are now out of alignment with the teeth of the
sleeve, this baulks, or prevents, the sleeve from moving over the ring into
engagement.
The force exerted by the driver now presses the sleeve against the teeth of the
baulk ring, and forces the conical face against the cone of the selected gear,
until the friction created, causes the two components to rotate at the same
speed.
The baulk ring teeth can now come into alignment and the sleeve slides over
them, and into engagement. This is assisted by a chamfer on the teeth, which
helps to guide the sleeve into position. Smooth and rapid gear changes are
thus ensured.
o Function of the synchro sleeve (outer part of the synchro unit)
1. Once the speed of the gear and the shaft are matched, the engagement
sleeve slides on its splines on the hub and engages with the dog teeth on
the gear effectively locking them together.
2. It moves the synchro stop rings by means of energising springs.
o Function of the synchro hub (inner part of the synchro unit)
1. It houses the synchromesh sleeve and connects it to the main shaft.

2. It transmits torque and power from the output gear to the output shaft.
3.6.5 Gears inside the gearbox

The purpose of the gears in a manual transmission is to transmit rotating motion.
A gear is a disc containing teeth machined around the outer edge to mesh
with another gear.
3.6.6 Gear selector fork

The selector is a fork mounted on a rod that fits into a groove in a gear (Figure
3.11).

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The function of the fork is to slide the gear wheel along the main shaft so that
the gear can engage and disengage with the matching gear pinion mounted
on the layshaft.
A 4-speed gearbox needs three selector forks.

These slide on or move with three separate rods.
Normally one fork controls first and second gears
and the second fork the third and top gears.
Reverse has a separate fork longer than the

other two because it has to fit around the lower-
positioned reverse gear. A gear lever transfers
the force and movement initiated by the driver
to the appropriate selector fork. Figure 3.11 Gear selector fork
3.6.7 Selector rod

It serves as a mounting point for the selector fork and transmits movement of
the gear lever to the selector fork.
3.6.8 Gearbox housing

It houses the gears, bearings, shafts and oil.
3.6.9 Thrust washers

Thrust washers, as seen in Figure 3.12, are designed to fit between parts that
rotate against each other. They protect against thrust loads and act as a wear
surface, reducing friction between the rotating parts.
Figure 3.12 Thrust washers
They are often of a selective thickness to allow for endplay adjustments. Thrust
washers are plain bearings, meaning they have no rollers. They are usually
bronze but can be steel with a bronze facing on one side.

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They can be dimpled or grooved to allow for improved lubrication when under
constant rotation.
3.7 Types of bearings used in the gearbox

There are many types of bearings, each used for different purposes either
singularly or in combinations. These include ball bearings, roller bearings, ball
thrust bearings, roller thrust bearings and tapered roller thrust bearings.
3.7.1 Radial ball bearings

Ball bearings (Figure 3.13), as shown to the left, are
the most common type by far. They are found in
everything from skate boards to washing machines
to PC hard drives.
These bearings are capable of taking both radial

and thrust loads, and are usually found in
applications where the load is light to medium and
is constant in nature (i.e. not shock loading).
The bearing shown here has the outer ring cut

away revealing the balls and ball retainer. The input
and output shafts are supported in the gearbox housing by radial ball
bearings.
Figure 3.13 Radial ball bearings
3.7.2 Parallel (cylindrical) roller bearings
Roller bearings (Figure 3.14) like the one shown to
the left are normally used in heavy duty
applications such as conveyer belt rollers, where
they must hold heavy radial loads.
In these bearings the roller is a cylinder, so the

contact between the inner and outer race is not a
point (like the ball bearing above) but a line. This
spreads the load out over a larger area, allowing
the roller bearing to handle much greater loads
than a ball bearing.
However, this type of bearing cannot handle thrust

loads to any significant degree. A variation of this
bearing design is called the needle bearing.
Figure 3.14 Parallel roller bearings
The needle roller bearing uses cylindrical rollers like those above but with a very
small diameter. This allows the bearing to fit into tight places such as gear
boxes that rotate at higher speeds.

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3.7.3 Needle roller bearings

Roller thrust bearings like the one illustrated to
the left can support very large thrust loads. They
are often found in gear sets like car
transmissions between gear sprockets, and
between the housing and the rotating shafts.
The helical gears used in most transmissions

have angled teeth; this can causes a high
thrust load that must be supported by this type
of bearing, see Figure 3.15.
Figure 3.15 Needle roller bearings
3.8 The four speed constant mesh synchro gearbox

The main feature is the use of the stronger helical of double helical gears which
lead to quieter operation, see Figure 3.16.
Figure 3.16 The four speed constant mesh synchro gearbox
In this design, the mainshaft pinions revolves freely on bushes or needle-roller

bearings and are all in constant engagement with the corresponding layshaft
wheels.
The gear operation is obtained by locking the respective gear to the main
shaft by means of a dog clutch. The layout of the box is shown in the figure.
With this arrangement the quieter-running helical gears can be employed, and
during gear changing the noise and wear are reduced by the simultaneous
engagement of all the dogs instead of only a pair of gear teeth as on the
sliding-mesh gearbox.

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With single helical pinions (double helical is economically impractical), the

driving loads on the teeth cause an axial thrust which must be resisted by thrust
washers, or shoulders, on the mainshaft.
3.8.1 Neutral
In a rear wheel drive manual transmission the splines on the front of the input
shaft engage with the splines of the clutch driven plate.
With engine rotation and the clutch engaged the input shaft transfers its
motion through the countershaft to rotate the gears on the main shaft.
In neutral condition the engagement sleeves and hubs splined to the main
shaft are stationary. No drive is transmitted to the main/output shaft (Figure
3.17).
Figure 3.17 Neutral
3.8.2 First gear
x Input shaft
x Cluster gear
x First gear
x Synchro sleeve
x Synchro hub
x Main shaft
Depressing the clutch pedal disconnects the engine from the input shaft,
allowing an engagement sleeve to be moved into engagement with the
external dog teeth on the gear selected.
Engaging the dogteeth locks the gear to the main shaft. When the clutch is
released, the drive is transmitted to the input gear along the countershaft to
the gear selected.
Since this gear is now locked to the main shaft, the mainshaft rotates and
transfers the drive to the final drive unit. The speed ratio and the torque
transferred depend on which gear is selected.

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In a four or five speed transmission the first gear, the smallest on the
countershaft meshes with the largest gear on the main shaft producing first
gear. First gear is always the lowest of the gear ratios in forward, see Figure
3.18.
Figure 3.18 First gear
3.8.3 Second gear

In second gear power flow is through the next adjacent gear, see Figure 3.19.
The difference in speed between the input and output shafts is reduced.
Fewer turns of the input shaft are required to give one turn of the output shaft,
but there is less torque multiplication.
x Input shaft
x Cluster gear
x Second gear
x Synchro sleeve
x Synchro hub
x Main shaft
Figure 3.19 Second gear

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3.8.4 Third gear

When the engagement sleeve, for
third gear, moves into place, the
drive is transmitted through the
meshing gears at an even higher
gear ratio, see Figure 3.20.
x Input shaft
x Cluster gear
x Third gear
x Synchro sleeve
x Synchro hub
x Main shaft Figure 3.20 Third gear
3.8.5 Fourth gear

In fourth gear the input and output
shafts are directly locked together.
This provides a direct drive with a
1:1 ratio, with no reduction through
the countershaft gears (Figure 3.21).
The input and output shafts turns at

the same speed and there is
therefore no torque multiplication.
x Input shaft Figure 3.21 Fourth gear

x Synchro sleeve
x Synchro hub
x Main shaft
3.8.6 Reverse gear (not synchronised)

A reverse idler transmits the drive from the primary to the secondary shaft when
reverse is selected, see Figure 3.22.
Figure 3.22 Reverse gear (not synchronised)

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x Inner shaf
x Cluster gear
x Reverse idler (changes direction of rotation)
x Reverse gear splined onto main shaft
3.8.7 Reverse gear (synchronised)
x Input shaft
x Cluster gear
x Reverse idler gear
x Synchro sleeve
x Synchro hub
x Main shaft
For the gearbox with a synchronised reverse gear, the reverse idler is in
constant mesh with the cluster gear and the reverse gear on the main shaft.
The reverse gear on the main shaft can turn relative to the main shaft when it is
not engaged. When the reverse synchro unit is engaged with the reverse gear,
the gear is locked to the main shaft and then turns at the same speed as the
main shaft.
3.8.8 Speedometer drive gear

Some cars use electric
speedometers receiving the signal
from a speed sensor. The
mechanical speedometer is
cabled driven by a gear on
transmission output shaft as the
speed of the main shaft is always
proportional to the speed of the
vehicle (Figure 3.23).
The gear that meshes with it is

usually plastic and it comes with
different numbers of teeth. The
speedo gear can also be
adjustable to accommodate
different tyre diameters
3.8.9 Selector mechanism

A fork of the type shown in figure
is used to slide a gearwheel along
the main shaft in order to select
the appropriate gear. Figure 3.23 Speedometer drive gear

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It is mounted on its own rod and links the driver’s gear stick to the sliding
gearbox. Every gearbox must be fitted with the following, see Figure 3.24.
Figure 3.24 Selector mechanism
The selector mechanism holds the gears and selectors in position and so
prevents gear engagement or disengagement due to vibration. The figure
shows a typical arrangement suitable for a layout having the selector fork
locked to the rod.
3.8.10 Interlocking mechanism

Prevents two gears engaging simultaneously; if this occurs the gearbox will lock
up and shaft rotation will be impossible. Although the interlock device takes a
number of different forms, the arrangement shown in the figure is one of the
most common.
x Ball or plunger type

This is possibly the most
popular type where
the ball or plunger is
placed between
selector rods which
have indentations, see
Figure 3.25.
The length of the

plunger is greater than
the distance between
the rods, so it will be
impossible to move
more than one rod at
a time.
Figure 3.25 Ball or plunger type

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When a rod is shifted to engage a gear, the moving rod will push the plungers
into the indentations of the other selector rods, allowing this rod only to move.
x Swinging plate type

A "C" shaped swinging plate is mounted between the jaws or gates of the
selector rods, see Figure 3.26. The gap between the "C" arms will only allow one
selector rod to move at a time, and therefore locks the other.
Figure 3.26 Swinging plate type
3.9 Gearbox problem diagnosis
Remember:
When diagnosing a gearbox problem, gather information from the

client and test drive the vehicle to verify the complaint, see Table
3.1.

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Problem Cause Remedy
1. Oil leaks x Lubricant level too x Fill to correct amount

high. of oil seals
x Broken or missing x Replace missing
gaskets gaskets
x Damaged oil seals x Replace damaged oil
seals
2. Gears clash while x Defective x Repair or replace the
they are shifted synchroniser synchroniser
x Incorrect lubricant x Replace with correct
x Clutch is not releasing lubricant
x Incorrect pedal free- x Adjust the clutch
play x Adjust the pedal free-
play
3. Transmission is x Worn out bearing x Replace the bearings
noisy in neutral x No lubricating oil x Lubricate the
position bearing bearings
x Worn out gears, x Replace the
broken or chipped damaged gears
teeth x Replace the worn out
x Worn out counter parts
shaft x Replace the
x Bent or damaged damaged parts
counter shaft
4. Transmission is x Clutch is not releasing x Adjust clutch pedal
stuck in gear x Insufficient lubricant in linkage from time to
gearbox, incorrect time
lubricant. x Add sufficient amount
x Stuck synchronising of lubricant, replace
unit with correct lubricant.
x Free the synchronising
units, check for
damaged units and
replace accordingly
5. Transmission slips x Worn out or defective x Repair and if
out of gear synchroniser necessary replace the
x Worn out bearings defective parts
x Gearshift linkage is x Replace the bearings
out of adjustment. x Adjust gearshift

127
linkage
6. Clutch spin x Clutch pedal not x Adjust the clutch
travelling the full pedal free-play
length x Remove the clutch,
x Wear on clutch plates check and replace
or traces of oil on
facing of clutch plate.
7. Worn out faulty x The interlock pin of x Replace the interlock
gear selector the third speed fork pin.
mechanism rod not moving freely x Remove the bend of
x Bending of striking fork the striking fork.
x Insufficient side x Check for sufficient
clearance of striking side clearance of the
fork pads striking fork pads.
8. Noisy synchromesh x Worn out x Replace the worn out
unit synchronising ring and parts
cone x Replace the
x Damaged damaged parts
synchronising ring or x Replace the weak or
cone broken springs.
x Weak or broken
springs in clutch hub
9. Jumps out of gear x Worn out rollers and x Replace the worn out
bearings in gearbox parts.
x Worn out shafts of the x Replace the worn out
selector mechanism parts.
x Incorrect setting of x Set the gear shift
gearshift correctly.
x Excessive wear of x Replace the gear shift
gearshift control control
Table 3.1 Gearbox problem diagnosis
Activity 3.1
1. Name the different types of gears and their uses.

2. Explain the function of the synchroniser unit.
3. Name two types of bearings in a gearbox.
4. List three gearbox problems and the remedy thereof.

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Self-Check

x List the functions of the gearbox
x Define gear ratios
x Explain gear reduction and overdrive
x List and describe the different types of gears
x Describe the basic gearbox parts, describing the functions,
construction and operation of the synchroniser unit
x Describe the types of bearings used in the gearbox
x Identify and describe the various gears and parts of the four
speed constant mesh synchro gearbox
x State gearbox problems, listing their respective reasons

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Learning Outcomes
x Explain conventional rear wheel drive arrangement

x List advantages of a hollow shaft to a solid section shaft
x Name reasons for vibration on a prop shaft
x State, in detail, the different drive shafts
x Describe the torque effect on the drive line
x Describe the sliding joint of a prop shaft, including the functions and types
x Explain the difference between Hooke’s type and rubber/plastic universal
joints
x List the advantages and disadvantages of rubber and fabric universal
joints
x Describe the drive shafts and list the disadvantages of unequal length
drive shafts for front wheel drive vehicles
x Explain constant velocity joints, describing the advantages over Hooke’s
joints and the power flow
x Name and describe the different types of axles for rear wheel drive motors
4.1 Introduction
This module will describe in detail and explain the uses of; the
propeller and drive shafts as well as universal and CV joints.
4.2 Conventional rear wheel drive arrangement

In a conventional rear wheel drive, engine and transmission are mounted
longitudinally at the front. Drive is transmitted to a rear axle assembly by a
propeller shaft, see Figure 4.1.
Beam-type rear-axle assemblies enclose the final drive gears, differential gears
and axle shafts in one housing. Vehicles with independent suspension have the

130
final drive unit on the chassis frame, and transfer the drive to each driving road
wheel through external drive shafts.
Figure 4.1 Rear wheel drive arrangement
Vehicles with rear or mid-mounted engines normally use a transaxle, and

transfer the drive to the driving road wheels by independent drive shafts.
In beam axle applications, suspension action makes the final drive assembly
rise and fall relative to the vehicle frame.
This produces continuous change in the distance from the transmission output
shaft to the final drive pinion, and in the angle between the propeller shaft and
its connections.
In addition, the pinion nose is forced up on acceleration, and down when the
brakes are applied. Despite these movements, the propeller shaft must transfer
the drive smoothly.
Change in length is accommodated by a sliding spline in the shaft. Angle

changes are provided for by a universal joint at each end.
For independent suspension, universal joints help align the transmission and
final drive, and a sliding spline is still included to allow for slight variations in
length.
The external drive shafts to each road wheel have universal joints at their
connecting points, and often, a sliding spline or a plunge type joint. Some
applications use a two-piece propeller shaft.
The front section of this shaft is supported at its rear end by a center bearing,
bolted through a mounting bracket to the vehicle frame. Provision is normally
made for adjusting the alignment of the two shafts.
4.2.1 Open type propeller shaft

Most of the heavy vehicles, cars and light vehicles use the open type of the
propeller shaft. It is tubular in cross section and is not closed.

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One of the universal joints is connected to the transmission output shaft and
the other to the driving axle pinion shaft. In order to provide a telescopic
action, the front universal joint is splined to the propeller shaft.
Some drive-lines have two-piece propeller shafts with a third universal joint
between each section. This third universal joint includes a centre bearing and
support assembly, which support the centre of the drive line.
4.3 Advantages of a hollow shaft to a solid section shaft
1. Less sagging or whipping for a given mass

2. Mass of shaft is reduced
3. A greater torque is transmitted.
4.4 Reasons for vibrations on a prop shaft
1. A prop shaft that is out of balance.

2. Excessive U-joint bearing play or tightness.
4.5 Types of drive shafts
4.5.1 Hotchkiss drive

The Hotchkiss drive, as seen in Figure 4.2, arrangement has been used on many
commercial vehicle applications. Two rear leaf springs longitudinally mounted
are connected to a frame by a fixed pivot at the front.
The rear spring mounting point, swinging shackle allows the length of the spring
to alter during spring deflection as the vehicle travels over bumps.
At each end of the exposed (open type) propeller shaft a universal joint is
fitted with provision made for alteration in shaft length which occurs when the
springs are deflected.
Torque reaction is resisted by clamping the axle to the springs by means of U-

bolts. When the vehicle accelerates the springs deflect up at the front and
down at the rear, and vice versa during braking.
This deflection movement helps to damp driving shocks and transmission

flexibility. Because the axle continually move up and down, there is an
obviously need for universal joints on the prop shaft.
Driving thrust is transferred from the axle casing to the spring and then
transmitted through the front section of the springs to the vehicle frame.
If the U-bolts become loose, the spring centre bolt (axle location bolt) takes
the full driving thrust the high shearing force soon fractures the bolt.

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Figure 4.2 Hotchkiss drive
4.5.2 Torque tube drive

Whereas the Hotchkiss drive uses stiff springs to resist torque reaction and
driving thrusts, the torque tube (or enclosed) drive relief the spring of all duties
other than functioning as suspension springs.
This means that a softer ride can be achieved by using either softer springs or
another form of spring e.g. helical. Figure 4.3 shows a lay-out using laminated
springs which are connected to the frame by a swinging shackle at each end.
Bolted rigidly to the axle casing is a tubular member which extends to the rear
of the gearbox or gearbox cross-member.
Bracing rods connected between the axle casing and the torque tube,
strengthen the construction at the rear of the tube and the front of the tube is
attached to the gearbox or cross-member by a ball or socket joint.
Mounted in the centre of the ball joint is a universal joint to allow for angular
deflections of the drive. A small diameter propeller shaft is fitted inside the
torque tube and splined to the final drive pinion.
In this arrangement the torque reaction of the axle and the driving thrust are
taken by the torque tube.
When the forward thrust of the ball is taken on the rear housing of the gearbox,
an arrangement must be provided to transfer this force through the gearbox
mountings to the body or frame.
Helical or torsion bar springs may be used as alternatives to laminated springs

and in these cases side movements of the axle must be controlled by fitting
some form of transverse stabilizer e.g. a Panhard Rod between the frame and
the axle.

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Figure 4.3 Torque tube drive
4.5.3 Two piece Hotchkiss

A two-piece drive shaft (Figure 4.4) is used on many long wheelbase vehicles.
It uses a third U-joint between the two shaft sections and a center bearing to
support the middle of the shaft assembly.
Figure 4.4 Two piece Hotchkiss
4.5.4 Semi torque tube

Another type of drive shaft is called a torque tube. Vehicles with independent
rear suspension and a rear-mounted transaxle—such as late model Corvettes
and some Japanese RWD cars use a torque tube.

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On these cars, the torque tube is rigidly connected at both ends. The rotating
inner drive shaft does not need universal joints because the transaxle location
never changes relative to engine location.
In this arrangement the braking and driving torque reactions are taken up by
the semi-torque tube through the cross member, see Figure 4.5 below.
Figure 4.5 Semi torque tube
4.5.5 Differences between a torque tube and Hotchkiss drive

There are two types of drive shafts, the Hotchkiss drive and the Torque Tube
Drive.
x Hotchkiss drive:
o The Hotchkiss drive is made up of a drive shaft connected to the

transmission output shaft and the differential pinion gear shaft.
o U-joints are used in the front and rear.
o The Hotchkiss drive transfers the torque of the output shaft to the differential.
o No wheel drive thrust is sent to the drive shaft. Sometimes this drive comes in
two pieces to reduce vibration and make it easier to install (in this case,
three U-joints are needed).
o The two-piece types need ball bearings in dustproof housing as centre
support for the shafts.
o Rubber is added into this arrangement for noise and vibration reduction.
x Torque tube drive
o The torque tube drive shaft is used if the drive shaft has to carry the wheel
drive thrust.
o It is a hollow steel tube that extends from the transmission to the rear axle
housing.

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o One end is fastened to the axle housing by bolts.

o The transmission end is fastened with a torque ball. The drive shaft fits into
the torque tube.
o A U-joint is located in the torque ball, and the axle housing end is splined to
the pinion gear shaft.
o Drive thrust is sent through the torque tube to the torque ball, to
transmission, to engine and finally, to the frame through the engine mounts.
That is, the car is pushed forward by the torque tube pressing on the engine.
4.6 Torque effect on the drive line

When power is transferred by the propeller shaft to the pinion gear, the pinion
attempts to turn the ring gear. The ring gear however must turn the axle shafts
and the wheels so it will counterattack being shifted.
The pinion gear then endeavours to spool around the ring gear. Since this is not
possible, the pinion gear transfers the torque to the axle housing.
The only visible effect of this torque

transfer is the inclination of the rear
of the vehicle to dip when power is
suddenly applied to the driving
wheels.
4.6.1 Under acceleration (torque

action)
Because the differential axle
housing is bolted to the leaf springs,
when engine torque is transferred
from the prop shaft to the pinion it
will tilt up or down, see Figure 4.6 Figure 4.6 Under acceleration
4.6.2 Under deceleration (braking torque reaction)

The braking torque reaction will cause the differential housing to tilt down
(Figure 4.7).
Figure 4.7 Under deceleration (braking torque reaction)

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4.7 Sliding joint of a prop shaft

The propeller shaft has to meet both of the changes i.e. the angular change
coming between the gear box and differential and the change in length of
the distance between the gear box and differential.
The propeller shaft is also not on the same line as the gear box output shaft but
it runs to the rear axle at an angle because the level of the rear axle is lower
than the gear box.
x To adjust 'angular motion', universal joints are provided.

x To adjust for the change in length of the propeller shaft, a slip joint is
provided. The slip joint allows the propeller shaft to alter its effective length
without interfering with the transfer of torque.
The slip joint usually allows for approximately 50 - 75 mm of movement for

the prop shaft to be lengthened or shortened as the springs are deflected,
see Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8 Sliding joint of a prop shaft
4.7.1 Function of a slip joint

It helps to adjust the length of the propeller shaft according to the rear axle
movements, see Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9 Slip joint
4.7.2 Types of slip joints

Two types of slip joints are used:

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x A slip joint fitted to the main shaft of the gearbox or

x A slip joint fitted at the front or rear of the prop shaft.
4.8 Hooke's type universal joint

A universal joint is a positive, mechanical connection between rotating shafts,
which are usually not parallel, but intersecting. They are used to transmit
motion, power, or both, see Figure 4.10.
The simplest and most common type is called the Cardan joint or Hooke joint. It
is shown above. It consists of two yokes, one on each shaft, connected by a
cross-shaped intermediate member called the spider.
The angle between the two shafts is called the operating angle. It Is generally,
but not necessarily, constant during operation. Good design practice calls for
low operating angles, often less than 25°, depending on the application.
Independent of this guideline, mechanical interference in the construction of

Cardan joints limits the operating angle to a maximum (often about 37½°),
depending on its proportions.
Figure 4.10 Hooke's type universal joint
4.8.1 Disadvantage of a Hooke’s joint
x By design these u-joints have difficulty compensating for parallel offset and
axial misalignment.
x Due to its design, even a lubricated Cardan u-joint will require periodic
maintenance, and may leak lubricant.
4.8.2 Yokes must be in phase

The torsional vibrations set up by the changes in velocity are transferred down
the drive shaft to the next U-joint, see Figure 4.11.

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At this joint, similar acceleration and deceleration occurs. Because these

speed changes take place at equal and reverse angles to the first joint, they
cancel out each other when-ever both occur at the same angle.
To provide for this cancelling effect, drive shafts should have at least two U-
joints and their operating angles must be slight and equal to each other.
Speed fluctuations can be cancelled if the driven yoke has the same point of
rotation, or same plane, as the driving yoke. When the yokes are in the same
plane, the joints are said to be in-phase
Service tip:
On a two-piece drive shaft, you may encounter problems if you are not
careful. The centre U-joint must be disassembled to replace the centre
support
bearing.
The centre driving yoke is splined to the front drive shaft. If the yoke’s position
on the drive shaft is not indicated in some manner, the yoke could be
installed in a position that is out of phase.
Manufacturers use different methods of indexing the yoke to the shaft. Some
use aligning arrows. Others machine a master spline that is wider than the
others.
When there are no indexing marks, the technician should always index the
yoke to the drive shaft before disassembling the U-joint. This saves time and
frustration during reassembly. Indexing requires only a light hammer and
centre punch to mark the yoke and drive shaft.
Figure 4.11 Yokes must be in phase

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4.9 Rubber and fabric universal joints

A smoother and less harsh drive is obtained by incorporating one or more
rubber joints in the transmission driveline. Three types of rubber joints in use
include moulton, layrub and doughnut, see Figure 4.12.
Figure 4.12 Rubber and fabric universal joints
x Moulton Joint.
This rubber trunnion type joint (Fig. 26.8C) is based on a Hooke type coupling. It
uses moulded rubber bushings for the transmission of drive between the
trunnion and yokes.
These synthetic rubber mouldings require no lubrication and due to high

flexibility they damp the torsional shocks produced when the drive is
transmitted through an angle.
x Layrub Joint.
This type joint (Fig. 26.8D), originally made by the Laycock company, and was
constructed of a series of rubber bushings. The name layrub is used to describe
this joint.
It uses a number of moulded rubber blocks, with specially shaped cavities at

the ends. These blocks are sandwiched between two steel pressings. Each
shaft is connected by means of a fork to alternate rubber blocks.
This arrangement permits the rubber blocks to deform making the drive
possible for transmission through a small angle. Also the blocks accommodate
small axial and angular movements for shaft length alteration and torsional
damping.
This coupling is relatively large in diameter. The layrub type joint offers several
advantages, such as:

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1. It does not require lubrication,

2. It is capable of driving through bump angles up to about 15 degrees,
3. It allows for axial movement, requiring no splining of the shaft, and
4. Its resilience damps shocks and insulates vehicle from transmission noise.
x Doughnut Joint.
Although large in size, the great flexibility of this joint provides soft cushioning.
This absorbs the majority of torsional shocks generated by the action of other
joints or by vibration from either the engine or road wheel.
The synthetic rubber coupling is near-circular in shape and is moulded around

cylindrical steel inserts, which are bolted alternatively to the three-arm forks
fixed to the shafts. The merits of this coupling are similar to that of layrub joint.
4.10 Front wheel drive vehicles

In the automotive field, a transaxle is a major mechanical component that
combines the functionality of the transmission, the differential and associated
components of the driven axle into one integrated assembly.
Transaxles are near universal in all automobile configurations that have the
engine placed at the same end of the car as the driven wheels: the front-
engine, front-wheel drive layout, rear-engine, rear-wheel drive layout and rear
mid-engine, rear-wheel drive layout arrangements.
Many mid- and rear-engined vehicles use a transverse engine and transaxle,
similar to a front wheel drive unit
4.10.1 Front wheel drive shafts
x Comparison between front wheel drive shafts to the Hotchkiss Drive system
1. Shorter in length.
2. The drive shaft transmits greater torque.
3. Because they operate directly between the final drive and wheels, they
also turn slower.
4. The shafts have to unfortunately withstand the brake torque from the
engine more suddenly.
4.10.2 Unequal length drive shafts

If the half-shafts are not equal in length, the longer one is usually made thicker
than the shorter one or one axle may be solid and the other tubular.
These combinations would allow both axles to twist in the same amount while
under engine power. If they twist unequal amounts, the car may experience
torque steer.

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4.10.3 Disadvantages of unequal length drive shafts

The transaxle in a typical front-wheel drive car with a transverse mounted
engine is offset to one side to physically accommodate the engine within the
engine compartment.
This means the position of the differential gears is also off-centre, which requires
unequal length driveshafts (Figure 4.13).
x Unequal length driveshafts, however, have been found to deliver more

torque to the wheel with the shorter driveshaft (which is usually the left
wheel). Under light loads, the difference is insignificant.
x Under hard acceleration, the wheel with the shorter shaft gets more torque,
causing that wheel to pull harder than the other wheel.
x The stronger wheel tends to pull ahead of the other wheel, which creates
the induced steering pull towards the opposite side.
x Thus the direction of torque steer in a vehicle with a left mounted transaxle
is usually towards the right.
x Under normal driving conditions and moderate acceleration, torque steer is
rarely noticeable, unless a vehicle also has unequally inflated tyres or an
alignment problem, or there is excessive compliance (flex) in the control
arm bushings.
Figure 4.13 Equal versus unequal length system
Somewhere along the way, engineers discovered that switching to equal

length driveshafts helped even out the torque loads, which in turn reduced the
tendency to torque steer.

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The factory "fix" for an offset transaxle, therefore, has been to divide the longer
shaft into two parts. A short intermediate shaft is plugged into the long side of
the transaxle, with a support bearing at the outboard end to hold it steady.
A shortened right side driveshaft, which is equal in length to the left side
driveshaft, is then connected to the intermediate shaft to complete the
driveline.
In theory, the intermediate shaft becomes an extension of the transaxle itself

because the shaft is rigidly mounted and does not change angles with motions
of the suspension. In practice, it helps to reduce torque steer but it doesn't
always eliminate it entirely.
The trick to eliminating torque steer is balancing engine torque as even as

possible side-to-side. With equal length driveshafts, a car may pull either right
or left during hard acceleration depending on other factors that affect
driveline geometry and traction.
The slant of the engine in the chassis, for example, can have an effect. That's
why some vehicles have shims under the right motor mount. By raising or
lowering the right side of the engine slightly, any tendency to torque steer one
way or the other can be neutralized.
Likewise, changing the relative height of the intermediate shaft bearing by

repositioning its mount can be used to fine tune the driveline. Installing stiffer
suspension bushings that have less give also helps keep the wheel pointed
straight ahead.
4.10.4 Droop angle

The angle created between the final drive and the wheel bearing made by
the driveshaft is known as the droop angle, as seen in Figure 4.14. This angle is
also measured from the horizontal plane.
Figure 4.14 Droop angle
The droop angle can be made equal on both shafts by fitting a jack shaft and
a fixed bearing on the longer shaft. A jack shaft is a short shaft between the
final drive and the wheel bearing.
The drive shaft is then fitted between the jackshaft bearing and the wheel
bearing. A jack shaft is also known as an intermediate shaft.

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4.10.5 Constant velocity joints

One of the most important components of a FWD drive axle is the constant
velocity joint. These joints are used to transfer a uniform torque and a constant
speed, while operating through a wide range of angles.
On FWD and 4WD cars, operating angles of as much as 40 degrees are

common. The drive axles must transmit power from the engine to the front
wheels that must also drive, steer, and cope with the severe angles caused by
the up and down movement of the vehicle’s suspension.
CV joints are compact joints that allow the drive axles to rotate at a constant
velocity, regardless of the operating angle. CV joints do the same job as the
Universal joints of front-engined RWD cars.
Constant velocity joints turn at the same speed during all operating angles and
therefore can smoothly deliver power to the wheels.
x Advantages of CV joints over Hooke’s joints
o There are no angular velocity changes that are found in u-joint style shafts.
The CV joint style does not have this velocity change, hence, the name
constant velocity.
o An added benefit of CV style shafts is that they can operate at angles u-
joint designed shafts cannot handle.
o CV axles are found in front wheel drive cars, front axles in 4x4 vehicles, drive
shafts, industrial, racing and many different applications where a shaft is
needed that delivers a smooth torque transfer.
o CV joints are protected from road dirt and water by a CV joint rubber boot
provided the rubber boot is not damaged or tom. The rubber boot also
keeps the grease and lubricant on the working components.
x Power flow through a CV joint

A Rzeppa joint (invented by Alfred H. Rzeppa in 1926) consists of a spherical
inner with 6 grooves in it, and a similar enveloping outer shell. Each groove
guides one ball.
The input shaft fits in the centre of a large, steel, star-shaped "gear" those nests
inside a circular cage. The cage is spherical but with ends open, and it
typically has six openings around the perimeter.
This cage and gear fit into a grooved cup that has a splined and threaded
shaft attached to it. Six large steel balls sit inside the cup grooves and fit into
the cage openings, nestled in the grooves of the star gear.
The output shaft on the cup then runs through the wheel bearing and is
secured by the axle nut. This joint can accommodate the large changes of

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angle when the front wheels are turned by the steering system; typical Rzeppa
joints allow 45°–48° of articulation, while some can give 52°.
At the "outboard" end of the driveshaft a slightly different unit is used. The end
of the driveshaft is splined and fits into the outer "joint". It is typically held in
place by a circlip.
When the axle turns, the power is transferred through the inner race, balls, the
housing and finally to the wheel hub (Figure 4.15).
Figure 4.15 Power flow through a CV joint
x Tripod CV joint
This joint is compact and as it can operate efficiently at high speed, it is more
common in vehicles. The joint provides good resistance to high-speed
centrifugal effects.
The design of this joint, and manufacturing with the reduced working
clearances provide a transmission drive line with good noise-vibration
harshness (NVH) performance.

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The construction consists of, three armed support (tripode) carrying the
spherically shaped rollers, fixed to the outer housing.
On both sides of each driving fork, which also has three arms, grooves are cut
to form a bearing track for the rollers, see Figure 4.16.
The force exerted by the side of the driving fork on the rollers produces the
drive through the joint. This force is transmitted to the tripode and joint housing.
Changes in the drive angle causes the roller to move backwards and forwards
along the grooved track as the joint rotates through one revolution. A small
clearance is given between the roller and track to permit this movement.
The tripode joint provides constant velocity motion because of the path taken
by the rollers with respect to the contact point on the track. This type of fixed
joint can work occasionally up to a drive angle of about 45 degrees.
Figure 4.16 Tripod CV joint
4.11 Types of axles for rear wheel drive vehicles

Rear axles differ on the basis of method of supporting them and mounting of
rear wheels. On this basis, these axles can be classified into three types:
1. Half floating axle shown in Figure 4.17.

2. Three-quarter floating axle shown in Figure 4.18.
3. Fully floating rear axle shown in Figure 4.19.
4.11.1 Half Floating Axle

In a half floating rear axle, the axle is at the centre of the axle casing and the
bearings are inside the axle casing.
The weight of vehicle is transmitted first to suspension spring, then to axle

casing, then to axle and finally to ground. See Figure 4.17.

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Figure 4.17 Semi floating
4.11.2 Three-quarter Floating Axle

In three-quarter floating rear axle, bearings are on the outer side of axle
casing, i.e. between casing and wheel. In this case, major part of vehicle
weight is taken by axle casing and not by axle (Figure 4.18).
Figure 4.18 Three quarter floating

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This is the main advantage of three-quarter floating type over half floating
type. Thus, axle breakdown is less in this case compared to the previous type.
4.11.3 Full floating

In fully floating rear axle, the bearings are provided between axle casing and
the wheel, see Figure 4.19. In this case, all the vehicle weight is transmitted to
ground through axle case and wheel.
Take note:
The axle is not supported by bearings but it is supported at both

ends. This type of axle is very strong and therefore, it is used for
heavy duty vehicles.
In the event of breakdown of axle, wheel cannot come out. This, it

is safer but costly.
Figure 4.19 Full floating
Activity 4.1
1. Draw a conventional rear wheel drive arrangement.

2. Explain the function of a torque tube drive.
3. Explain the function of a Hotchkiss drive.
4. List two differences between a torque-tube drive and a Hotchkiss drive.
5. What is the function of a Hooke universal joint?
6. What does it mean by phasing the propshaft?
7. Name an advantage of using rubber or flexible universal joints?
8. Explain how to overcome the negative effects of using unequal length
drive shafts?
9. List three advantages of a constant velocity universal joint.
10. Describe a tripod CV joint.
11. List three types of drive axles that are found on motor vehicles.

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Self-Check

x Explain conventional rear wheel drive arrangement
x List advantages of a hollow shaft to a solid section shaft
x Name reasons for vibration on a prop shaft
x State, in detail, the different drive shafts
x Describe the torque effect on the drive line
x Describe the sliding joint of a prop shaft, including the
functions and types
x Explain the difference between Hooke’s type and
rubber/plastic universal joints
x List the advantages and disadvantages of rubber and fabric
universal joints
x Describe the drive shafts and list the disadvantages of
unequal length drive shafts for front wheel drive vehicles
x Explain constant velocity joints, describing the advantages
over Hooke’s joints and the power flow
x Name and describe the different types of axles for rear wheel
drive motors

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Learning Outcomes
x Explain the difference between dead and live axles

x List the functions of the final drive assembly and differential
x List and describe the different types of final drives
x State and describe the components of the differential
x Describe the four variants in differential action
x Explain the relationship between tooth pressure and friction
x List and describe the checks done before stripping the final drive assembly
x Identify different contact patterns and suggested correction of faulty
contact
x Define and describe the backlash between pinion and crown wheel
x List the functions of ‘pinion bearing pre-load’
5.1 Introduction
In this module you will learn about the functions and different types
of final drives. You will also learn about differentials and the
components thereof.
5.2 Dead and live axles

A dead axle does not rotate nor is driven but merely forms a base upon which
to attach the wheels. Non-powered rear axle on tandem truck, tractor or
trailer.
It is also referred to as a tag axle. A live axle is a driven axle upon which the
wheels are firmly attached. Usually there are two half shafts with a differential
in between.

150
Each axle drives the wheel it supports. Live axles are non-independent, i.e.,
when one wheel moves up or down, it affects the movement of the other.
They are used on rear-wheel-drive vehicles. Both types of axles use some form
of suspension and braking system.
5.3 Final drive

This is the end of the drive train before power is transmitted to the wheels. In a
typical car, the engine (or electric motor) transmits its power through some sort
of clutch into a transmission.
Then the power is transmitted to differential gears that adjust the engine speed
to the most efficient use intended. These final drive differential gears are either
at the front axle or rear axle, depending on the vehicle's layout.
A typical family car or one intended for high speeds will have a low numerical
ratio, to give it speed and good fuel efficiency. A truck or performance car is
likely to have a high numerical ratio for better pulling power or for better
acceleration
5.3.1 Functions of the final drive assembly

The final drive consists of a crown wheel and pinion and the purpose of the
final drive as applied to the rear axle is:
x To transmit the drive through an angle of 90°

x To provide a gear ratio that reduces the speed at which the gearbox
output shaft rotates which then allows the use of a direct drive (top gear)
through the gearbox.
In the case of many cars this requires a final drive ratio of approximately 4:1.
This can be achieved by the use of bevel gears, or by a worm and wheel
system.
5.3.2 Functions of the differential

The differential unit is incorporated in the centre of the final drive and mounted
on the crown wheel. The functions of the differential are as follows (see, Figure
5.1):
1. The differential allows for different speeds at the drive wheels when a
vehicle goes around a corner or any time there is a change of direction
2. It also allows both axles to turn at the same speed when the vehicle is
moving straight. The drive axle assembly directs drive-line torque to the
vehicle’s drive wheels and,
3. to effect a final gear reduction.

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Figure 5.1 Functions of the differential
5.4 Types of final drives

Final drives are classified according to
the types of gears used.
5.4.1 Straight tooth bevel gear (spur

gear)
The main features of the bevel type of
gear are the tapered teeth generated
from the centre are machined on the
case hardened steel gears. The gears
are then ground together to form a
matched pair, see Figure 5.2.
The direction of rotation of the axle

shaft is determined by the position of
the crown wheel relative to the
position of the pinion. Figure 5.2 Straight tooth bevel gear
The gears are aligned correctly using distance pieces, shims or screwed rings.
These forms of adjusters enable the correct mesh and backlash to be set.

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5.4.2 Spiral bevel gear

Spiral Bevel Gear Spiral (Figure 5.3) bevel
gears have curved gear teeth with the
pinion and ring gear on the same center
line. This type of final drive is used
extensively in truck and occasionally in
older automobiles.
This design allows for constant contact

between the ring gear and pinion. It also
necessitates the use of heavy grade
lubricants.
The advantage of this design includes;

longer life, quieter running and increased
teeth strength when compared to the
straight tooth bevel gear. Figure 5.3 Spiral bevel gear
5.4.3 Hypoid gear

Differential gears come in two different designs – hypoid and spiral bevel. Spiral
bevel differential gear sets are also referred to as non-hypoid.
In a nutshell, with a spiral bevel design, the pinion gear meshes with the ring
gear at the center line of the ring gear. The first automotive differentials were
spiral bevel non-hypoids.
A hypoid differential has the pinion gear meshing with the ring gear either
above or below the centre line, see Figure 5.4. If it is above, not surprisingly, this
is referred to as a high pinion.
The amount that a pinion gear is off from the centre line of the ring gear is
referred to as the hypoid offset. In this day and age, most differentials are low
pinion hypoids with a moderate hypoid offset.
There are advantages and disadvantages to both designs. Many people

assume that hypoid differentials are inherently stronger than a non-hypoid but
this is not necessarily correct.
Both designs can be very durable. Large hypoid offsets have fallen out of
favour because they inherently generate a substantial amount of friction
resulting in heat, wear and inefficiency.
With the advent of hypoid differentials, the usual lubrication had to be

upgraded to “hypoid rated” to deal with the sliding action between the gears
and the resulting increases heat and wear.

153
The first hypoid differential was produced by the American automobile

company, Packard in the 1920’s. The original motivation for the designing of
the hypoid differential, contrary to popular belief, was surprisingly to lower the
driveshaft tunnel in passenger cars.
Figure 5.4 Hypoid gear
5.4.4 Worm and wheel

The worm and wheel drive, as seen in Figure 5.5, is rarely used as a final drive
on light vehicles due to its cost, but it is used on some applications of heavy
vehicles. The worm and wheel type of gear provides a large gear reduction
ratio in a small space.
Friction caused by the sliding action of the worm is reduced by using a worm
wheel of phosphor-bronze and a worm of case-hardened steel, but even with
these materials the unit gets rather hot
Figure 5.5 Worm and wheel
5.4.5 Helical gears

The teeth on helical gears are cut at an angle to the face of the gear, see
Figure 5.6. When two teeth on a helical gear system engage, the contact
starts at one end of the tooth and gradually spreads as the gears rotate, until
the two teeth are in full engagement.

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This gradual engagement makes helical gears operate much more smoothly
and quietly than spur gears. For this reason, helical gears are used in almost all
car transmissions.
Because of the angle of the teeth on helical gears, they create a thrust load
on the gear when they mesh. Devices that use helical gears have bearings
that can support this thrust load.
One interesting thing about helical gears is that if the angles of the gear teeth
are correct, they can be mounted on perpendicular shafts, adjusting the
rotation angle by 90 degrees.
Helical gears are sometimes used where the drive does not have to be turned
through a right-angle. An example of this is in a transverse engine layout.
These systems are less expensive to produce than the other designs and
require no special lubrication.
Figure 5.6 Helical gears
5.4.6 Classification of final drives by the way the reduction in the final drive is
obtained
1. The conventional final drive where a single reduction is obtained between

the crown wheel and pinion
2. A single speed, double reduction final drive
3. A two-speed double reduction final drive
4. The epicyclical two-speed final drive
5.5 The differential

The differential assembly consists of the following components:
5.5.1 Pinion gear

A pinion gear (Figure 5.7) inside the differential is driven by the propeller shaft
and has its gears bevelled - cut at an angle. It meshes with a bevelled crown
wheel so that the two gears form a 90 degree angle.

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Figure 5.7 Pinion gear
x Types of spacers used between the two bearings to set the preload
The method adjusting the pinion bearing pre-load depends on the type of
spacer used to hold the bearings apart. The two main arrangements referred
to is:
1. A solid spacer
2. A collapsible spacer.
A bearing arrangement controlled by a solid spacer has a series of variable

sized shims to control the static load on the bearings. With this type of
adjustment the pinion must be fully tightened before the preload is measured.
If the preload is found to be incorrect when re-checking the adjustment, then

shims have to be either added or removed to provide the correct preload.
In addition to retaining the bearings at the correct preload specification, the

ductile steel spacer collapse when placed under pressure from the pinion nut.
5.5.2 Crown wheel

The crown wheel usually has about four times as many teeth as the pinion
gear, causing the wheels to turn at a quarter the propeller-shaft speed.
5.5.3 Differential carrier

Is the rotating metal container inside the Differential housing and encloses the
differential side gears and pinion gears. Also called the Differential carrier
(Figure 5.8)

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Figure 5.8 Differential carrier
5.5.4 Differential housing

The differential housing is secured to the crown wheel and it rotates as a single
unit. It also holds the pinion shaft, side gears and planet gears together. The
differential housing fits on adjustable carrier bearings in the differential carrier.
5.5.5 Gears inside the differential

The differential gear, as seen in Figure 5.9 (a)-(b), is a part of the power
transmission device. The driving force generated by an engine is transmitted to
the tyres through various types of bevel gears.
Figure 5.9 (a) Gears inside the differential
Differential gear is representative of the automotive components that

incorporate such bevel gears.
The differential gear assembly absorbs rotational differences due to the

direction change of the rotational axis drive and/or the rotational differences
between the right and left wheels that lead to smooth cornering.

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Two side shaft gears connect the drive shafts to the wheels. Other names for
side shaft gears are sun gear, sun pinion or large differential bevel gear.
The side shaft gears are in constant mesh with two planet gears, which can
rotate about their own axes on a cross shaft or pinion shaft. Other names for
the planet gears are spider gears, pinion gears, differential idler gears or small
bevel gears.
Figure 5.9 (b) Gears inside the differential
5.6 Differential action
5.6.1 Driving straight ahead

When a vehicle is driving straight ahead, the ring gear, the differential case,
the differential pinion gears, and the differential side gears turn as a unit.
Note:
The two differential pinion gears do NOT rotate on the pinion shaft,
because they exert equal force on the side gears.
As a result, the side gears turn at the same speed as the ring gear, causing
both rear wheels to turn at the same speed, see Figure 5.10.

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Figure 5.10 Differential action when driving straight ahead
5.6.2 When cornering

The differential is an arrangement of gears with two functions: to permit the
rear wheels to turn at different speeds when cornering and to divide the power
flow between both rear wheels.
The accompanying illustration (Figure 5.11) has been provided to help

understand how this occurs.
x The drive pinion, which is turned by the driveshaft, turns the ring gear (1).
x The ring gear, which is attached to the differential case, turns the case (2).
x The pinion shaft, located in a bore in the differential case, is at right angles
to the axle shafts and turns with the case (3).
x The differential pinion (drive) gears are mounted on the pinion shaft and
rotate with the shaft (4).
x Differential side gears (driven gears) are meshed with the pinion gears and
turn with the differential housing and ring gear as a unit (5).
x The side gears are splined to the inner ends of the axle shafts and rotate the
shafts as the housing turns (6).
x When both wheels have equal traction, the pinion gears do not rotate on
the pinion shaft, since the input force of the pinion gears is divided equally
between the two side gears (7).
x When it is necessary to turn a corner, the differential gearing becomes
effective and allows the axle shafts to rotate at different speeds (8).
As the inner wheel slows down, the side gear splined to the inner wheel axle
shaft also slows. The pinion gears act as balancing levers by maintaining equal
tooth loads to both gears, while allowing unequal speeds of rotation at the
axle shafts.
If the vehicle speed remains constant, and the inner wheel slows down to 90%
of vehicle speed, the outer wheel will speed up to 110 %. However, because
this system is known as an open differential,

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if one wheel should become stuck (as in mud or snow), all of the engine power
can be transferred to only one wheel.
Figure 5.11 Differential action when cornering
5.6.3 No drive conditions

When one wheel is standing still while the other wheel is rotating i.e stuck in
mud, the planet gears rotate around the stationary side gear. This cause the
opposite sun gear to turn twice the normal speed.
Example 1
Right-hand side gear

500 rev/min
Crown wheel
250 rev/min
Left-hand side gear

0 rev/min
From the example it can be deduced that a loss in speed of one of the side
gears result in an increase in speed of the other side gear. This condition will be
exactly the same if one of the drive shafts should snap.
5.6.4 Reverse turning when jacked up

It will be noticed that, if a vehicle is raised off the ground and the left-hand
wheel is turning at 50 rpm.
in a clockwise direction, and the differential carrier and crown wheel are not
turning, the right hand wheel will be turning at 50 rpm. in an anti-clockwise
direction. This action is caused by the differential gears.

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5.7 Tooth pressure and friction

When gears are transmitting torque, the natural forces transmitted between
the gears will cause wear and friction.
To combat this, thrust washers are fitted behind the gears. To reduce tooth
pressure during transmission of torque in a heavy vehicle, four planet gears are
used instead of two gears on a light vehicle.
5.8 Final drive and differential service

Faults on the differential usually manifest itself as humming and noises. It is
absolutely critical that a process of elimination is used as worn wheel bearings,
universal joints and gearbox bearings can produce similar symptoms.
Gather the information from the client in a systematic manner. Does the noise
occur when accelerating, cornering or coasting at a certain speed? Road test
the vehicle with the client as the passenger in order to verify the clients
concern.
5.9 Checks before stripping the final

drive assembly
5.9.1 Axial runout

Secure the magnetic base of the dial
gauge on the workbench and place the
plunger against the upper ridge of the
crown wheel. Rotate the crown wheel and
check the highest and the lowest point
readings.
Figure 5.12 Axial runout
The difference will indicate the axle run-out of the crown

wheel or buckle of the differential casing. See Figure
5.12.
5.9.2 Radial run-out

Radial run-out is determined by placing the dial gauge
perpendicular to the crown wheel.
Rotate the crown wheel and check the difference

between the lowest and the highest readings which will
indicate the radial run-out. See Figure 5.13 on the left
hand side. Normal axial- and drive run-out is normally
caused by worn bearings.
Figure 5.13 Radial run out

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5.9.3 Tooth contact pattern

Figures 5.14-5.15 illustrate the tooth contact pattern and how to check it.
Figure 5.14 The tooth contact pattern
Figure 5.15 Checking the tooth contact pattern
x Checking the Pattern
Figure 5.16 Correct and incorrect patterns

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Check the pattern for proper pinion depth only after setting the backlash.
Brush three or four of the ring gear teeth with a moderate coat of gear
marking compound in two different places on the ring gear.
Rotate the ring gear past the pinion gear three or four times and then back so
the pattern can be seen. Pinion depth is indicated by the position of the
pattern between the face and flank of the ring gear teeth.
Backlash must be kept within specifications, and will therefore only slightly
affect the pattern between the heel and toe of the ring gear teeth. Housing
alignment and pinion bearing bore alignment can also affect the pattern from
heel to toe and cannot be corrected without machine work.
In some cases an ideal heel to toe pattern cannot be achieved. If the

backlash is within specifications, you may disregard the heel to toe pattern.
A contact pattern that is centered from face to flank always indicates correct
pinion depth even if a pattern that is centered from heel to toe cannot be
obtained, see Figure 5.17.
If the contact pattern is towards the face of the ring gear teeth then the pinion
is too far away from the ring gear. Adjust the pinion shims to move the pinion
gear towards the ring gear centerline (add shims; subtract shims for pinion
support designs).
If the contact pattern is towards the flank of the ring gear teeth then the pinion
is too close to the ring gear. Adjust the pinion shims to move the pinion gear
away from the ring gear centerline (subtract shims; add shims for pinion
support designs).
When changing the pinion depth, make large changes (0.005″ to 0.015″) until
the pattern is close. By making adjustments that move the pinion too far, you
can determine that the correct pattern is somewhere between the two
extremes.
Then make smaller changes (0.002″ to 0.004″) until the pattern is centered
between the face and the flank of the ring gear teeth. When setting up a
used ring & pinion pay more attention to the pattern on the coast side of the
ring gear teeth and pay less attention to the drive side.
Low mileage gears should be patterned as if new. The correct contact pattern
should take place on the pitch line slightly towards the toe under light load.
Under heavy load, the contact should be closer to the heel.
The drive side of the tooth refers to the convex side of the tooth, while the
coast side refers to the concave side of the tooth. Table 5.1 below depicts the
different contact patterns and suggested correction of faulty contact:

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Contact patterns Correction of faulty contact

x Flank too low x Move the pinion away from the
center of the crown wheel by
installing a thinner washer behind
the pinion gear.
x Incorrect toe contact x Move the crown wheel away from

the pinion
x Too much heel contact x Move ring gear towards pinion
x Too much face contact x Move pinion towards crown wheel
Table 5.1 Contact patterns and corrections
Figure 5.17 The pinion
5.10 Backlash between pinion and crown wheel

Backlash between the pinion gear and ring gear is set whenever the
differential is disassembled for bearing or gear replacement. It is adjusted by
setting the side to side position of the differential case.
Backlash is normally checked with a dial indicator after the pinion bearing pre-
load and pinion depth has been set and the assembled differential case with
the ring gear is in the carrier or axle housing.

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Lock the pinion before checking the backlash. Backlash is checked by

positioning the plunger of a dial indicator against the face of a tooth on the
ring gear.
Backlash is measured by moving the ring gear back and forth against the
teeth of the pinion gear. The total range of movement shown on the indicator
is equal to the amount of backlash, see Figure 5.18.
Figure 5.18 Dial test indicator
5.11 Pinion bearing pre-load

The pinion bearing preload is frequently adjusted by torqueing the pinion nut
to compress a collapsible spacer. The more the pinion nut is torqued, the more
the spacer will compress to increase the preload or tightness of the bearings,
see Figure 5.19.
Figure 5.19 Torqueing the pinion nut

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With a collapsible spacer, only tighten the pinion nut in small increments. Then
measure the pinion preload by turning the pinion nut with an inch-pound
torque wrench.
When a solid spacer and pinion nut are used, shims control pinion bearing
preload. The pinion nut is torqued to a specific value found in the service
manual.
To set pinion bearing preload, use a holding tool to keep the pinion gear
stationary. Then a breaker bar or torque wrench can be used to tighten the
pinion nut.
5.11.1 Functions of pinion bearing pre-load
1. Incorrect bearing pre-load can cause differential noise.

2. Driving loads tend to move the teeth of the pinion ring to the outside of the
ring gear.
3. If the pre-load on the bearings is set too high, overheating and bearing
failure can occur.
Activity 5.1
1. Describe the difference between the final drive and the differential.
2. Name four types of final drives.
3. List two types of spacers that are used between pinion bearings.
4. Draw and label a conventional differential and final drive assembly.
5. How does the differential operate when a vehicle moves:
a) straight ahead and
b) around the bend?
6. What is the function of the pinion bearing preload.
7. Name one advantage of the following final drives:
a) Spiral bevel gem
b) Worm and wheel
8. What does the differential unit in a rear axle enable a vehicle to do?
9. Where can a torque multiplication occur?
10. Name a common differential adjustment.

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Self-Check

x Explain the difference between dead and live axles
x List the functions of the final drive assembly and differential
x List and describe the different types of final drives
x State and describe the components of the differential
x Describe the four variants in differential action
x Explain the relationship between tooth pressure and friction
x List and describe the checks done before stripping the final
drive assembly
x Identify different contact patterns and suggested correction
of faulty contact
x Define and describe the backlash between pinion and crown
wheel
x List the functions of ‘pinion bearing pre-load’

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Learning Outcomes
x State the functions of the suspension

x List the various forms of springs
x Name and describe the units of the basic suspension
x Explain the difference between non-independent and independent
suspension
x Explain the terms; ‘spring rate; ‘sprung weight’ and ‘unsprung weight’
x State the different systems for independent front suspension, including the
reasons for unequal length parallel wishbones and the advantages and
disadvantages of torsion bar suspension
x Describe leaf springs, listing the advantages
x Name and describe the types of rear axle suspension
x Describe the different arm designs for independent rear-axle using coil
springs
x Define ‘shock absorbers’, explaining their operation, listing their functions
and describing the different types
x Describe the dangers of using worn shock absorbers and how to check
their condition
x List the reasons for excessive tyre wear
6.1 Introduction
In this module you will learn about motor suspension systems. We will
examine mass, various forms of springs and the components that
make up the suspension system.
6.2 Functions of the suspension system

The suspension system isolates the body from road shocks and vibrations which
would otherwise be transferred to the passengers and load.
It also must keep the tyres in contact with the road. When a tyre hits an
obstruction, there is a reaction force. The size of this reaction force depends on
the unsprung mass at each wheel assembly.

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The sprung mass is that part of the vehicle supported by the springs - such as
the body, the frame, the engine, and associated parts.
Unsprung mass includes the components that follow the road contours, such as
wheels, tyres, brake assemblies, and any part of the steering and suspension
not supported by the springs.
Vehicle ride and handling can be improved by keeping unsprung mass as low
as possible. When large and heavy wheel assemblies encounter a bump or
pothole, they experience a larger reaction force, sometimes large enough to
make the tyre lose contact with the road surface.
Wheel and brake units that are small, and light, follow road contours without a
large effect on the rest of the vehicle.
At the same time, a suspension system must be strong enough to withstand

loads imposed by vehicle mass during cornering, accelerating, braking, and
uneven road surfaces.
6.3 Various forms of springs

x Steel coil spring
x Leaf springs
x Steel torsion bar
x Rubber springs
6.3.1 Coil springs

The load-carrying ability of a coil spring depends on the wire diameter, the
overall spring diameter, its shape, and the spacing of the coils. Coil springs can
look alike but give very different load ratings, which are often colour coded for
identification.
Figure 6.1 Coil spring

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Coil springs are used on the front suspension of most modern light vehicles, and
in many cases, they have replaced leaf springs in the rear suspension.
Keyword:
A coil spring is made from a single length of special wire, which is
heated and wound on a former, to produce the required shape, as
seen in Figure 6.1 on the previous page.
The load-carrying ability of the spring depends on the diameter of the wire, the
overall diameter of the spring, its shape, and the spacing of the coils. And this
also decides which vehicle it is suitable for. A light commercial vehicle has
springs that are robust and fairly stiff.
On a small passenger car, they are lighter, and more flexible. The coils may be
evenly spaced, or of uniform pitch, or unevenly spaced.
The wire can be the same thickness throughout, or it may taper towards the
end of the spring. The spring itself may be cylindrical, barrel-shaped, or conical.
Generally, a cylindrical spring, with uniform diameter wire, and uniform pitch,
has a constant deflection rate. Its length reduces in direct proportion to the
load applied.
6.3.2 Leaf springs

A leaf spring locates the axle housing longitudinally and laterally. It sustains
torque reaction on acceleration, and braking torque on deceleration. Driving
thrust transfers through the front half of the spring to the fixed shackle point.
The leaf spring is one of the oldest forms of springing. It is usually used on rear-
wheel-drive vehicles because its simplicity. They can be mounted
longitudinally.
Figure 6.2 Leaf springs

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Leaf springs consist of one or more flat springs, made of tempered steel. A
number of leaves of different length are used to form a multi-leaf spring.
They are held together by a centre bolt that passes through a hole in the
centre of each leaf, as shown in Figure 6.2 on the previous page.
It is also used to locate the axle on the spring. The axle is then clamped to the
spring by U-bolts that wrap around the axle housing, and through a spring
plate underneath the spring.
Rebound clips are formed at intervals around the leaves. They prevent
excessive flexing of the main leaf during rebound, and also keep the leaves in
alignment.
The longest leaf called the main leaf, is rolled at both ends to form eyes. These
eyes are used to mount the spring to the frame of the vehicle.
Some springs have the ends of the second leaf rolled around the eyes of the
main leaf, as reinforcement. This leaf is called the wrap leaf.
The front of the spring is attached to a rigid spring hanger on the vehicle
frame. The rear is connected to the frame by a swinging shackle, which
provides a link between the spring eye and a bracket on the subframe.
This is illustrated in Figure 6.3 below.
Figure 6.3 Leaf spring
This swinging link is needed, because, as the spring flexes, and flattens out
under load, the distance between the spring eyes increases.

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Some springs have inserts between the leaves, of plastic, nylon, or rubber. They
act as insulators, to reduce noise transfer, and friction as the leaves move
under load. Some older vehicles completely enclose the leaf springs in grease.
The spring eyes are fitted with bushes, usually with a rubber, flexible section, but
nylon and urethane bushes are also used, and sometimes bronze for heavy
duty applications.
Rubber insulating pads between the spring mounting pad and the spring also
act as insulators. And similarly, between the spring plate and the spring.
The spring forms a flexible suspension unit that locates the axle housing
longitudinally and laterally.
It can sustain the torque reaction on acceleration and the braking torque
during deceleration, and the driving thrust is transferred through the front half
of the spring to the fixed shackle point.
6.3.3 Torsion bars

A torsion bar is fixed to the chassis or sub-frame at one end, and the suspension
control arm at the other. Deflection of the suspension causes the bar to twist
around its center, to provide the springing action.
Figure 6.4 Torsion bars
A torsion bar is a long, alloy-steel bar, fixed rigidly to the chassis or sub-frame,
at one end, and to the suspension control arm at the other.
The bar is fitted to the control arm in the unloaded condition, and as the
control arm is raised, the bar twists around its center, which places it under a
torsional load.

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When the vehicle is placed on the road, with the control arm connected to
the suspension assembly, the bar supports the vehicle load, and twists around
its centre, to provide the springing action.
Spring rate depends on the length of the bar, and its diameter. The shorter and
thicker the bar; the stiffer its spring rate.
Torsion bars can be used across the chassis frame on the same principle, in a
trailing arm suspension, or as part of the connecting link between two axle
assemblies, on a semi-rigid axle beam.
After a lot of use, a torsion bar can sag. On many vehicles, it can be adjusted
to allow for this.
It is used in light vehicles as a stabilizer, or anti-roll bar, connected between

each side of the suspension on the front, and sometimes the rear.
When the vehicle is turning, centrifugal force acts on the body, and tends to
make it lean outwards. The anti-roll bar, or stabilizer, tries to use its connections
to each side of the suspension, to resist this roll tendency.
6.3.4 Rubber springs

Increasing the load on a suspension causes the rubber cone to act like a
spring being deformed. When the load is removed, the rubber's elastic
properties tend to return it to its original state.
Below, Figure 6.5 shows examples of rubber springs for suspension.
Figure 6.5 Rubber springs
Rubber is used in most suspension systems as bump and rebound stops. If the
suspension reaches its limit of travel, these stops prevent direct metal-to-metal
contact, which reduces jarring of the body of the vehicle.

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The stops can also be shaped to provide an auxiliary springing function,

increasing their resistance progressively with suspension contact.
Some vehicles use rubber as the main springing medium. This rubber cone is
this vehicle’s main suspension member.
Important:
Increasing the load on the suspension causes the cone to act like a
spring being deformed. When the load is removed, the rubber’s
elastic properties tend to return it to its original state.
Rubber has a number of advantages. It doesn’t need to be lubricated, it can

be made into any shape, as required, and it’s silent during use.
6.4 Components of the basic suspension system

Below, Figure 6.6 (a) illustrates the components of the basic suspension system
with parallelogram steering.
Figure 6.6 (a) Components of suspension - parallelogram steering
On the following page, Figure 6.6 (b) illustrates the components of the basic
suspension system with rack and pinion steering.
Take note of the names of the different parts. We will now discuss a few of the
components in more detail.

174
Figure 6.6 (b) Units of basic suspension – rack and pinion steering
6.4.1 Control arm

This is a movable arm that secures the steering knuckle to the vehicle body. An
example of a control arm is illustrated in Figure 6.7 below.
Figure 6.7 Control arm
6.4.2 Steering knuckle

The steering knuckle delivers an axis or bearing support for mounting the wheel
hub, the wheel bearings and the wheel assembly.
6.4.3 Ball joint

The ball joint is a pivot joint, which allows the control arm and steering knuckle
to move up and down and also sideways.

175
6.4.4 Spring
A length of flat spring steel plates bent in an arch usually with curled ends
(eyes) to allow mounting to the frame. The eyes are usually filled with rubber
bushings to reduce noise when the leaves flex.
A bolt through the front eye secures the spring to the frame, and a pin through
the rear eye attaches the spring to a Shackle. Another pin attaches the
shackle to the frame.
The pivoting shackle accommodates the changes in the effective length of

the spring as it flexes. The axle housing is secured to the leaf spring with two U-
bolts on either side.
Some applications need only one leaf spring; but most have several leaves,
each smaller than the other, nested together to help the main spring.
Rebound clips are used at the ends to hold several leafs together to keep
them from separating sideways, as seen in Figure 6.7 below.
Figure 6.7 Rebound clip, centre bolt and eye of spring
In a single-leaf application, sometimes two holes are drilled in the centre of the
main spring to mount a U-bolt which surrounds the axle, as seen in Figure 6.7.
6.4.5 Shock absorber or damper

Dampening prevents or reduces the bouncing effect of oscillation by
absorbing the energy from the oscillation.
Different materials have different levels of elasticity. Up to a certain point, they

can be deformed and released, and they will try to return to their original
condition. Beyond that point they stay deformed.
With some materials, if it returns to its original state too quickly, it can produce
a bouncing effect called an oscillation.
On the following page, Figure 6.8 illustrates shock absorbers in motors.

176
Figure 6.8 Shock absorbers
Preventing or reducing this oscillation is called dampening. It can occur in

many different ways. The dampening material absorbs the energy from the
oscillation.
In vehicle suspension, a shock absorber reduces oscillation in the spring.
6.5 Non-independent suspension
6.5.1 Solid axle

The solid, or beam, axle is used in the rear suspension of many front-engine,
rear-wheel drive cars, and light commercial vehicles, and as the front
suspension on many heavy commercial vehicles.
Below, Figure 6.9 illustrates non-independent suspension.
Figure 6.9 Non-independent suspension
The solid or beam axle provides a simple means of locating and mounting the
hub and wheel units. Together with leaf springs, it forms an effective, non-
independent suspension system.
Similarly, with coil springs. It is still used in the rear suspension of many front-
engine, rear-wheel-drive cars, and light commercial vehicles, and as the front
suspension on many heavy commercial vehicles.

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On rear-wheel-drive vehicles, with leaf springs, the axle housing is held in place
by the springs, and no other form of location is needed. The drive is transmitted
through the final drive unit and axles to the wheels, and therefore the axle is
referred to as a live axle.
When a vehicle accelerates from rest, the resistance of its mass causes a
torque reaction, producing a tendency for the axle housing to rotate in the
direction that is opposite to wheel rotation.
A similar effect occurs during braking, but with the twisting effect in the
direction of wheel rotation. In both cases, this tendency can cause leaf spring
wind-up, and the twisting action can interfere with suspension motion.
It is usually controlled by mounting the axle housing closer to the fixed shackle
point, so that the spring’s front section is shorter than the rear section.
The short, stiff front section resists twisting, and a bump-stop above the final
drive housing can also be used to restrict upward motion during acceleration.
6.6 Independent suspension

Independent suspension helps keep unsprung mass low. Also, if a wheel hits an
irregularity, it won't upset the opposite wheel on the same axle. It allows wheel
camber to be adjusted, or designed into the suspension geometry.
Below, Figure 6.10 illustrates independent suspension.
Figure 6.10 Independent suspension
One of the main benefits claimed for independent suspension is that unsprung
mass can be kept low.
Also, if a wheel on one side hits a road irregularity, it won’t upset the wheel on
the other side on the same axle. And it allows wheel camber to be adjusted
individually, when provided for by the manufacturer.
One of the simplest and most common, independent suspension systems are
the McPherson strut type. It can be used on the front and rear of the vehicle.
It consists of a spring and shock absorber unit called a strut.

178
The lower end of the strut is located by a ball joint, fitted to the end of the
suspension control arm. Its upper end is located in a molded rubber mounting.
If the unit is on the front, the upper mounting includes a bearing to allow the
complete strut to rotate with the steering.
A tension rod, or stay bar, extends from the body sub-frame, to the outer end
of the control arm. This maintains the location of the control arm during
braking, and accelerating.
In this front-wheel-drive suspension, the control arm is a wishbone shape with 2

widely-spaced mounting points. This prevents backward and forward
movement, so a tension rod is not needed.
Keyword:
Wishbones can also be used in a parallel link system. They can be
used in pairs with the coil spring between the lower wishbone, and
the suspension cross-member.
Alternatively, the upper link may be a wishbone, with the coil spring mounted
above, combined with a single-pivot lower link, located by a tension rod.
On some vehicles, a torsion bar provides the springing medium. The torsion bar
is attached at the inner fulcrum point of the wishbone, or control arm. As the
suspension is deflected, it twists around its centre.
It can be fitted to the upper, or the lower link, depending on the type of
vehicle.
The upper link is shorter than the lower one - irrespective of the springing
method used. When the suspension is deflected, the unequal lengths allow the
track of the vehicle to be maintained near constant, but with some changes
to camber angle.
Generally, when the car leans during cornering, the inner wheel leans
outwards at the top, and the outer wheel leans inwards. This helps to maintain
maximum tyre contact with the road surface.
6.6.1 Advantages of independent front suspension

The following are advantages of independent front suspension:
x The centrifugal force is created in sprung vehicle bodies when cornering

forms a roll couple that tilts or rolls the body outwards.
The body roll is encountered by a resisting couple, produced by the product

of the springs reaction forces and effective distance between them.

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Therefore, the necessary reaction stiffness of the spring to resist the roll
couple increases or decreases as the effective distance between the
springs decreases or increases respectively.
In fact the roll angle is inversely proportional to the square of the effective
spring-base width. In case of the beam axle, the greatest distance between
the springs depends on the width of the chassis, which supports the shackles
attached.
But with the independent suspension using transverse-arm linkage, the

effective distance between springs equals the vehicles wheel track.
Therefore compared to the axle-beam, relatively softer springs can be used

with independent suspension without affecting body roll.
The soft springs respond and deflect with the smallest road deformation
without transmitting the shocks to the vehicle body and passengers, and
hence provide better ride comfort.
x As the elastic strain energy stored in a coil or torsion-bar spring is greater

than for a semi-elliptic multi-leaf spring for a given spring weight, lighter
springs can be used with independent wishbone suspension.
In the case of independent wishbone suspension, the spring is required only

to support vertical loads and to absorb shocks, because the suspension
linkage alone sustain the driving, braking and lateral forces.
With the wishbone hinging on the sub-frame structure, the unsprung stub-
axle swivel-joint follows arcs relative to the sprung body structure when the
suspension bounces.
These arcs produce a precise and predictable wheel-path in the vertical

plane, which is essential for consistent steering geometry.
x Since the independent suspension has less unsprung mass, road-wheels

follow the contour of the road irregularities up-to higher speeds than for the
heavy rigid-axle-beam suspension. As a consequence, tyre scrub and wear
are reduced with independent suspension.
x An anti-roll bar, if used in conjunction with the independent suspension,

provides the necessary resisting stiffness to oppose body roll during cornering
and hence softer springs can be employed for normal vertical loads.
x If a separate or independent suspension for each side of the car is used, any
interaction between opposite road-wheels is reduced, so that there is less
chance of wheel wobble due to vibrational resonance.

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x The engine and chassis structure can be lowered so also the centre of the
car so that the engine can be moved forward to provide more room for the
passengers.
x Independent suspension usually lowers the roll centre, hence the body rolls
before the wheels break away from the road, providing a warning to the
driver.
6.7 Spring terminology
6.7.1 Spring rate

Spring rate is the amount of weight needed to compress a spring a certain
distance.
6.7.2 Sprung weight

Sprung weight refers to weight supported by the suspension, and usually
above the suspension, which separates and isolates it from the road surface
and other components.
Take note:
Examples are; the chassis, body of the vehicle, the engine and the
passengers.
6.7.3 Unsprung weight

Unsprung weight refers to weight controlled by the suspension, and usually
below the suspension, which forces it into contact with the road surface or
other components.
Take note:
Examples are the tyres, wheel rims, wheel bearings, brake disc and
callipers, steering knuckles or axle housing.
6.8 Independent front suspension

Independent front suspension systems can basically be divided into two groups
namely the coil and wishbone suspension system and the MacPherson strut
system.
Different variations of these systems are used.
On the following page, the leaf spring and MacPherson strut suspension system
is illustrated in Figure 6.11.

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Figure 6.11 Leaf spring and MacPherson strut suspension system
6.8.1 Strut suspension

In strut suspension a telescopic type shock absorber is contained inside the
strut with the coil spring mounted over the strut inside the suspension tower. The
control arm mount is fixed (or 'held in place') in the vehicle configuration, by
bushes.
Figure 6.12 Telescopic shock absorber
The shock absorber is contained inside the strut, and is a direct acting
telescopic type shock absorber, as seen in Figure 6.12 above. The coil spring is
mounted over the strut, inside the suspension tower.

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The strut has an upper mounting point in the suspension tower. For the front
steerable suspension, the strut’s upper mounting is bushed, or bearing-
mounted, to allow for the steering movement.
The control arm mount is fixed (or ‘held in place’) in the vehicle configuration,
by bushes. The lower control arm is attached to the vehicle body and holds in
place the strut, brake assembly, and drive shafts.
6.8.2 Short/long arm suspension

In short/long arm suspension the lower control arm pivots on bushes that twist
on the lower control arm pin, which is bolted to the cross-member of the
vehicle.
The lower control arm is longer than the upper control arm.
The shock absorber is located inside the coil spring, and is a direct acting
telescopic type shock absorber. The coil spring is mounted between the upper
and lower control arms.
The lower control arm pivots on bushes. These bushes twist on the lower control
arm pin, which is bolted to the cross-member of the vehicle. The lower control
arm is longer than the upper control arm.
It moves up and down to accommodate movement in the suspension. These

are stop and rebound rubbers.
They are used to prevent direct metal-to-metal contact, if the suspension

should reach its maximum limit of travel.
The lower ball joint is attached to the lower control arm and allows the steering
knuckle to rotate as the steering wheel is turned. The steering knuckle supports
the brake station, wheel bearings and the road wheel.
The upper ball joint is attached to the upper control arm and allows the
steering knuckle to rotate as the steering wheel is turned. The upper control
arm pivots on bushes.
These bushes twist on the upper control arm pin, which is bolted to the
vehicle’s cross-member.
6.8.3 Torsion bar suspension

The torsion bar supports the vehicle load and twists around its centre to
provide the springing action. The spring rate depends upon the length of the
bar.
The shorter and thicker the bar, the stiffer its spring rate.

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The torsion bar extends from the front suspension to a point towards the rear of
the vehicle, where it is bolted to the chassis with a bracket. This acts as the
pivoting point for the torsion bar.
Below, Figure 6.13 illustrates a conventional torsion bar system.
Figure 6.13 Conventional torsion bar system
The torsion bar supports the vehicle load and twists around its center to
provide the springing action. The spring rate depends upon the length of the
bar. The shorter and thicker the bar, the stiffer its spring rate.
In this application, the other end of the torsion bar is located at the front
suspension. It is the front pivoting point for the suspension.
The lower control arm pivots on bushes. These bushes twist on the lower control
arm, which is located in a housing attached to the cross-member.
The system also has an upper control arm bush that is attached to the upper
part of the cross-member.
The lower ball joint is attached to the lower control arm and allows the steering
knuckle to rotate as the steering wheel is turned. The lower control arm moves
up and down to accommodate movement in the suspension.
This particular design is sometimes referred to as a ‘Wishbone Control Arm’, as

seen in Figure 6.14 on the following page.
The upper ball joint is attached to the upper control arm and allows the
steering knuckle to rotate as the steering wheel is turned.

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Figure 6.14 Wishbone control arm
6.9 Radius rod

Also known as a torque arm or radius arm, a radius rod is part of the suspension
system of an automobile and is used to control the movement of the wheels.
The rod connects an axle or wheel carrier to the frame of the car. It restricts the
wheel's movement to a range of movement within a specific arc to keep the
wheel from moving too much in one direction.
The radius rod adds weight to the car and must be created out of lightweight
materials to keep it from affecting the car's movement.
Typically it is constructed from stamped steel, meaning steel frames that are
manufactured in bulk and the design is stamped into the metal, or out of
aluminium.
These lightweight materials add little weight to the car, allowing the radius rod
to work without hindering the functioning of other parts of the vehicle.
An example of a radius rod is shown in Figure 6.15 below.
Figure 6.15 Radius rod

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6.10 Ball joints

Ball joints are mounted at the outer ends of the control arms and tie-rods. As
the suspension deflects, they let the control arms move up and down, and let
the wheel and hub assembly turn for steering.
Figure 6.16 Ball joints
Keyword:
Ball joints are swivel connections mounted in the outer ends of the
front control arms, and on the steering track rods and tie-rods.
Examples of ball joints are shown in Figure 6.16 above.
They allow the control arms to move up and down with suspension deflection,
and also let the wheel and hub assembly turn for steering. The ball joint can be
a sealed, self-contained unit, fastened to the control arm in a number of ways.
It is made up of a pressed-steel housing, fitted with sintered iron seats, and a

hardened ball stud. A taper on the stud locates in a mating taper on the
suspension unit, and a rubber seal keeps out dirt and water.
Some ball joints can be dismantled, to replace the seats and the ball stud, and
allow for adjustments. Shims between the upper and lower halves of the joint
allow free play to be controlled.
Grease nipples can allow for periodic lubrication but most joints today are
sealed for life, and no regular maintenance is required. On tie-rod ends, the
ball joint is usually self-contained and attached to the tie-rod by internal or
external threads.
6.11 Torsion bar suspension (rear)

A torsion bar suspension, also known as a torsion spring suspension or torsion
beam suspension, is a general term for any vehicle suspension that uses a
torsion bar as its main weight bearing spring.

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One end of a long metal bar is attached firmly to the vehicle chassis; the
opposite end terminates in a lever, the torsion key, and mounted
perpendicular to the bar that is attached to a suspension arm, a spindle, or the
axle.
Below, Figure 6.17 illustrates rear torsion bar suspension.
Figure 6.17 Torsion bar suspension (rear)
Vertical motion of the wheel causes the bar to twist around its axis and is
resisted by the bar's torsion resistance. The effective spring rate of the bar is
determined by its length, cross section, shape, material, and manufacturing
process.
6.11.1 Adjusting the rear torsion bar

Some vehicles use torsion bars to provide automatic levelling, using a motor to
pre-stress the bars to provide greater resistance to load and, in some cases
(depending on the speed with which the motors can act), to respond to
changes in road conditions.
Did you know?

Height adjustable suspension is used to implement a wheel-change
mode where the vehicle is raised on three wheels so that the
remaining wheel is lifted off the ground without the aid of a jack.

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6.11.2 Advantages and disadvantages of torsion bar suspension
x Advantages
o The main advantages of a torsion bar suspension are durability, easy
adjustability of ride height, and
o Smaller profile along the width of the vehicle.
o It takes up less of the vehicle's interior volume than coil springs.
o It has more spring energy stored than the conventional leaf spring.
o In comparison to the leaf spring, torsion bars are adjustable.
o Metal to metal sliding contact is minimal as torsion bars possess minimal
friction in comparison to leaf springs.
o The torsion bar does not get in the way of drive shafts on front wheel drives
as is the case with coil springs.
o Torsion bars are less bulky.
x Disadvantages
x A disadvantage is that torsion bars, unlike coil springs, usually cannot
provide a progressive spring rate.
x It is more costly to produce and to fit in a vehicle
x It is noise transmitters.
6.12 Rear suspension

There are two types of rear suspensions with variations within the non-
independent and the independent suspension groups.
6.12.1 Leaf springs

The leaf spring is usually made up of a number of leaves of different length. The
top, or longest leaf, is normally referred to as the main leaf. Below, Figure 6.18
illustrates the leaf spring.
Figure 6.18 Leaf spring
The front of the leaf spring is attached to the chassis at the rigid spring hanger.
This spring eye is bushed with either rubber bushes or, in the case of heavy
vehicles, steel bushes.

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The axle housing is rigid between each road wheel. This means that any
deflection to one side is transmitted to the other side.
The swinging shackle allows for suspension movement by allowing the spring to
extend or reduce in length, as the vehicle moves over uneven ground.
The top of the shock absorber is attached to the chassis, and to the spring pad
at the bottom. It is a direct-acting shock absorber.
The U-bolts attach the axle housing to the leaf spring. They have a clamping
force that helps to keep the leaf spring together. Leaf springs are usually made
of tempered steel. They hold the axle in position, both laterally and
longitudinally.
The leaf spring is usually made up of a number of leaves of different length. The
top, or longest leaf, is normally referred to as the main leaf.
x Advantages of leaf springs

o The leaf spring has a major card up its sleeve when it comes to designing
suspension systems: It's an all-in-one package. Once you've got your axle
etc. bolted to the spring, and the spring bolted to the chassis, the spring itself
will hold everything in place, so you don't need to worry about the extra
expense and complication of linkages etc.
o Furthermore, the way the leaves of the spring move against each other as it
flexes gives a frictional resistance to movement, helping to stop the spring
bouncing out of control.
o Also, leaf springs can be built to take huge loads without needing to be
overly large or expensive - this makes them ideal for the Lorries and trains
they are so often used on.
6.12.2 Types of rear axle suspension
x Solid-axle rear suspension using leaf springs

This system was favoured for years because it was dead simple and cheap to
build. The ride quality is decidedly questionable though.
The drive axle is clamped to the leaf springs and the shock absorbers normally
bolt directly to the axle. The ends of the leaf springs are attached directly to
the chassis, as are the tops of the shock absorbers.
Simple, not particularly elegant, but cheap. The main drawback with this
arrangement is the lack of lateral location for the axle, meaning it has a lot of
side-to-side slop in it.
On the following page, Figure 6.19 shows solid-axle rear suspension using leaf
springs

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Figure 6.19 Solid-axle rear suspension using leaf springs
x Solid-axle rear suspension using coil springs

The telescopic-type shock absorber is attached to the axle at the bottom and
to the chassis at the top. The coil spring is mounted between the axle housing
and the vehicle body.
The shock absorber is attached to the axle at the bottom and to the chassis at
the top. It is a direct-acting, telescopic-type shock absorber. The coil spring is
mounted between the axle housing and the vehicle body.
In this example of the Watts Link suspension, the lower trailing arm assists in
maintaining the longitudinal position of the housing. In addition, the drive
torque is transmitted through this arm to the vehicle body.
The axle housing is rigid between each road wheel. This means that any
deflection to one side is transmitted to the other side.
These control rods are the additional parts for the ‘Watts Link’. Their function is
to assist in stabilizing the vehicle against lateral movements.
In other coil-spring rear suspension designs, this is achieved with an angled

panhard rod. The upper trailing arm provides the additional control for the
longitudinal movement. These trailing arms are mounted in rubber bushes.
6.13 Independent rear-axle coil springs
6.13.1 Trailing arm design

Compare with the following rear suspensions, Trailing arm / Semi-trailing arm
suspensions are rather old. It was commonly used in nearly all mid-price to
high-price sedans before multi-link rear suspension became popular in 1990s.
From '82 BMW 3-series to Mercedes 560SEC, even the Porsche 911, trailing arm /
semi-trailing arm suspensions dominated half the world.
Trailing arm suspension, illustrated in Figure 6.20, employs two trailing arms
which are pivoted to the car body at the arm's front edge.

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The arm is relatively large compare with other suspensions' control arms
because it is in single piece and the upper surface supports the coil spring. It is
rigidly fixed to the wheel at the other end.
Note that it only allows the wheel to move up and down to deal with bump.
Any lateral movement and camber change (with respect to the car body) is
not allowed.
Nevertheless, when the car rolls into a corner, the trailing arm rolls for the same
degree as the car body, thus changes camber angle (with respect to the road
surface).
Now, you can see both wheels lean towards the outside of the corner, thus
lead to understeer. Because of this reason, pure trailing arm was forgotten by
car makers long long ago. Instead of it, they adopted semi-trailing arm.
Figure 6.20 Trailing arm suspension design
6.13.2 Semi-trailing arm design

Semi-trailing arm suspension (the lower picture) has the trailing arm pivoted at
inclined angles - about 50 to 70 degrees. Otherwise are the same as trailing
arm suspension.
Apparently, the semi-trailing arms are half trailing and half transverse. You can
analyse it by splitting it into two vectors, one is the trailing component and
another is the transverse component.
The trailing component leads to understeer, as already mentioned. On the

other hand, the transverse component is actually equals to a swing axle
suspension.

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Now, you may remember that the swing axle suspension always introduce
oversteer due to body roll. As a result, the two components cancel each other
and result in near neutral steering response.
Semi-trailing has a disadvantage - when the wheel moves up and down,

camber angle changes, unlike double wishbones suspension.
No matter semi-trailing arm or pure trailing arm suspensions, since they are
rigidly attached to the wheels, inevitably more shock and noise could be
transferred to the car body, especially under hard cornering or running on
bumpy roads.
Moreover, a lot of unsprung weight of the trailing arm leads to poorer ride
quality. Therefore most modern sedans replace it with multi-link or double
wishbones suspension. Trailing arm / Semi-trailing is disappearing in the industry.
6.13.3 Transverse swing arm design

A swing axle is a simple type of independent suspension designed and
patented by Edmund Rumpler in 1903.
This was a revolutionary invention in the automotive industry, allowing wheels

to react to irregularities of road surfaces independently, and enable the
vehicle to maintain a strong road holding.
The first automotive application was the Rumpler Tropfenwagen (emulated by

the Mercedes 170), the Standard Superior and the Volkswagen Beetle.
Some later automobile rear swing axles have universal joints connecting the
driveshafts to the differential, which is attached to the chassis.
They do not have universal joints at the wheels: the wheels are always
perpendicular to the driveshafts. Swing axle suspensions traditionally used leaf
springs and shock absorbers.
6.14 Shock absorbers

A shock absorber is an important part of the suspension. The shock absorbers
are usually hydraulic or gas filled. They are essential to control the bounce on
the vehicle and to ensure the tyres are kept firmly on the road.
Damaged and worn shock absorbers can reduce the braking efficiency,
cause poor cornering and tyre wear. Worn shock absorbers not only reduce
driver comfort; they can also dramatically affect the handling and safety of
your vehicle.
Essentially, shock absorbers do two things. Apart from controlling the

movement of springs and suspension, shock absorbers also keep your tyres in
contact with the ground at all times.

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At rest or in motion, the bottom surface of your tyres is the only part of your
vehicle in contact with the road. Any time that a tyre’s contact with the
ground is broken or reduced, your ability to drive, steer and brake is severely
compromised.
Despite popular belief, shock absorbers do not support the weight of a vehicle.
6.14.1 Hydraulic shock absorbers

The dampening action of a hydraulic shock absorber comes from transferring
oil, under pressure, through valves that restrict the oil flow. Resistance to motion
is low when the piston moves slowly and high when its velocity is high.
Below, in Figure 6.21, a hydraulic shock absorber system is illustrated.
Figure 6.22 Hydraulic shock absorbers
The most widely-used hydraulic shock absorber is the direct-acting telescopic

type. It can be fitted as a self-contained unit, or combined with a suspension
strut.
The strut type uses the same principle of operation but it is considerably larger.
The hydraulic shock absorber provides its dampening action by transferring oil,
under pressure, through valves which restrict the oil flow.
The twin-tube type is the most common. The outer tube is normally attached to
the suspension member at its base, and the inner tube provides a working
cylinder for a piston which is attached to a piston rod.
The piston rod is connected to the frame at its outer end, and a bearing at the
top of the outer tube keeps the rod in alignment as it moves in and out of the
shock absorber, with suspension action.
A seal above the bearing prevents oil leakage, and keeps out dirt and
moisture. A shroud protects the rod from damage.
During bumps, or compression, the rod and its piston move into the shock
absorber. In rebound, or extension, the rod and piston move out of the shock
absorber.

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For dampening to be effective, resistance is needed in both directions. This is

provided by the oil, and by disc valves attached to the piston and the base of
the inner tube.
Oil fills the inner tube and surrounds its outer surface to a level which allows a
free space or reservoir to exist above it, between the inner and outer tubes.
On bump, or compression, the piston and rod move downwards in the

cylinder, resulting in a small pressure drop in the chamber labelled A, above
the piston.
At the same time, the volume of the chamber labelled B, below the piston, is
reduced, causing a high fluid pressure. This unseats the piston intake valve,
and fluid flows up through the outer passages in the piston, and into chamber
A.
But the piston rod is also now entering A, and displacing a quantity of fluid
equal to its volume, so, all of the oil in B cannot flow into A, The displaced fluid
is forced down through a base valve, and out into the reservoir, labeled C.
In the rebound, or extension phase, the piston and rod move upwards and the
volume of chamber A is reduced. Chamber A becomes a high-pressure area,
and fluid flows through the extension valve in the piston, into chamber B.
However the withdrawal of the piston from B greatly increases its volume, and
fluid flow from a is insufficient to fill the space. Pressure in B falls below that of
the reservoir, causing the base intake valve to be unseated.
Fluid flows from the reservoir into chamber B, keeping the inner tube full. The
valves provide control over the amount of force required to pass fluid through
them at any given piston velocity.
They can be made to open in stages, according to fluid pressure. This allows
light resistance to motion, when the piston moves slowly, and heavy resistance
when piston velocity is high.
The rapid movement of the piston, continually forcing the oil backwards and
forwards through the valves, causes it to heat up, as it absorbs the energy of
motion of the spring, and converts it into heat. The heat is transferred through
the outer tube to the outside air.
However, the hotter the oil becomes, the greater its tendency to aerate.
Aeration occurs because of the high velocity of the oil as it passes through the
small passages in the valves.
If the velocity is high enough, air dissolved in the oil, comes out of solution as
small bubbles, and forms a foam.

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Aerated oil has a certain amount of compressibility, so it is unable to provide

the dampening force previously achieved in the non-aerated condition. The
performance of the shock absorber is thus considerably reduced.
This effect is called shock absorber “Dissolve”.
6.14.2 Telescopic shock absorbers

Although all shock absorbers do the same job, different types of vehicles and
suspension designs require different types of shock absorbers which can
appear radically different.
No matter the application, all shock absorbers fit into one of three broadly
defined types – conventional telescopic shock absorbers, struts or spring seat
shocks.
This is the simplest type of shock absorber and is generally replaced rather than
repaired. This type of shock absorber can be found on both front and rear
suspension systems and is relatively inexpensive.
Below, Figure 6.22 illustrates telescopic shock absorbers.
Figure 6.22 Telescopic shock absorbers
6.14.3 Double acting shocks

When damping action works on both the up and down strokes (bump and
rebound) the shock is called a double-acting type.

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x Construction of the double-acting shock

A double acting shock isolator that includes a cylindrical housing having a
radially expanded chamber therein. The housing is closed at one end and
open at the other end and a connector is mounted at the closed end.
A stack of friction rings are mounted in a preloaded condition between the

ends of the expanded chamber and a rod passes into the open end of the
housing and through the stack.
A pair of spaced apart raised flanges is mounted upon the rod that engages
either end of the stack.
A second connector is mounted upon the distal end of the rod outside of the
housing so that the stack of friction rings is further compressed uniformly when
either a tensile force or a compressive force is applied to the connectors.
6.14.4 Operation of the shock absorber

A cross-section of the shock absorber is shown in the figure below. Upon
impact the piston rod moves towards the shock absorber and consequently
pushes the hydraulic fluid inside the accumulator to produce a resistant force.
With the spacing and sizing of orifices, the pressure in the inner tube remains
constant throughout the entire impact stroke. The shock absorber is designed
to provide controlled linear deceleration and guaranteed to bring any moving
object to a smooth and quiet stop.
Below, Figure 6.23 illustrates a shock absorber.
Figure 6.23 Shock absorbers

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6.14.5 Lever type shock absorber

In the lever arm shock absorber, damping resistance is provided by a piston
moving in an oil filled cylinder, forcing pressurized fluid through a spring-loaded
valve.
Normally, two pistons are used, one providing compression (bump), and the
other, rebound. The two pistons are connected to a rotating lever arm via a
con-rod, crank and spindle.
The two cylinders are arranged such that oil passes from one cylinder to the
other during the cycle. The specific performance of each unit is set by choice
of valve springs and the initial pre-load settings of these springs.
The valve is two directional and provides the different resistance

characteristics for bump and rebound required for the particular vehicle
design. Figure 6.24 illustrates a lever-type shock absorber.
Figure 6.24 Lever type shock absorber
x Disadvantages of the lever arm shock

x The main rod must be of large diameter to give sufficient rigidity and
bearing surface to accept running and cornering loads.
x The piston is subject to side loads and must have a large rubbing area.
x The top strut mounting must transmit the full vertical suspension force, so it is
less easy to put a good compliance in series with the damper.
x The large dimensions mean a larger oil flow rates.
6.14.6 Friction dampers

Friction dampers can be designed for different purposes to dissipate energy.
The single friction damper was constructed in such a manner as to be able to
replace a conventional viscous damper in a vehicle.
The design concept of the damper was a piston in a cylindrical housing which
contains two diametrically-opposed pistons with friction pads bonded to them

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such that the pistons are controlled with hydraulic oil through the centre of the
piston rod with the control valve mounted remotely.
The principle of operation of the vehicle suspension friction damper is not

passive. Hydraulic oil will have to be pumped into the damper to control the
pistons with the friction pads. Friction pad and pistons are shown in Figure 6.25.
Figure 6.25 Detail of friction pad and pistons
There could be the risk of a leakage and also external power or energy is
needed to pump the hydraulic oil.
6.14.7 Functions of shock absorbers

The primary purpose of the shock absorber is to control spring and suspension
movement. This is accomplished by turning the kinetic energy of suspension
movement into thermal energy, or heat energy, to be dissipated through the
hydraulic fluid.
Shock absorbers are basically oil pumps. A piston is attached to the end of the
piston rod and works against hydraulic fluid in the pressure tube.
As the suspension travels up and down, the hydraulic fluid is forced through
tiny holes, called orifices, inside the piston.
However, these orifices let only a small amount of fluid through the piston. This
slows down the piston, which in turn slows down spring and suspension
movement.

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The amount of resistance a shock absorber develops depends on the speed of

the suspension and the number and size of the orifices in the piston.
All modern shock absorbers are velocity sensitive hydraulic damping devices -
meaning the faster the suspension moves, the more resistance the shock
absorber provides.
Because of this feature, shock absorbers adjust to road conditions. As a result,

shock absorbers reduce the rate of:
x Bounce
x Roll or sway
x Brake dive and Acceleration squat
6.14.8 The dangers of worn shock absorbers

The following are the dangers of using worn shock absorbers:
x Poor road holding

Worn shocks are unable to keep the tyre in contact with the road or even
out excessive spring movement and the car become more difficult to
control on the road and a danger to the driver, passenger and other road
users.
x Worn tyres
With the worn shock not being able to keep the tyre in contact with the
road, it bounces on the road causing worn flat spots on the tyre which
reduces the life of the tyre by a huge margin - expensive.
x Poor braking
When a car brakes with worn shocks the tyres tend to bounce causing the
tyre to loose contact with the road and extends the stopping distance by an
extra 2.6m from 80km/h in the dry!
This could be the difference between hitting someone or not. ABS braking
systems are even more affected.
x Aquaplaning
Normally this happens when there is some water on the road and your car's
tyres are worn, as you go over the film of water the tyre lifts off the road and
you have complete loss of control.
The same thing can happen if you have worn shocks - even if your tyres are
in good condition!
x Component wear
Due to the extra movement of the suspension with worn shocks this causes
other suspension and steering components to wear out quicker - expensive.

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x Headlight dazzle
Your car will bounce more causing the headlights to blind oncoming traffic -
dangerous.
x Fatigue
With the long distances we have to travel in South Africa it's easy to tire on
long journeys, this is made worse when your car's shocks are worn as you
now have to concentrate more on keeping the car on the road (even if you
are not aware that you are doing it), this tires you more easily – dangerous.
Figure 6.26 illustrates the eight signs of worn shock absorbers.
Figure 6.26 Eight signs of worn shock absorbers
6.14.9 Checking the condition of shock absorbers

Shock absorbers and struts are located near each wheel and protect the
passenger compartment from bumps.
Many of today’s vehicles are equipped with strut type suspension instead of
conventional shock absorbers, but testing either system involves the same
procedure.
The objective of this procedure is to show you how to check the serviceability
of the shock absorbers and struts.
x Personal safety
Whenever you perform a task in the workshop you must use personal
protective clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which
conforms to your local safety regulations and policies.
Among other items, this may include:

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x Work clothing – such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear

x Eye protection – such as safety glasses and face masks
x Ear protection – such as earmuffs and earplugs
x Hand protection – such as rubber gloves and barrier cream
x Respiratory equipment – such as face masks and valved respirators
If you are not certain what is appropriate or required, ask your supervisor.
x Safety check
Make sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personal safety
procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsure of what
these are, ask your supervisor.
x Points to note
Shock absorbers and struts are located near each wheel and protect the
passenger compartment from bumps.
If a vehicle has adjustable shock absorbers, make sure that the shock absorber
adjustments are the same for the left and right-hand side.
Some shock absorbers contain pressurized gas. To prevent personal injury, do

not puncture or incinerate these shock absorbers.
x Step-by-step instruction
1. Check shock absorbers and struts

The simplest form of suspension test is known as a “bounce” test. Lean
heavily on the fender or place your weight on a bumper. Release it
suddenly and watch what happens.
If the vehicle rebounds continually, you need to replace the shock

absorbers. If the shock absorbers are performing well, the car will rebound
once only, and then slowly return to its original position.
While driving, the same test can be performed by stopping the vehicle
suddenly from a very low speed. If the car “bounces” up and down a
couple of times when coming to rest, you need to replace the shock
absorbers.
2. Visually inspect shock absorbers

Visually inspect the shock absorber mounting points for security and
corrosion and note any wet looking patches on the sides of the shock
absorbers.
This is a common indicator that the strut or shock absorber needs replacing
because of a fluid leak.

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3. Check strut upper mounting

Pay particular attention to the top strut mounting during the bounce test.
Place your hand on top of the mounting during the bounce test. Any noise
or movement in the mounting could indicate the need to replace the
component.
If you do feel movement, hear noise or see signs of leakage, report it to your
supervisor.
6.15 Reasons for excessive tyre wear

The following are five causes of excessive tyre wear:
1. Alignment problems
2. Wheel imbalance
3. Worn steering linkages, ball joints and suspension bushes
4. Over and under inflation of tyres
5. Failed strut or shock absorber.
Below, Figure 6.27 illustrates reasons for tyre wear.
Figure 6.27 Reasons for tyre wear
Activity 6.1
1. State the functions of the suspension.

2. List the various forms of springs.
3. Name and describe the units of the basic suspension.
4. Explain the difference between non-independent and independent
suspension.
5. Explain the terms; ‘spring rate; ‘sprung weight’ and ‘unsprung weight’.
6. State the different systems for independent front suspension, including the

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reasons for unequal length parallel wishbones and the advantages and
disadvantages of torsion bar suspension.
7. Describe leaf springs, listing the advantages.
8. Name and describe the types of rear axle suspension.
9. Describe the different arm designs for independent rear-axle using coil
springs.
10. Define ‘shock absorbers’, explaining their operation, listing their functions
and describing the different types.
11. Describe the dangers of using worn shock absorbers and how to check
their condition.
12. List the reasons for excessive tyre wear.
Self-Check

x State the functions of the suspension
x List the various forms of springs
x Name and describe the units of the basic suspension
x Explain the difference between non-independent and
independent suspension
x Explain the terms; ‘spring rate; ‘sprung weight’ and ‘unsprung
weight’
x State the different systems for independent front suspension,
including the reasons for unequal length parallel wishbones
and the advantages and disadvantages of torsion bar
suspension
x Describe leaf springs, listing the advantages
x Name and describe the types of rear axle suspension
x Describe the different arm designs for independent rear-axle
using coil springs
x Define ‘shock absorbers’, explaining their operation, listing
their functions and describing the different types
x Describe the dangers of using worn shock absorbers and how
to check their condition

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Learning Outcomes
x List the functions of a steering system

x Name and describe the components of a steering system
x Name and describe the different types of steering boxes
x Explain what is involved in steering box adjustments and maintenance
x List and describe in detail the six fundamental angles specifications
needed for proper wheel alignment
x Define ‘oversteer’ and ‘understeer’, listing their causes
x Name the preliminary checks before doing wheel alignment
x Explain the difference between ‘curb height’ and ‘curb weight’
x State the order of checking wheel alignment angles
x Define and describe the difference between ‘wheel balance’,
‘imbalance’, ‘static balance’ and ‘dynamic balance’
7.1 Introduction
In this module you will learn about steering systems, wheel alignment
and wheel balancing. These are very important aspects of the
motor and diesel trade theory.
7.2 Steering systems

Steering systems are designed according to the use requirements of the
vehicle. They can be in single or multi-axle designs.
The direction of motion of a motor vehicle is controlled by a steering system.

A basic steering system has 3 main parts: A steering box connected to the
steering wheel.
The linkage connecting the steering box to the wheel assemblies at the front
wheels. And front suspension parts to let the wheel assemblies’ pivot.

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When the driver turns the steering wheel, a shaft from the steering column turns
a steering gear. The steering gear moves tie rods that connect to the front
wheels. The tie rods move the front wheels to turn the vehicle right or left.
Belo, Figure 7.1 illustrates a common steering box system.
Figure 7.1 Common steering box system
There are 2 basic types of steering boxes - those with rack-and-pinion gearing,
and those with worm gearing. In both cases, the gearing in the steering box
makes it easier for the driver to turn the steering wheel, and hence, the wheels.
A rack-and-pinion steering system has a steering wheel, a main-shaft, universal

joints, and an intermediate shaft. When the steering is turned, movement is
transferred by the shafts to the pinion.

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The pinion is meshed with the teeth of the rack, so pinion rotation moves the
rack from side to side. This type of steering is used on passenger vehicles
because it is light, and direct.
This steering system has worm gearing. It provides a gear reduction, and a 90
degree change in direction. It has more parts and joints than the rack type,
but it is more robust, and may be used on heavier vehicles.
To allow heavy transport vehicles to carry extra weight, two steering axles may
be used. They’re connected by a link to a common steering box. These
vehicles are called tandem, or twin-steered vehicles.
Some passenger vehicles also steer the rear wheels slightly. This gives improved
maneuverability. The system is known as 4-wheel steering. It can be controlled
mechanically, through a direct connection, between the front and rear
steering boxes, or it can be computer-controlled.
With heavier vehicles, increased use of front-wheel-drive, and wider, low-profile

tyres, more steering effort is needed, so power steering is used.
An engine-driven hydraulic pump provides pressure that helps the driver steer
the vehicle. The power steering system is designed so that the vehicle can still
be controlled, even if the engine or the power steering system, fails.
7.3 Components of a steering system
7.3.1 Steering arms

The toe-out angles are accomplished by the angle of the steering arm. This
arm allows the inside wheel to turn sharper than the outside wheel. The
steering arm is either part of the steering knuckle or part of the ball joint and is
not adjustable.
If there is a problem with the toe-out, it is due to a bent steering arm that must
be replaced. Figure 7.2 shows examples of steering arms.
Figure 7.2 Steering arms

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7.3.2 Steering linkage

The steering linkage is a combination of rods, arms and ball joints that
connects the steering box to the steering knuckle. Below, Figure 7.3 illustrates
steering linkage.
Figure 7.3 Parallel steering linkage
7.3.3 Pitman arm (also called Drop arm)

The pitman arm shaft is attached to the steering box by a spline and nut. As
the driver turns the steering wheel, the steering box mechanism moves the
steering linkages via the pitman arm shaft either left or right, depending on the
direction in which the steering wheel is turned. Figure 7.4 shows a Pitman arm.
The steering box provides the change of angle at 90° to the steering linkage.
Figure 7.4 Pitman arm

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7.3.4 Centre link

The pitman arm is attached to a long bar, called a centre link, relay rod, or
connecting link.
7.3.5 Idler arm

The idler arm is attached to the chassis and is positioned parallel to the pitman
arm, as illustrated in Figure 7.5 below.
Figure 7.5 Idler arm
7.3.6 Tie rods

The tie rods connect the track rod to the steering arms that are located on the
steering knuckles. Thus all movement from the pitman arm shaft is relayed
directly to the front wheels, which steer the vehicle.
Below, Figure 7.6 illustrates the location of tie rods in the steering system.
Figure 7.6 Tie rods

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7.4 Types of steering boxes

The main types of steering box in use today are:
¾ Worm and sector

¾ Screw and nut
¾ Recirculating ball
¾ Cam and peg
¾ Worm and roller
¾ Rack and pinion
Let us now consider these types individually.
7.4.1 Worm and sector

This type has been developed from a worm and wheel, which was one of the
earliest designs of boxes.
A case – hardened steel worm and sector are located by bearings in a

malleable iron or light alloy casing.
Figure 7.7, below, illustrates the worm and sector steering gear.
Figure 7.7 Worm and sector gear
7.4.2 Screw and nut

A phosphor-bronze or steel nut is screwed onto a multi-start acme thread
formed on the inner column. Rotation of the nut is prevented by a ball fitted in
the rocker arm.
Axial thrust of the column is taken by a single ball race fitted at the top end,
and the nut sliding in the housing supports the lower end.
7.4.3 Recirculating ball

A higher efficiency is achieved by using a nut with steel balls acting as threads.
The type shown in the figure below employs a half nut with a transfer tube
which feeds the balls back to the nut. A peg on the nut is located in the rocker
arm.

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Below, in Figure 7.8, a recirculating ball and nut system is illustrated.
Figure 7.8 Recirculating ball and nut
7.4.4 Cam and peg

A tapered peg in the rocker arm engages with a special cam formed on the
inner column. The end-float of the column is controlled by shims. Below, in
Figure 7.9, a cam and peg system is illustrated.
Figure 7.9 Cam and peg
7.4.5 Worm and roller

A roller follower fitted to the rocker shaft engages with an hour-glass worm. The
small offset of the roller to the worm enables an adjusting screw to control
backlash and end float of the rocker shaft.
On the following page, a worm and not system is illustrated in Figure 7.10.

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Figure 7.10 Worm and nut
7.4.6 Rack and pinion steering system

The rack-and-pinion steering box has a pinion, connected to the steering
column. This pinion runs in mesh with a rack that is connected to the steering
tie rods. This gives more direct operation.
Below, Figure 7.11 shows a cross-section diagram of a rack and pinion steering
system.
Figure 7.11 Rack and pinion steering system
Both the pinion and the rack teeth are helical gears. Helical gearing gives
smoother and quieter operation for the driver.
Turning the steering wheel rotates the pinion, and moves the rack from side to
side. Ball joints at the end of the rack locate the tie-rods and allow movement
in the steering and suspension.
Figure 7.12, below, shows an example of a rack and pinion steering system.

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Figure 7.12 Example of rack and pinion steering system
Mechanical advantage is gained by the reduction ratio. The value of this ratio
depends on the size of the pinion. A small pinion gives light steering, but it
requires many turns of the steering wheel to travel from lock, to lock.
A large pinion means the number of turns of the steering column is reduced,
but the steering is heavier to turn. Ratios vary, depending on the type of
vehicle. But in each case, the ratio is the same for all positions of the wheels. It
is a fixed ratio.
7.4.7 Steering damper

To prevent violent movement of the steering when the wheel strikes a bump,
the steering rack is fitted with a friction damper. Energy is given to the spring,
which is deflected.
Below, Figure 7.13 illustrates steering damper positions.
Figure 7.13 Positions of steering damper

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When the bump is passed, rebound or release of the stored energy will take
place, and will carry the spring passed the normal position to set up an
oscillating motion.
Hydraulic dampers are the main type in use today. They dissipate the energy
by pumping oil through small orifices. The two main types of hydraulic dampers
are: lever and direct-acting and telescopic.
Below, Figure 7.14 shows a simple mono-tube hydraulic damper.
Figure 7.14 Simple mono-tube hydraulic damper
7.5 Steering box adjustments and maintenance

Most steering racks are provided with the adjustments below to apply a
specific pre-load or to eliminate end-float.
7.5.1 End float of the inner column bearings

To compensate for wear, end-float is corrected by either removing or adding
shims or by doing adjustment via a screw.
7.5.2 End float of the rocker shaft

Adjustment is done via shims, or the shaft may be spring loaded to affect a
self-adjusting setting.

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7.5.3 Correct mesh or backlash between the worm and gear

Excessive gear backlash is prevented by using shims or a thrust spring to pre-
load the gear teeth.
7.5.4 Lock stops

To prevent the wheels from touching the body when the steering is turned full
lock, stops are adjusted to limit the maximum angular movement of the
steered wheels.
7.5.5 Steering wheel play

The most common of all problems in a steering system is excessive steering
wheel play. Steering wheel play is normally caused by:
x worn ball sockets,

x worn idler arm, or
x too much clearance in the steering gearbox.
Typically, you should not be able to turn the steering wheel more than 30mm
without causing the front wheels to move. If the steering wheel rotates
excessively, a serious steering problem exists.
7.5.6 Testing for looseness (play on the steering wheel)

An effective way to check for play in the steering linkage or rack-and-pinion
mechanism is by the dry-park test.
With the full weight of the vehicle on the front wheels, have someone move
the steering wheel from side to side while you examine the steering system for
looseness.
Start your inspection at the steering column shaft and work your way to the tie-
rod ends. Ensure that the movement of one component causes an equal
amount of movement of the adjoining component.
Important:
Watch for ball studs that wiggle in their sockets. With a rack-and-
pinion steering system, squeeze the rubber boots and feel the inner
tie rod to detect wear.
If the tie rod moves sideways in relation to the rack, the socket is worn and
should be replaced.
Another way of inspecting the steering system involves moving the steering
components and front wheel by hand.
With the steering wheel locked, raise the vehicle and place it on jack stands.
Then force the front wheels right and left while checking for component
looseness.

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7.5.7 Wheel alignment

If wheels are properly aligned, the steering wheel will tend to stay in a straight-
ahead position on straight, level roads. Similarly, little effort should be needed
to turn the vehicle into curves.
Below, in Figure 7.15, three factors that affect wheel alignment, namely; toe,
camber and caster, are illustrated showing the three cases for each.
Figure 7.15 Wheel alignment
All wheels of a vehicle must be correctly positioned, with the vehicle and with
each other, for the vehicle to drive and steer properly.
A driver should not need to keep manipulating the steering wheel to maintain
the vehicle in a straight-ahead position on straight, level roads.

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Similarly, little effort should be needed to turn the vehicle into curves, or to let it
return to the straight-ahead position, when the curve has been negotiated.
Wheels are installed on the suspension units at certain angles, to provide for
these factors. These angles, taken together, are called wheel alignment. The
factors that affect wheel alignment are:
x camber;
x caster;
x steering axis inclination,
x toe-in and toe-out,
x toe-out on turns and
x thrust angle and centrelines
Let us now consider these factors.
x Camber
Viewed from vehicle front, camber is the angle of tilt of the wheel from the
vertical. A wheel leaning away from the vehicle at the top has positive
camber. Leaning towards the vehicle, it has negative camber.
Positive and negative camber is illustrated in Figure 7.16 below.
Figure 7.16 Positive and negative camber
Camber is viewed from the front of the vehicle and it is the angle of tilt of the
wheel from the vertical.
Important:
A wheel that leans away from the vehicle at the top is said to have
positive camber. A wheel that leans towards the vehicle is said to
have negative camber.
On earlier vehicles with narrow tyres with a large diameter, large camber
angles were used to bring the centerline of road-road contact closer to the
steering axis.
It also ensured the vehicle weight was carried by the large inner bearing.

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On modern vehicles, however, tyres are wider but they are generally smaller in
diameter, and large camber angles would produce excessive wear on the
outer edges of the tyres.
The amount of camber is now reduced, so that most cars have what is called
zero average camber, to give long tyre life. This is because, when a vehicle is
in motion, zero camber is difficult to maintain.
Changes in running camber can be caused by road irregularities, and load

variations.
Camber is the inward or outward tilt of the wheel and tyre assembly when
viewed from the front of the car. It controls whether the tyre tread touches the
road surface evenly.
x Caster
Caster is the angle between the steering axis centerline, and a vertical line
through the center of the wheel. Backward tilt from the vertical line is positive
caster. Forward tilt is negative caster.
Seen from the side of the vehicle, the steering axis centreline is normally tilted
from the vertical.
Caster is the angle formed by this line, and a line drawn vertically through the
centre of the wheel. Backward tilt from the vertical is positive caster. Forward
tilt is negative caster.
When a vehicle has positive caster, a line drawn through the steering axis
centerline meets the road surface, ahead of the centerline of the wheel. The
tyre contact point is behind the steering axis.
When the wheel is turned to the right, the tyre contact point is moved to the
left of the direction of travel, and similarly for turning to the left.
In forward motion, this generates a self-centering force which helps return the
wheels to the neutral position when the steering wheel is released.
The effects of positive caster can be seen in the motion of this furniture wheel.
When it is acted on by a forward-moving force, its pivot point ahead of the
wheel ensures the wheel always trails behind.
Most cars have positive caster, because it makes it easier to travel in a straight
line with minimal driver action. But as positive caster increases, more and more
effort is needed to turn the steering wheel.

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Some vehicles have by design an amount of negative caster. Generally such

vehicles would only operate at low speeds as vehicles with negative caster
can become unstable as speed increases.
In all cases, the manufacturer’s specification should be followed.
o Positive caster
The pivot points of the steering are angled such that a line drawn through
them intersects the road surface slightly ahead of the contact patch of the
tyre on the pavement.
The purpose of this is to provide a degree of self-centering for the steering - the
wheel casters around so as to trail behind the axis of steering. This makes a car
easier to drive and improves its directional stability (reducing its tendency to
wander).
Excessive caster angle will make the steering heavier and less responsive,
although, in racing, large caster angles are used to improve camber gain in
cornering.
Caster angles over 7 degrees with radial tires are common. Power steering is
usually necessary to overcome the jacking effect from the high caster angle.
Positive caster is illustrated in Figure 7.17 below.
Figure 7.17 Positive caster
o Negative caster
The caster angle identifies the forward or backward slope of a line drawn
through the upper and lower steering pivot points when viewed directly from
the side of the vehicle.
Keyword:
Caster is expressed in degrees and is measured by comparing a line
running through the steering system's upper and lower pivot points
(typically the upper and lower ball joints of an A-arm or wishbone
suspension design, or the lower ball joint and the strut tower mount of
a McPherson strut design) to a line drawn perpendicular to the
ground.

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Caster is said to be negative if the line slopes towards the front. This is illustrated
in Figure 7.18.
Figure 7.18 Negative caster
x Kingpin and steering axis inclination

As the wheel assembly swivels, it turns around the steering axis, on a line drawn
through the upper and lower pivot points of the suspension assembly. Seen
from the front of the car, it tilts inward.
The axis around which the wheel assembly swivels as it turns to the right or left is
called the steering axis.
It is formed by drawing a line through the upper and lower pivot points of the
suspension assembly, as illustrated in Figure 7.19. Seen from the front of the car,
it is tilted inward.
The angle formed between this line and the vertical, provides steering axis
inclination angles. Steering axis inclination acts, with caster, to provide a self-
centering of the front wheels.
When the wheels are in the straight-ahead position, the ends of the stub axles
are almost horizontal.
When the wheels turn to either side, the effect of steering axis inclination is to
make the ends of the stub axle tend to move downward, but this is prevented
by the wheel. The stub axle carrier then must move up, which raises the front of
the vehicle.
When the steering wheel is released, the mass of the vehicle forces the stub
carrier back down, which pushes the wheels back to a central position.
With a vertical steering axis, no self-centering would occur. The wheel would
pivot on a radius with the steering axis as its center.
This would introduce a turning moment on the wheel, road shocks would be
transmitted back to the steering wheel, and steering would be difficult to
control.

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Steering axis inclination brings the pivot point close to the center of the tyre
contact patch at the road surface. It intersects with the camber line drawn
through the tyre and the wheel, as illustrated in Figure 7.19 below.
Figure 7.19 Steering axis inclination
o If these 2 lines intersect at the center of the tyre, at the road surface, then
the vehicle is said to have zero offset, or zero scrub radius.
o If they intersect below the road surface, then it has positive offset or scrub
radius.
o If they intersect above the road surface, then it has negative offset or scrub
radius.
The angle between the steering axis inclination and the camber line is called
the included angle. It is a diagnostic angle.
Since the steering axis inclination is not adjustable, if the camber angle is
correct, then the steering axis inclination should also be correct, that is it should
match the specification.
o Functions of king-pin (steering axis) inclination

The Steering Axis Inclination (SAI) angle is created and measured in degrees
from the lower ball joint to the upper ball joint or through the center of the strut
mount found on most front wheel vehicles.
The illustration uses ball joints to represent the angles. This measurement of
degrees includes the measurement from lower ball joint to the upper ball joint
or the upper strut mount and true vertical (the tire actually sitting straight up
and down).

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The SAI angle doesn't include the camber angle. This is because Steering Axis
Inclination is a non-adjustable angle. When this angle is out of specifications
there is likely something bent somewhere in the steering or suspension.
The idea of a wheel alignment is to have all four wheels on the ground and in
parallel with each other. A bent or damaged part would certainly have a
diverse effect.
We often tweak the alignment procedure to compensate for crowned roads

and sometimes oval tracks. For the most part a wheel alignment is a tire saving,
suspension and steerability adjustment.
The included angle is the fixed SAI with camber angle included. This is the why
it is called the included angle. If you look closely the larger of the two angles is
the included, and the smaller the SAI angle.
The major difference between the SAI and the included angle is that the
camber angle is included to the SAI resulting in the included angle.
It's important to note that a large difference between side to side indicates a
collision or bent component and further inspection is required.
o Scrub radius
The effect of scrub radius is to provide a turning moment which attempts to
turn the wheel away from the central position, when the vehicle is in motion.
Scrub radius is also known as steering offset, and scrub geometry.
It is the distance between 2 imaginary points on the road surface - the point of
center contact between the road surface and the tyre, and the point where
the steering-axis center-line contacts the road surface.
Figure 7.20 Scrub radius

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If these two points intersect at the center of the tyre, at the road surface, then
the scrub radius is zero, as illustrated in Figure 7.21 below.. If they intersect
below the road surface, scrub radius is positive. If they intersect above the
road surface, scrub radius is negative.
Figure 7.21 Zero scrub radius
The effect of scrub radius - positive or negative - is to provide a turning

moment which attempts to turn the wheel away from the central position,
when the vehicle is in motion.
On a rear-wheel-drive vehicle with positive scrub radius, the vehicle’s forward

motion and the friction between the tyre and the road causes a force which
tends to move the front wheels back. This would cause the wheels to toe-out.
If it has negative scrub radius, the front wheels again tend to move back, but
this time, they toe-in. Figure 7.22 illustrates negative scrub radius.
Figure 7.22 Negative scrub radius

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On front-wheel-drive vehicles, the opposite occurs. Positive scrub radius causes

toe-in, and negative causes toe-out. Positive scrub radius is illustrated in Figure
7.23 on the following page.
Figure 7.23 Positive scrub radius
During braking, on any type of drive, if braking effort is greater on one side of
the vehicle than the other, positive scrub radius will cause the vehicle to veer
towards the side with the greater effort.
Negative scrub radius will cause the vehicle to veer away from the side of
greatest effort. How much it veers depends on the size of the scrub radius.
This is why, vehicles with a diagonal-split brake system have negative scrub
radius built into the steering geometry. If one half of the brake system fails, then
the vehicle will tend to pull up in a straight line.
Since the offset of the wheel rim determines where the centreline of the tyre
meets the road surface, it is important that the offset is not changed if wheels
are being replaced.
Changing the rim offset changes the scrub radius, and also the predictability
of the vehicle handling, if brakes should fail.
x Toe-in and toe-out

Toe angles ensure that wheels are in line with the direction of travel. In the
straight-ahead position, the wheels may have toe-in or toe-out, depending on
manufacturer's specifications.
Keyword:
When the fronts of the wheels, as seen from above, are closer
together than the rear of the wheels, it is called toe-in. The opposite
arrangement is called toe-out.
On the following page, Figure 7.24 illustrates toe-in and toe-out.

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Figure 7.24 Toe-out and toe-in
The static toe setting is designed to compensate for slight wear in steering
connections, which may cause the wheels to splay outwards, or inwards. This
means the wheels will be parallel when the vehicle is in motion, which avoids
tyre scrub.
x Toe-out on turns (turning radius angle)

Toe-out on turns is the relative toe setting of the front wheels as they turn to the
left or right. Below, Figure 7.25 illustrates the turning radius angle.
Figure 7.25 Turning radius angle
When a vehicle makes a turn, each wheel should rotate with true rolling
motion, that is free from tyre scrub. True rolling motion is only obtained when
each wheel is at 90˚ to a line drawn between the swivel axis and the center of
turn.
Because the rear wheels are fixed, the center of turn will lie somewhere along
the centerline of the rear axle, depending on how far the steering wheel is
turned from the straight-ahead position.
To provide true rolling motion, the inner wheel must be turned through a
greater angle than the outer wheel. This allows the inner wheel to turn through
a smaller turning radius than the outer wheel.

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This automatically correct alignment is obtained by use of the Ackerman

principle and layout.
With the steering linkage at the rear of the wheels, the distance across the tie-
rod ends, at the steering arm joints, is made shorter than the distance across
the steering axis swivels.
This forces the inner wheel to turn through a larger angle when the steering is
turned. The Ackerman angle is the angle the steering arms make with the
swivels, on the centreline of the vehicle, at or near the centre of the rear axle.
x Thrust angle and centrelines

The thrust angle refers to all four wheels and their relationship to each other
and to an imaginary centreline that runs from each pair of wheels down the
centre of the vehicle.
Figure 7.26 Thrust angles, lines and geometric centreline
The term 'thrust line' refers to the direction in which the rear wheels are
pointing.
On a vehicle with Independent Rear Suspension or IRS, undertaking a front-

wheel-only alignment is considered to be an inadequate procedure.
The thrust angle refers to all four wheels and their relationship to each other in
addition to their relationship to an imaginary centerline that runs from each
pair of wheels down the center of the vehicle.
The term "thrust line" refers to the direction in which the rear wheels are
pointing. The thrust angle can be adjusted on vehicles with adjustable rear
suspensions.
On vehicles that do not have adjustable rear suspensions, the thrust angle can
be compensated for by aligning the front wheels to the rear wheels.
Referencing the front steering geometry to the rear is very important.

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A Quadralignment procedure involves aligning all four wheels in relation to

each other.
The thrust line may be in the same position as the vehicle's geometric
“centerline”, however there are variations to this. Ideally the thrust line and the
vehicle’s geometric centerline should line up closely.
The centerline is drawn through point’s midway between each pair of wheels;
however the thrust line is normally in the perpendicular position of the rear axle
on solid axle cars, or, with IRS, is a line derived by splitting the toe angle of the
rear wheels on the vehicle.
For instance, if the rear wheel on the right rear wheel side of the vehicle is
toed-in six degrees, and the rear wheel on the left is at zero degrees, the thrust
line will veer off three degrees to the left of the vehicle centerline at the rear
wheels when the vehicle is moving forward.
An ideal situation is where the thrust and centerlines coincide. However, given
the size of a vehicle, the tolerances during manufacture, operational stresses,
and component wear; it's rare that they do.
If the deviation is very small, then remedial action is normally unnecessary.
However, a large deviation can cause considerable concern when the

vehicle is being driven. And the cause of this condition needs to be identified
and corrected.
Under such conditions the rear wheels are steering the car away from its
centerline and the driver has to turn the steering wheel to one side to keep the
car going in a straight line.
In extreme circumstances, the tracks the rear tyres make are beside those of
the front. This condition is known as "dog-tracking" or “crabbing” and can
cause diagonal tyre pattern wear as well as vehicle instability in some driving
conditions.
7.6 Over-steer and under-steer
7.6.1 Over-steer
The bright ones amongst you will probably already have guessed that
oversteer is the opposite of understeer. With oversteer, the car goes where it's
pointed far too efficiently and you end up diving into the corner much more
quickly than you had expected.
Oversteer is brought on by the car losing grip on the rear wheels as the weight
is transferred off them under braking, resulting in the rear kicking out in the
corner. This is illustrated in Figure 7.27 on the next page.

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Without counter-steering (see below) the end result in racing is that the car will
spin and end up going off the inside of the corner backwards.
In normal you-and-me driving, it means spinning the car and ending up

pointing back the way you came.
Figure 7.27 Oversteer
x Causes of over-steer
1. Adjust the tyre pressure. Tyre pressure has a big impact on how a car's tyres
behave during cornering and can cause oversteer as well as understeer,
depending on the settings.
Start by inflating the tyres to the manufacturer's recommended settings. If

the vehicle is still oversteering, reduce the air in the front tyres by a few PSI--
which will reduce grip--and add air to the rear tyres which will increase grip
and help the rear tyres resist the tendency to slide around.
2. Install wider, stickier (softer compound) tyres on the back, which will
increase the grip from the rear end during cornering and reduce the
tendency of the car to oversteer.
3. Adjust the shocks or install different shocks. If you have adjustable shocks,
stiffen the front shocks and set the rear shocks to a looser setting.
A softly sprung rear suspension will generally oversteer less than a very stiff
suspension. If your car does not have adjustable shocks, then install softer
rear shocks in place of the shocks that are currently installed.
4. Stiffen the springs and the anti-roll bar at the front, and reduce the stiffness
of the springs and anti-roll bar at the rear. Like the shocks, the springs and
anti-roll bar also contribute to how stiff a suspension is.

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Reducing the stiffness of the springs at the rear will help a car oversteer less.
The same goes for the anti-roll bar. A smaller rear anti-roll bar combined
with a larger front bar will reduce oversteer and increase understeer.
These changes should be done incrementally so that you don't end up with
a car that has terminal understeer, which can also be undesirable.
5. Adjust the alignment settings. Your car's alignment can also have a big
impact on the behaviour of the suspension.
Too much front negative camber will increase oversteer, so reducing the
amount of camber (the angle that that tyres tilt in or out) will increase
understeer.
The toe settings also have an impact. Have a professional alignment shop
perform the alignment after explaining the suspension's behaviour to them
and what you want to accomplish.
6. Raise the front end and lower the rear end. With the rear end closer to the
ground, the car will have a tendency to oversteer less with a lower center
of gravity.
7.6.2 Under-steer
Under-steer is so called because the car steers less than you want it to. Under-
steer can be brought on by all manner of chassis, suspension and speed issues
but essentially it means that the car is losing grip on the front wheels.
Figure 7.28 Under-steer
Typically it happens as you brake and the weight is transferred to the front of
the car, as illustrated in Figure 7.28 above.
At this point the mechanical grip of the front tyres can simply be overpowered
and they start to lose grip (for example on a wet or greasy road surface).
The end result is that the car will start to take the corner very wide.

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In racing, that normally involves going off the outside of the corner into a
catch area or on to the grass. In normal you-and-me driving, it means crashing
at the outside of the corner.
Getting out of understeer can involve the following:
x letting off the throttle in front-wheel-drive vehicles (to try to give the tyres
chance to grip) or;
x getting on the throttle in rear-wheel-drive vehicles (to try to bring the back
end around).
7.7 Preliminary checks before doing wheel alignment

The following pre-checks should be carried out thoroughly before setting the
wheel alignment:
x Tyres and rims

Check the following:
o tyre pressure
o all tyres are the same size and ply rating
o tyre ovality
o tyre run-out
o equal rim sizes
o rim run-out
x Suspension and related components

o Shock absorbers for leakage and mounting condition

o Coil springs for cracks and proper tension
o Check ride-height
o Chassis cross measurement
o Wheel base according to specifications
o Vehicle is standing level
x Wheel bearings
o Wheel bearing pre-load

o Wheel bearing free-play
o Wheel is turning smoothly.
x Steering
o tie-rod ends and ball joints for excessive play

o centre link and idler arm for free play

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o Upper and lower ball joints

o Steering box is properly secured to chassis
o pre-load on steering box
o Lubrication of ball joints.
x Brakes
Check the following via a road test:
o Brakes are not binding

o Vehicle does not pull to one side.
7.7.1 Curb height (also called kerb-height)

Before each alignment check, measure the distance between the wheel
centre (2) and wheel well housing (1) on either side of the vehicle.
Verify that it is between minimum and maximum values given. (This is the
requirement for toe-in, camber and caster).
Adjusting the rear curb height is not necessary when measuring it and
choosing a spec from the table accordingly.
x To check front curb height

Measure the distance between the wheel centre (2) and the wheel well
housing (1) which should be between the given specifications. This is illustrated
in Figure 7.29 below.
Figure 7.29 Front curb height check
x To check rear curb height

Measure the distance between the rear shock upper bolt (1) head to the lower
bolt head (2). This illustrated in Figure 7.30 on the following page.

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Figure 7.30 Rear curb height check
7.7.2 Curb mass/weight

Curb mass or kerb weight is the total weight measurement of a vehicle with
standard equipment, all necessary operating consumables (e.g., motor oil and
coolant), and a full tank of fuel, while not loaded with either passengers or
cargo.
7.7.3 Reasons why wheel alignment is of great importance

Many of us don't realize the importance of proper wheel alignment on our
cars. We tend to think that nothing much happens to our tyres other than an
occasional puncture.
Important:
Nothing can be further from the truth. It is very important that we
regularly get our wheels aligned.
Wheel alignment is making sure that the wheels of the car are perpendicular
to the road; also, it makes sure that the wheels are parallel to one other.
x Save Fuel
When the wheels of the car are not aligned there is uneven pressure on the
tyres. They tend to push against each other. When that happens the car faces
uneven friction and much more resistance from the road surface.
This means that your car has to work that much harder to move forward and
more fuel is burned than normal. When you align the wheels properly the there
is much less resistance from the road surface.
This results in not only a smoother drive but sometimes noticeable savings on
your petrol receipts.

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x Caring For Your Environment

In today’s "Green" world, there is so much talk about saving the environment,
and we know that the burning of fossil fuels is a major cause of pollution. This is
one way of doing our bit by using a little less fuel.
x Cost of New Tyres

The importance of proper wheel alignment cannot be more emphasized when
we compare the cost of brand new tyres to the little amount spent on getting
them aligned.
More resistance to the road surface means more pressure on the rubber of
your tyres. That leads to very quick wear and tear on the tyres. It results in the
tyre becoming bald on one side.
This means that the tyres are uneven. Not only is it dangerous to drive on
uneven tyres, it also means that you have to spend on new tyres sooner.
x Safety
It is very important to consider the safety factor too. Have you ever driven a
car which pulls itself to one side all the time? This is due to faulty wheel
alignment.
You probably know how difficult it is to drive on a wet or iced road even with
perfectly aligned wheels. With badly aligned wheels, you are taking on
unnecessary risk.
Is it worth having an accident and endangering the lives of loved ones? A little
money spent once in a while getting your wheels aligned can bring you
peace of mind.
x Strain on the car

Having a car with badly aligned wheels also leads to other connected
problems. Your brake shaft does not work to optimal levels. The tendency to
pull to one side due to uneven tyres causes problems in the steering system.
It also leads to uneven braking. Improper wheel alignments or not having your
wheels aligned will affect the suspension of your car.
The suspension in a car is made up of complicated and delicately balanced

parts, and it is important that it should be perfect, not to mention that
changing your suspension could cost an awful lot.
7.7.4 Order of checking wheel alignment angles

Wheel alignment angles should be checked in the following order:
1. Front suspension ride height

2. Caster

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3. Camber
4. Toe-in or toe-out
5. Steering axis inclination (SAI)
6. Toe-out on turns
7.8 Wheel balance and imbalance

Wheel balance refers to the even distribution of weight around a revolving tyre
and wheel assembly. It ensures that the unit which comprises a wheel rim and
a tyre is in balance.
Both these units have high and low spots, or heavy and light areas. The first part
of getting the complete unit of rim and tyre in balance is to match the heavy
areas of one to the light areas of the other.
Figure 7.31 Wheel imbalance and heavy spots
Figure 7.31, above, illustrates dynamic and static imbalance. The next part is to
add compensating weight to the complete unit’s light areas so that it rotates
perfectly.
Wheels are balanced with small counter weights to prevent them from having
heavy spots that can cause vibration and premature wearing of tyres, struts,
shocks and other steering and suspension components.
When driving with an out-of-balance wheel, the wheel literally bounces down
the road or wobbles from side-to-side. The ride disturbance due to unbalance
usually increases with speed.
Motoring experts believe that two motoring trends - lightweight suspension

systems and responsive lower profile tyres - make it all the more important to
have wheels correctly balanced, since these are more sensitive to imbalance
than on older heavier cars.

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7.8.1 Static balance deliberating

Static balance of a wheel and tyre assembly simply refers whether there is a
heavy spot on the assembly. This is apparent when the wheel is mounted on a
horizontal shaft with low friction bearings.
Figure 7.32 Static balance deliberating
If the wheel and tyre does have a heavy spot, the wheel is brought back into
balance by securing weights to the rim on the opposite side, as illustrated in
Figure 7.32 above.
If the weight required is more than 60 grams this should be halved and the
weight must then be secured on the inside and outside of the rim opposite the
high spot.
By doing this, the dynamic balance will not be disturbed. A wheel used in this
position will tend to lift the wheel of the road periodically thus causing uneven
tyre wear.
7.8.2 Dynamic balance

Dynamic balance is less obvious especially on narrow wheel and tyre
assemblies. Figure 7.33 shows how to achieve dynamic balance.
If the inner edge of a wheel had a heavy spot (assume at the top of a
stationary wheel) a good static balance can be achieved by adding the
appropriate opposing weight to the outer edge of the wheel (at the bottom).
Adding the weight in such a way at the bottom so that it opposes the heavy
spot at the top will provide static balance, but because the weight was added
to the outer edge and in fact the heavy spot was on the inner edge, the
wheel will now be dynamically out of balance.

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Figure 7.33 Dynamic balance
Dynamic imbalance is corrected by adding wheel balance weights in

amounts sufficient to bring the out-of-balance weight centre line, and the
wheel centre line into the same plane.
To be in dynamic balance the wheel must also be in static balance.
Activity 7.1
1. List the functions of a steering system

2. Name and describe the components of a steering system
3. Name and describe the different types of steering boxes
4. Explain what is involved in steering box adjustments and maintenance
5. List and describe in detail the six fundamental angles specifications
needed for proper wheel alignment
6. Define ‘oversteer’ and ‘understeer’, listing their causes
7. Name the preliminary checks before doing wheel alignment
8. Explain the difference between ‘curb height’ and ‘curb weight’
9. State the order of checking wheel alignment angles
10. Define and describe the difference between ‘wheel balance’,
‘imbalance’, ‘static balance’ and ‘dynamic balance’

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Self-Check

x List the functions of a steering system
x Name and describe the components of a steering system
x Name and describe the different types of steering boxes
x Explain what is involved in steering box adjustments and
maintenance
x List and describe in detail the six fundamental angles
specifications needed for proper wheel alignment
x Define ‘oversteer’ and ‘understeer’, listing their causes
x Name the preliminary checks before doing wheel alignment
x Explain the difference between ‘curb height’ and ‘curb
weight’
x State the order of checking wheel alignment angles
x Define and describe the difference between ‘wheel
balance’, ‘imbalance’, ‘static balance’ and ‘dynamic
balance’

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Learning Outcomes
x State the characteristics of brake fluid

x Name and describe the components of the braking system
x Describe the master cylinder (residual-pressure type), explaining its
operation when the brakes are applied and released
x List the functions of the check valve assembly
x Explain the reason for brake pedal free play
x Describe the tandem brake master cylinder, explaining its operation and
listing the reasons for its use
x Describe vacuum servo brakes and how they operate when brakes are
applied
x Define ‘disc brakes’, stating their advantages and disadvantages
x Name and describe the two basic types of disc brake callipers, including
the two types of seals found thereon
x Define ‘drum brakes’ and the term; ‘self-energisation’
x Explain and describe the leading and trailing brake shoe system
x Define the handbrake, explain the difference between and
‘compensator’ and ‘non-compensator’ type
x Name brake system problems and list the respective possible causes
x Describe what is involved in changing disc brake pads
8.1 Introduction
In this module you will learn about brake systems. We will examine
brake fluid, the components of a braking system and possible
problems and solutions, as well as disc and drum brakes and how
to change them.
Friction between braking surfaces converts kinetic energy into heat. In drum
brakes, wheel cylinders force brake linings against the inside of the drum. In
disc brakes, pads are forced against a brake disc.
Several factors can influence vehicle braking:
x Road surface

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x Road conditions
x Weight of the vehicle
x Load on the wheel during stopping
x How the vehicle is being driven
x The tyres on the vehicle.
An effective braking system takes all these factors into account.
Figure 8.1 illustrates a basic hydraulic braking system, which has two main
sections, namely:
x the brake assemblies at the wheels, and

x the hydraulic system that applies them.
Figure 8.1 Hydraulic braking system components
8.2 Hydraulic brake fluid

Brake fluid, as seen in Figure 8.2, is a special purpose high-boiling point fluid. It
transmits the hydraulic pressure generated by the master cylinder to the brake
units.
Brake fluid is hydraulic fluid that has specific properties. The fluid is used to
transfer force while under pressure through hydraulic lines to the wheel braking
system.
Braking applications produce heat so the fluid used must have both a high
boiling point to remain effective and a low freezing point so as not to freeze or
thicken in cold conditions.
Brake fluid is hygroscopic, which means it absorbs water from the atmosphere.

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Figure 8.2 Hydraulic brake fluid
This will gradually reduce its boiling point, so the fluid should be changed
periodically to remove water and other contaminants and to ensure the
continued effectiveness of the braking system.
The properties of different types of brake fluids are tested for many different
characteristics such as ph value, viscosity, resistance to oxidation, and stability,
and graded against compliance standards set by the United States
Department of Transportation (DOT).
Brake fluid DOT specifications:
x DOT 2 is castor oil based

x DOT 3 is composed of various glycol esters and ethers.
o Boiling point: 284° F (140° C)
x DOT 4 is also composed of glycol esters and ethers.
x DOT 5 is silicone-based. It is NOT recommended for any vehicle equipped
with antilock brakes (ABS). It gives better protection against corrosion, and is
more suitable for use in wet driving conditions.
x DOT 5.1 is a high-boiling point fluid that is suitable for ABS-equipped
vehicles. It contains polyalkylene glycol ether, but is more expensive than
other brake fluids.
o Boiling point: 375° F (190.6° C)
Important:
Even if they have similar base composition, fluids with different DOT
ratings must not be mixed. Figure 8.2, above, shows a DOT brake
fluid.

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8.3 Components of the braking system

Below, Figure 8.3 illustrates the components and system of a braking system.
We will examine a few of these parts in more detail now.
Figure 8.3 Components of the braking system
8.3.1 Brake lines

Brake lines carry brake fluid from the master cylinder to the brakes. For most of
their length they are steel, and attached to the body with clips or brackets to
prevent damage from vibration.
They are much the same on all brake systems. On the next page, Figure 8.4
illustrates the system of brake lines.

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Figure 8.4 Brake lines
For most of their length they are steel, coated to reduce the possibility of
corrosion, and attached to the body with clips or brackets to prevent damage
from vibration.
In some vehicles, the brake lines are inside the vehicle to protect them better
from corrosion.
The brake lines must be able to transmit considerable hydraulic pressure, so

they are mostly made of steel, rather than of a softer but less corrosive and
easier to fit material such as copper.
However, a flexible section must be included between the body and

suspension to allow for steering and suspension movement.
These flexible hoses are made of tough reinforced tubing, to contain the
pressures as well as to protect them from objects that could be thrown by the
tyres.
If a brake line is damaged, it is usually replaced rather than repaired.
8.3.2 Master cylinder

The tandem master cylinder transforms applied brake force into hydraulic
pressure which is transferred to the wheel units through two separate circuits.
This provides residual braking in the event of fluid loss.
8.3.3 Wheel cylinders

The wheel cylinder and piston react to hydraulic pressure from the master
cylinder, and the outward movement of the piston forces the shoe and lining
against the drum.

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8.3.4 Disc brake

The disc brake system converts the hydraulic pressure generated at the master
cylinder into a frictional clamping force against the rotating discs. A disc brake
is illustrated in Figure 8.5
Figure 8.5 Disc brake
8.3.5 Drum brake

The drum brake, as seen in Figure 8.6, has two brake shoes with a friction
material called a lining attached. These shoes expand against the inside
surface of a brake drum, and slow the wheel down.
Figure 8.6 Drum brake
The harder the linings are forced against the brake drum, the higher the
braking force that is applied. They can be expanded mechanically, or
hydraulically.
8.4 The master cylinder (residual-pressure type)

The single-piston master cylinder transforms the applied pedal force into a
hydraulic pressure which is transmitted simultaneously to all four wheels. The
master cylinder is connected to the brake pedal via a pushrod.
On the next page, Figure 8.7 shows a single master cylinder for a drum brake
system. It’s one piston has a primary and a secondary cup.

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Keyword:
These are also known as seals, because, when force is applied to the
brake pedal, the primary cup seals the pressure in the cylinder.
Figure 8.7 Single master cylinder
The secondary cup prevents loss of fluid past the end of the piston. An outlet
port links the cylinder to the brake lines. An inlet port connects the reservoir
with the space around the piston.
A compensating port connects the reservoir to the cylinder, ahead of the

primary cup. With the brakes off, this port connects the brake system with the
reservoir. It compensate for changes in volume of the fluid due to heat or
wear.
The rod from the brake pedal pushes on the piston. It moves, closing off the
compensating port and trapping fluid ahead of the primary cup.
Any fluid trapped in the cylinder is then forced through a valve, called a
residual pressure valve, into the brake lines. When the brakes are released, the
master cylinder piston returns to its original position.
When the piston fully returns against its stop, the primary cup uncovers the
compensating port. Fluid ahead of the primary cup can now return this way to
the reservoir.
When the pedal is released quickly, the spring makes the piston return quickly.
But the fluid cannot return as quickly to the cylinder. A low-pressure area
develops ahead of the primary cup, which could draw air into the system.
To prevent this, small holes are drilled in the piston. Fluid from the reservoir can
pass through the inlet port and past the edge of the primary cup. This is called
recuperation.

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When the fluid in the lines returns to rest, its pressure is held above atmospheric
pressure, by a valve called the residual line pressure valve. The residual
pressure helps stop air from entering, at the wheel cylinder. And it keeps fluid
from leaking out.
Figure 8.8 The master cylinder
The master cylinder piston is linked to the brake pedal by an adjustable push
rod. The piston is sealed by a main rubber cap which is held in position by a
spring and seated on a thin washer to prevent the rubber cup being sucked
into the bleed holes.
An inlet (breather) port allows fluid to pass around the waist of the piston.
Leakage of the fluid is prevented by a secondary cup. A circlip hold the piston
in position, while the rubber boot acts as a dust cover.
A check valve fitted at the outer end of the body ensures that the aerated
brake fluid does not return to the reservoir. Above, Figure 8.8 illustrates a cross-
sectional view of a master cylinder.
8.4.1 Residual pressure

A residual is generally a quantity left over at the end of a process.
Thus, residual pressure means that there is a small amount of pressure left in the
brake fluid pipes after the brakes have been released, keeping the lips of the
wheel cylinder washers against the cylinder preventing fluid leaking out and air
entering the system.
When the brakes are fully released, a residual pressure of 0,5 – 1 bar is
maintained in the system with the aid of the residual pressure check valve
situated in the front of the master cylinder.

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8.4.2 Function of the check valve assembly

Many master cylinders designed for drum brakes incorporate a residual check
valve to keep a slight amount of pressure on the system after the brake pedal
has been released.
These residual check valves are used on drum brake systems to keep around
5psi up to 12psi of pressure on the wheel cylinders cup seals. They also resist the
momentum of the fluid returning to the master cylinder.
Below, Figure 8.9 Illustrates the assembly of a residual check valve.
Figure 8.9 Residual check valve assembly
Since the valve is keeping constant pressure on the system any small leaks will
result in fluid leaking out instead of air leaking in. The residual check valve
keeps a constant pressure on the wheel cylinder cup seals.
This valve is not used on many late model vehicles because the wheel
cylinders incorporate a cup seal expander that keeps the cup seals firm
against the wheel cylinder walls.
These valves are located inside the master cylinder port leading to the rear
drum brakes.
They consist of the check valve and a spring that allows the brake fluid to enter
the master cylinder only until the designated pressure is reached.
Once this occurs spring pressure closes the valve maintaining low pressure on
the brake system.

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8.4.3 Operation of the master cylinder when the brakes are applied
When the brakes are not applied, the piston cups of the Primary and
Secondary pistons are positioned between the inlet port and the
compensating port.
This provides a passage between the cylinder and the reservoir tank, as seen in
Figure 8.10
The Secondary piston is pushed by the force of the secondary return spring,
but prevented from going any further by a stopper bolt.
When the brake pedal is depressed, the primary piston moves forward. The
primary cup blocks the compensating port, thus sealing the passage between
the primary pressure chamber and the reservoir tank.
As the piston is pushed further, it builds hydraulic pressure inside the cylinder
and is applied or transmitted to the wheel cylinders in that circuit. The same
hydraulic pressure is also applied to the secondary piston.
Figure 8.10 Master cylinder when brakes applied
Hydraulic pressure in the primary chamber moves the secondary piston

forward. After the compensating port of the secondary chamber is closed,
fluid pressure builds and is transmitted to the secondary circuit.
8.4.4 Operation of the master cylinder when the brakes are released
When the brake pedal is released, the pistons are returned to their original
position by hydraulic pressure and the force of the return springs, as illustrated
in Figure 8.11
However because the brake fluid does not return to the master cylinder
immediately, the hydraulic pressure inside the cylinder drops momentarily.
As a result the brake fluid inside the reservoir flows into the cylinder via the inlet
port, through small holes provided at the front of the piston and around the
piston cup.

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Figure 8.11 Master cylinder when brakes released
This design prevents vacuum from developing and allowing air to enter at the
wheel cylinders. After the piston has returned to its original position, fluid returns
from the wheel cylinder circuit to the reservoir through the compensating port.
8.4.5 Reason for brake pedal free play

Brake pedal free play is the amount of pedal movement before the pushrod
touches the piston inside the master cylinder, before the piston starts to move.
It's quite a distinctive feel on the brake pedal, but you have to use your hand
to feel it properly. Figure 8.12 illustrates brake pedal free play.
The brake pedal free play adjustment is very important. The 5-7 mm of free
play at the top of the brake pedal translates into 1 mm of play between the
end of the push rod and the piston in the master cylinder.
This distance is critical to assure that, after braking, the piston comes back far
enough that it does not block the transfer port to the reservoir, allowing the
pressure built up during braking to return to the reservoir and relax the system.
Figure 8.12 Brake pedal free play
This brake pedal free play is very light and shouldn't be confused with the "take
up distance" that the piston inside the master cylinder bore has to move

247
before your brake lining engages with the drums/rotors; that is, the distance
the pedal travels before braking action actually occurs.
Excessive "take up distance" can be eliminated by bleeding air out of the lines
and adjusting the brakes at each wheel.
You usually have to readjust your brakes every oil change when new until they
fully seat with the drums (sometimes even more often than that).
8.5 Tandem brake master cylinder

The tandem master cylinder transforms applied brake force into hydraulic
pressure which is transferred to the wheel units through two separate circuits.
This provides residual braking in the event of fluid loss and can be seen in
Figure 8.13
Figure 8.13 Tandem master cylinder
With a basic master cylinder in the braking system, any loss of fluid, say
because a component fails, could mean the whole braking system fails.
To reduce this risk, modern vehicles must have at least two separate hydraulic
systems. That’s why the tandem master cylinder was introduced.
The two systems can be split front-to-rear, so that the front brakes operate from
one circuit and the rear brakes from the other, or they can be split diagonally
so that one front wheel is paired with the rear wheel on the opposite side in
one brake circuit, and vice versa in the other.
8.5.1 Operation of the tandem master cylinder

Like two single-piston cylinders end-to-end, a tandem cylinder has a primary
piston and a secondary piston, as illustrated in Figure 8.14

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Figure 8.14 Tandem master cylinder
Each section of the cylinder has inlet and outlet ports, and compensating
ports. There can be two separate reservoirs, or just one divided into separate
sections.
When the brake is applied, the primary piston moves, and closes its
compensating port. Fluid pressure rises, and acts on the secondary piston. It
moves, closing its compensating port.
Pressure builds up in this circuit. Both pistons then move, and displace fluid into
their separate circuits and apply the brakes.
If there is a failure in the secondary circuit, the primary system continues to

operate normally, but with increased travel. If the primary circuit fails, no
pressure is generated to move the secondary piston.
So a rod attached to the front of the primary piston will push the secondary
piston directly so that it still operates. A switch can warn of loss of pressure in
the front or rear circuits, or one fitted to the reservoir can warn of low fluid level.
Just like the single piston master cylinder the tandem master cylinder can have
problems with a low-pressure area developing when the piston returns quickly
but the fluid lags.
The tandem master cylinder overcomes this by using grooves in the side of the
primary cup. These grooves allow fluid to flow from the inlet port into the low-
pressure area.
8.6 Vacuum servo brakes

The brake booster is designed to create a greater braking force from a
minimum pedal effort, using a difference in atmospheric pressure and the
engines manifold vacuum.

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It increases the pedal force 2 to 4 times depending on the size of the

diaphragm. The brake booster is located between the brake pedal and the
master cylinder.
When pressure is applied to the brake pedal, pressure is exerted on the booster
air valve. With pressure created by the booster, the master cylinder is applied.
Should the booster malfunction, the normal mechanical braking force of the
master cylinder is maintained.
The brake booster consists of the body, booster piston, piston return spring,
reaction mechanism and control valve mechanism. The body is divided into a
constant pressure chamber and a variable pressure chamber.
The control valve mechanism regulates the pressure inside the variable
pressure chamber.
8.6.1 Operation of the vacuum-servo unit (brake booster) when the brakes are
applied
The basic principle of the brake booster is pressure differential. When vacuum is
applied to both sides of the piston, the piston is pushed to the right by the
spring and remains there.
Figure 8.15 illustrates the operation of the vacuum-servo unit (brake booster)
when the brakes are applied.
Figure 8.15 Vacuum-servo unit when brakes applied
When atmospheric air is allowed into the chamber the piston starts to
compress the spring, due to the difference in pressure, and moves to the left.
This causes the piston rod to move the piston in the master cylinder, generating
hydraulic pressure.

250
8.7 Disc brakes

Modern passenger vehicles are usually equipped with disc brakes on at least
two wheels. The primary components of the disc brakes, as seen in Figure 8.16,
are:
x Disk (Rotor)
x Calliper
x Brake pads
Figure 8.16 Disc brake components
The rotor is the main rotating part of this brake system. It is hard wearing and
resists the high temperatures that occur during braking.
Its manufacturer will specify the minimum thickness for the rotor. Rotors can be
of a solid construction or slotted. The slotted rotor is referred to as a "ventilated
disc".
8.7.1 Advantages and disadvantages of disc brakes
x Advantages
o Greater cooling of disc surface as the disc is directly exposed to the cooling
air stream.
o Water and dirt repels easily because of centrifugal force.
o Ease of servicing and replacing of pads.
o Brake pads are self-adjusting.
x Disadvantages
1. Corrosion of disc because of water exposure.
2. A brake booster is necessary to increase braking force.
3. It is difficult to arrange an effective handbrake mechanism.
4. Pads wear faster than brake shoes.
5. Brake squeal because of brake dust on pads

251
8.7.2 Disc brake callipers

Disc brake callipers, as shown in Figure 8.17, provide housing for the hydraulic
piston or pistons that force the brake pads into contact with the disc.
Figure 8.17 Disc brake calliper
The disc brake calliper assembly is bolted to the vehicle axle housing or
suspension. There are two main types:
x fixed, and
x sliding.
x Fixed calliper
Fixed callipers can have 2, 3, or 4 pistons. 2-piston callipers have one piston on
each side of the disc. Each piston has its own disc pad.
When the brakes are applied, hydraulic pressure forces both pistons inwards,
causing the pads to come in contact with the rotating disc, as illustrated in
Figure 8.18 below.
Figure 8.18 Fixed calliper in rest position and brakes applied

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x Sliding or floating calliper

The sliding or floating calliper has 2 pads but only 1 piston. The calliper is
mounted on pins or bushes that let it move from side to side. When the brakes
are applied, hydraulic pressure forces the piston inwards.
This pushes the pad against the disc, as illustrated in Figure 8.19 below.
The calliper is free to move on slides, so there is a clamping effect between the
inner and outer pads. Equal force is then applied to both pads which clamp
against the disc.
Figure 8.19 Sliding or floating calliper in rest position and brakes applied
In disc brake callipers, the piston moves against a stationary square section
sealing ring. When the brakes are applied, the piston slightly deforms the seal.
When the brakes are released, the seal returns to its original shape. The action
of this sealing ring retracts the piston to provide a small running clearance
between the disc and pads. It also makes the brake self-adjusting.
8.7.3 Seals found on disc brake callipers

There are two types of seals, namely:
x Piston seal, and

x Dust seal.
Let us now examine these two seals.
x Piston seal
The function of the calliper seal is to prevent pressure and brake fluid from
leaking out between the piston and the cylinder. A piston seal is illustrated in
Figure 8.20 on the next page.

253
Figure 8.20 Piston seal
Upon brake application, the seal distorts and releases when the brake pedal is
released thus pulling the piston back to its original position.
x Dust seal
The dust seal prevent the entry of water and dirt as well as brake pad dust from
entering the calliper.
8.8 Drum brakes

The primary components of the drum brake system are: the backing plate, the
brake drum and brake shoe assembly, the wheel cylinder, retaining clips and
springs and automatic brake self-adjuster.
The primary components of a drum brake can be seen in Figure 8.21 on the
following page.
Did you know?

Drum brakes are still found on older vehicles and on cars with a
combination of both disc and drum brakes.
The main components of the drum brake system are:
x Backing plate
x Brake drum and brake shoe assembly
x Wheel cylinder
x Retaining clips and springs
x Automatic brake self-adjuster
These are so-called because a drum, fixed to the wheel hub, encloses the
brake assembly, which includes brake shoes and a wheel cylinder.
Movement of the wheel cylinder pistons in response to brake pedal effort

forces the brake shoes outwards against the inner face of the drum.

254
Figure 8.21 Drum brake in detail
We will now examine each of the main components of a drum brake

separately.
x Backing plate
The backing plate is made
from steel and is attached to
the steering or suspension
components by bolts. It then
supports the wheel cylinder,
brake shoes and levers.
Figure 8.22 Backing plate

255
x Brake drum and brake shoe assembly

The brake drum fits over the
brake linings and forms the
braking surface for these
linings.
The brake shoe assembly

consists of the steel shoe and
the brake lining material.
Figure 8.23 Brake drum and

brake shoe assembly
x Wheel cylinder
The wheel cylinder is attached
to the backing plate.
The pistons push against the

brake shoes, which then make
contact with the brake drum
to slow or stop the vehicle.
Figure 8.24 Wheel cylinder
x Retaining clips and springs

The brakes are held against
the backing plate by retaining
clips and springs.
The hold down spring is used to

retain the brake shoe in
position in relation to the
backing plate. During vehicle
operation it keeps the brake
shoe in position.
Figure 8.25 Retaining clips and

springs

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x Automatic brake self-adjuster

To manually adjust the brakes it
may be necessary to release
the adjusting lever away from
the star wheel.
To do this, insert a small

screwdriver through the adjust
slot in the backing plate and
push on the adjusting lever. A
brake adjuster can now be
used to adjust the brakes in the
usual way.
Figure 8.26 Automatic brake self-adjuster
8.8.1 Self-energisation
The drum brake system operates by forcing the friction-lined brake shoes
against the inner surfaces of the rotating drums. The shoes are designed to
operate with a self-energizing action.
Drum brakes were once common on all wheels of light vehicles, but now they
are less commonly used, and even then usually only found on just the rear
wheels, in disc-drum combinations.
The drum brake has two brake shoes with a friction material called a lining
attached. These shoes expand against the inside surface of a brake drum, and
slow the wheel down.
The harder the linings are forced against the brake drum, the higher the
braking force that is applied. They can be expanded mechanically, or
hydraulically.
The main advantage claimed for drum brakes is that the shoe mountings can
be designed to assist their own operation.
This is called self-energizing. Less hydraulic pressure is then needed to stop the
vehicle, which is why many older drum-braked vehicles didn’t use a brake
booster.
The main disadvantage of drum brakes is that the friction area is almost entirely
covered by lining, so most heat must be conducted through the drum to
reach the outside air to cool.

257
With hard use, this can cause overheating, and eventually brake 'fade'. Brake
fade is the gradual loss of brake stopping power during prolonged or strenuous
use.
Very high temperatures occur at the brake drum, and that causes
deterioration in the frictional value of the lining or pad material. This is common
in drum brakes.
Another problem with drum brakes is that it is difficult to get water out of the
drum. If a vehicle is driven through water, it takes longer to get the brakes
working effectively again.
Three brake designs are in general use:
x single leading shoe,

x twin leading shoe; and
x duo-servo.
Each one uses the wedging or self-energizing action of the brake shoe, to assist
the lining to grip the rotating drum when the brakes are applied.
x Single leading shoe

The single leading shoe system uses a single wheel cylinder with two pistons.
When the brakes are applied, both shoes press against the brake drum. One
shoe is called leading shoe, the other is called trailing.
Below, Figure 8.27 illustrates a single leading and trailing shoe.
Figure 8.27 Single leading and trailing shoe

258
The leading shoe tends to be self-energized, while the trailing shoe tends to be
forced off the drum.
This arrangement is common on rear wheels as they work equally well in

forward and reverse, so it makes an effective handbrake. They can also have
a self-adjusting mechanism.
x Twin leading shoe

The twin-leading shoe has an actuator for each brake shoe. The actuator can
be mechanical, however a hydraulic actuator is popular on light vehicles. The
hydraulic actuator is called the wheel cylinder.
Figure 8.28 illustrates a twin leading shoe.
Figure 8.28 Twin leading shoe
Some brakes have two wheel cylinders, with one piston in each cylinder. When
the brakes are applied, hydraulic pressure forces each piston to move
outwards, pushing on one end of the brake shoe.
The direction of rotation of the drum produces a wedging action on both

brake shoes, so they are both called leading shoes.
This system was once popular on front wheels because it is very efficient in the
forward direction.
This is due to the self-energizing or self-wedging action of the shoes as the drum
rotates.
Its main disadvantage is that it is only about 30% as efficient in reverse, so it is

usually combined with a single leading shoe arrangement on the rear to
provide a balanced system.

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x Duo-servo design
The duo-servo design also uses one wheel cylinder with two pistons. It is a high
energy brake, that is, it exerts large self-energizing forces. The lower ends of the
shoes are linked but aren’t firmly anchored to the backing plate.
Figure 8.29 illustrates a duo-servo design of a leading shoe.
Figure 8.29 Duo-servo design
This lets the complete shoe assembly float, within limits. When the brakes are
applied, both shoes are carried around by the drum, until the secondary shoe
contacts the anchor pin.
The self-energizing force of the primary shoe and its wheel cylinder application
force is now transferred to the secondary shoe through the lower linkage.
Force is then being applied to the secondary shoe from both ends – the wheel
cylinder at the top, and the linkage from the primary shoe at the bottom.
The primary shoe has the shorter lining and is always fitted ahead of the wheel
cylinder in terms of drum rotation. It’s most important that the shoes are fitted
correctly, since it’s the secondary shoe that does most of the work.
The linings may also have different frictional values. The colors of the retraction
springs indicate different spring strengths. This design is common on rear wheels
and it works well in both directions.
Drum brake systems need to be adjusted to allow for wear of the lining. If they
are not adjusted, pedal travel will be too long to be safe.

260
8.9 The wheel cylinder

The wheel cylinder and piston react to hydraulic pressure from the master
cylinder, and the outward movement of the piston forces the shoe and lining
against the drum.
The wheel cylinder is located inside the brake drum, and bolted to the backing
plate. It converts hydraulic pressure from the master cylinder into mechanical
force that pushes the brake linings against the brake drum.
Wheel cylinders are either:
x Single action/single piston or,

x Dual action/double cylinder with a piston at each end.
They are usually made of cast iron or aluminium alloy, and they operate under
difficult conditions of extreme pressures and temperatures. Some are sleeved
with stainless steel to be longer-wearing and more resistant to corrosion.
Did you know?

Contamination, particularly from water, lowers the boiling point of
the brake fluid and may cause pitting and fluid loss. The wheel
cylinder cups seal the cylinder against fluid loss.
Wheel cylinders may be fitted with a spreader and a light expansion spring to
keep the lips in contact with the cylinder during retraction and while at rest.
This helps keep air out of the system.
Most wheel cylinders are fitted with bleed nipples to allow air to be bled from
the system after assembly, and a flexible cover, or boot, allows for piston
movement and also keeps out dust and moisture.
8.9.1 Single piston wheel cylinder

The single-piston wheel cylinder is used when it is desired that both brake
shoes be independently self-energizing, especially on the front wheels.
Figure 8.30 illustrates a single piston wheel cylinder.
Figure 8.30 Single piston wheel cylinder

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With this design it is necessary to have two wheel cylinders, one for each shoe.
Each cylinder has a single piston and is mounted on the opposite side of the
brake backing plate from the other cylinder.
8.9.2 Double-piston wheel cylinder

The double piston wheel cylinder exerts equal force on both leading and
trailing shoes. A double piston wheel cylinder is illustrated in Figure 8.31
Figure 8.31 Double-piston wheel cylinder
8.10 The hand brake

Most light vehicles use a foot brake that operates through a hydraulic system
on all wheels, and a hand-operated park brake that acts mechanically on the
rear wheels only.
All vehicles must be fitted with a foot brake and a park brake.
Figure 8.32 Hand brake
Most light vehicles use a foot brake that operates through a hydraulic system
on all wheels, and a hand-operated brake that acts mechanically on the rear
wheels only, as seen in Figure 8.32 above.

262
The hand brake system holds the vehicle when it is parked. Some vehicles
incorporate a drum brake for the hand brake, in the center of the rear disc
brake.
Others use a mechanical linkage to operate the disc brake from the hand
brake system, or separate hand brake callipers with their own pads.
Keyword:
Some vehicles have the hand brake operating on the front wheels.
Some vehicles use a single drum brake on the rear of the gearbox as
a hand brake. That's sometimes called a transmission brake.
On a duo-servo drum brake, the cable for the hand brake lever pulls on an
actuating lever inside the brake drum assembly.
The actuating lever is connected to the secondary brake shoe by a pin, and to
the primary shoe by a strut. Movement of the lever forces both shoes against
the drum.
The function of the handbrake compensator is to allow an equal pull force on

each wheel. A compensating handbrake is shown in Figure 8.33
The disadvantage however is if the cable snaps, neither wheel can be

secured.
Figure 8.33 Compensating handbrake
The non-compensating type handbrake cable splits to both rear wheels each
with its own adjuster. In the event of snapping or breaking of cable, there are
still braking force to the one wheel.
A disadvantage is that the adjustment must be equal to ensure dual pull on

each brake lever at the brake assembly. A non-compensating type
handbrake is illustrated in Figure 8.34 on the next page.

263
Figure 8.34 Non-compensating handbrake
8.11 Brake system problem/defects diagnosis

As a technician, when diagnosing brake system problems, use noise, smells,
abnormal brake pedal movement, fierce braking action and customer’s
complaints as a process of elimination to attend to the problem.
Below, Table 8.1 examines various defects in a brake system. Note the possible
causes and specific remedies for each defect or problem.
Problem Possible cause Remedy

Brake Pedal Goes x Brake fluid is very low x Check the master cylinder
To Floor When x Internal leak in the Master fluid level and fill to the
Depressed Cylinder marked level.
x Air in the hydraulic system x Overhaul or replace
master cylinder
x Bleed hydraulic system
Brakes Hardly Stop x Brake fluid is very low x Check the master cylinder
Car Or Won't Hold It x The Master Cylinder is bad fluid level and fill to the
At A Stop x Air in the hydraulic system marked level.
x Brake pads and/or brake x Replace master cylinder
shoes are worn out x Bleed hydraulic system
x Replace the brake
pads/shoes as required.
Brake Pedal Is Very x Bad power brake booster x Replace power brake
Hard To Push Down x No vacuum to power booster.
brake booster x Inspect and replace
x Brake line is pinched vacuum line as required.
x Kid's toy is stuck under the x Replace brake line.
brake pedal x Remove anything that's
under the brake pedal.
Insure floor mats are not
interfering with pedal
movement.

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Brake Pedal Fades x The brake pads/shoes are x Replace brake

the wrong type or of poor pads/shoes with the
quality proper type and quality.
x Brakes are overheating x Have the brakes serviced
due to dragging to free any sticking or
x Brakes are overheating worn components.
due to restricted airflow x Remove any obstructions
x Brake fluid is such as brake dust shields
contaminated with water, or incorrect wheel types.
or has the wrong type of x Replace the brake fluid
brake fluid with the fresh fluid of the
proper type.
Brake Pedal Moves x Brake fluid is very low x Check the master cylinder
Too Far To Apply x Brake fluid is fluid level and fill to the
The Brakes contaminated with water, marked level.
or has the wrong type of x Replace the brake fluid
brake fluid with the fresh fluid of the
x Air in the hydraulic system proper type.
x Brake pads and/or brake x Bleed hydraulic system
shoes are worn out x Replace the brake
x Bad power brake booster pads/shoes as required.
or booster check valve x Replace power brake
booster or check valve.
Parking Brake x Parking brake cable x Replace parking brake
Won't Release frozen cables.
x Parking brake linkage x Lubricate parking brake
needs lubrication linkage.
x Broken parking brake x Repair or replace broken
mechanism inside rear parts as required.
brakes.
Brake Pedal Feels x Leak in brake line or hose x Replace leaking brake
Spongy x Air in the hydraulic system lines and hoses.
x Brake fluid is x Bleed hydraulic system
contaminated with water, x Replace brake fluid with
or has the wrong type of the fresh fluid of the
brake fluid proper type.
x Brake pads and/or brake x Replace the brake
shoes are worn out pads/shoes as required.
Brakes Grab x Parking brake not x See parking brake

releasing problems
x Brake pads and/or brake x Replace the brake
shoes are worn out pads/shoes as required.
x Bad front disc calliper or x Replace or rebuild both
rear drum brake wheel front callipers. Replace or
cylinder rear wheel cylinders.

265
Brake Pedal x Brake rotors have excess x Machine or replace front

Vibrates run out or are warped. disc brake rotors.
x Brake drums are out of x Machine or replace rear
round or warped brake drums.
x Loose or broken front end x Check and replace loose
steering parts and broken parts as
x Lug nuts loose required.
x Wheel/tyres are out of x Tighten all lug nuts to the
balance proper torque
x Wheels are bent specifications.
x Bad defective or worn x Balance wheels/tyres on a
tyres high speed wheel
x Loose or bad front wheel balancer.
bearings x Replace wheels as
required.
x Replace tyres as required
in pairs or as a complete
set.
x Replace bad wheel
bearings. Repack and
retighten loose wheel
bearings.
One Or More x Brake pads/shoes are x Replace the brake
Brakes Lock Up loose or broken pads/shoes as required.
x Bad front disc calliper or x Replace or rebuild both
rear drum brake wheel front callipers. Replace or
cylinder rebuild both rear wheel
x Loose or bad front wheel x Replace bad wheel
bearings bearings. Repack and
x Brake pads/shoes are retighten loose wheel
contaminated with grease bearings.
or oil x Replace the brake
pads/shoes as required.
Brakes Squeal x Dirt or brake dust x Clean and sand brake
When Applied accumulating on the pads/shoes and
pads/shoes rotors/drums. These will
x Brake pads and/or brake probably return in a week
shoes are worn out or two.
x Brake pads/shoes and x Replace the brake
rotors/drums are glazed pads/shoes as required.
due to overheating x Clean and sand brake
x Audible Wear Indicators pads/shoes and
are contacting the rotors rotors/drums.
x Replace the brake pads.

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Brakes Make x Brake pad/shoe material x Replace the brake

Rhythmic Scraping completely worn away. pads/shoes as required.
Noise At Low Metal backing plate x Replace bad wheel
Speeds rubbing on brake bearings. Repack and
rotor/drums retighten loose wheel
x Loose or bad front wheel bearings.
bearings. x Machine or replace front
x Brake rotors have excess disc brake rotors. Machine
run out or are warped. or replace rear brake
Brake drums are out of drums.
round or warped
Clunking Noise x Loose or broken front end x Check and replace loose
During Braking steering parts and broken parts as
x Loose or broken required.
suspension parts such as a x Repair or replace
shock or spring suspension parts as
x Disc brake mounting required.
hardware broken, missing x Repair or replace
or loose mounting hardware as
x Disc brake pads loose in required.
the callipers: x Tighten or replace disk
pad mounting hardware.
Brakes Drag x Parking brake not x See parking brakes
releasing symptoms
x Broken or loose parts x Repair or replace broken
inside your rear brakes parts as required.
Table 8.1 Brake system defects and remedies
8.12 Changing disc brake pads
8.12.1 Replacing brake pads

The objective of this procedure is to show you how to replace brake pads and
refit according to the manufacturers recommended procedure.
Important:
Remember to remove some of the brake fluid from the master
cylinder before you raise the vehicle.
x Preparation and safety

o Replace brake pads and refit according to the manufacturer's
recommended procedure, as illustrated in Figure 8.35 on the following
page.

267
Figure 8.35 Replace brake pads
x Personal safety
Whenever you perform a task in the workshop you must use personal
protective clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which
conforms to your local safety regulations and policies.
Among other items, this may include:
x Work clothing - such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear

x Eye protection - such as safety glasses and face masks
x Ear protection - such as earmuffs and earplugs
x Hand protection - such as rubber gloves and barrier cream
o Respiratory equipment - such as face masks and valved respirators
If you are not certain what is appropriate or required, ask your supervisor.
x Safety check
x Make sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personal
safety procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsure of
what these are, ask your supervisor.
x Points to note
o Before you raise the vehicle, you will need to remove some of the brake
fluid from the master cylinder. Using a siphon, remove enough fluid to cause
the reservoir level to drop well below the fill mark.
This allows the fluid in the lines to return to the reservoir without overflowing
when you retract the calliper pistons for the new pads.
o During inspection, the flexible brake hose will need to be supported

because it is still attached to the calliper. The easiest way to do this is by
fastening a length of wire around the calliper and attaching it to a
suspension component.

268
o Do not let the calliper hang unsupported because you may damage the
flexible brake hose.
x Step-by-step instruction
1. Remove brake fluid

Before you raise the vehicle, you will need to remove some of the brake fluid
from the master cylinder to allow for fluid return into the master cylinder
reservoir when you install the new brake pads.
Using a siphon, remove enough fluid so that the reservoir level is well below the
fill mark.
2. Raise the vehicle and remove wheel assembly

Raise the vehicle to a comfortable working height. Remove the wheel
assembly.
3. Inspect the brake assembly

Check for any signs of fluid leaks or grease leakage from the hub seal. Check
for any signs of a cracked or damaged rotor. Inspect the brake lines to see if
there are any signs of leakage or deterioration of the flexible hoses.
4. Remove the brake pads

Loosen and remove the calliper location pins or bolts. Lift and rotate the
calliper away from the rotor. Ensure that the calliper is not hanging
unsupported.
Secure and support the calliper by fastening a length of wire around it and
attaching it to a suspension component. Remove the worn brake pads from
the calliper by pulling them from their guide locations.
It is good practice to lightly skim the rotors when new pads are to be installed,
so arrange with your supervisor to have the rotor machined.
Carry out a run out test with a dial gauge in addition to measuring rotor
thickness with an outside micrometer. This will determine the amount of
material to be skimmed.
Mount the dial gauge fixture to a fixed point in relation to the rotor, so that
when the rotor is turned it shows how much run out variation there is in the disc.
Check the amount of run-out against the manufacturers specifications and

report any excessive tolerances in your findings to your instructor.
5. Check the slide or locating pins

Check the locator pins, sleeves, and insulators for any signs of wear or binding.
With the sliding calliper type, ensure the calliper can slide freely on the runners.

269
6. Retract the piston

To fit new pads, you will need to retract the calliper piston back into its housing.
One of the most common methods is to fit a block of wood and a ‘C’ or ‘G’
clamp over the piston.
Tighten the clamp to retract the piston back into the housing. As the piston
moves back, it will displace brake fluid back into the master cylinder reservoir.
Remove the block of wood and clamp after the piston has been retracted.
7. Install the new brake pads

Compare the new brake pads to the originals to confirm that they are the
correct pads to install. The backing plates should be exactly the same shape.
Install the new pads into the calliper.
Slide the calliper assembly onto the rotor, and align the mounting or locating
pins. Refer to the shop manual for the correct procedure and specifications for
installing the pins or bolts.
Install the pins or bolts and secure them in place. Torque the bolts or retainers
to the correct specification.
8. Check/remove brake system air and refit wheels
Using the correct procedure bleed the brakes and refit the wheel assemblies.
8.12.2 After the brake pads have been replaced

Before taking the vehicle for a test drive, the brake pedal must be depressed
to adjust the brake pad to disc clearance.
Failing to do thus can result in an accident when applying the brakes to stop
the vehicle.
Activity 8.1
1. State the characteristics of brake fluid.

2. Name and describe the components of the braking system.
3. Describe the master cylinder (residual-pressure type), explaining its
operation when the brakes are applied and released.
4. List the functions of the check valve assembly.
5. Explain the reason for brake pedal free play.
6. Describe the tandem brake master cylinder, explaining its operation and
listing the reasons for its use.
7. Describe vacuum servo brakes and how they operate when brakes are
applied.
8. Define ‘disc brakes’, stating their advantages and disadvantages.
9. Name and describe the two basic types of disc brake callipers, including
the two types of seals found thereon.
10. Define ‘drum brakes’ and the term; ‘self-energisation’.

270
11. Explain and describe the leading and trailing brake shoe system.
12. Define the handbrake, explain the difference between and
‘compensator’ and ‘non-compensator’ type.
13. Name brake system problems and list the respective possible causes.
14. Describe what is involved in changing disc brake pads .
Self-Check

x State the characteristics of brake fluid
x Name and describe the components of the braking system
x Describe the master cylinder (residual-pressure type),
explaining its operation when the brakes are applied and
released
x List the functions of the check valve assembly
x Explain the reason for brake pedal free play
x Describe the tandem brake master cylinder, explaining its
operation and listing the reasons for its use
x Describe vacuum servo brakes and how they operate when
brakes are applied
x Define ‘disc brakes’, stating their advantages and
disadvantages
x Name and describe the two basic types of disc brake
callipers, including the two types of seals found thereon
x Define ‘drum brakes’ and the term; ‘self-energisation’
x Explain and describe the leading and trailing brake shoe
system
x Define the handbrake, explain the difference between and
‘compensator’ and ‘non-compensator’ type
x Name brake system problems and list the respective possible
causes
x Describe what is involved in changing disc brake pads

271
Learning Outcomes
x Give a detailed comparison of a diesel and petrol engine

x Name the advantages and disadvantages of a diesel engine
x Identify the different parts of an in-line and distributor type fuel injection
pump system
x Name and describe the various parts of the fuel system
x Describe the combustion of fuel in the diesel engine
x State and explain the four phases of combustion of diesel fuel
x List the types of combustion chambers
x Explain diesel and petrol combustion
x Define ‘direct injection’, describing the phases of combustion, the
involvement of air turbulence and the advantages and disadvantages
x Define ‘indirect injection’, describing the disadvantages and advantages
thereof, the operating principle and the types of systems
x Explain the functions of fuel injectors, describing the different components
and nozzle types
x Describe in detail the procedure and tests involved for testing diesel
injection operation
x Name and explain the requirements and components of a injector-pump
test room
9.1 Introduction
In this module you will learn about the diesel engine in detail. The
diesel engine is also commonly referred to as the compression-
ignition (CI) engine.
In a diesel engine, only air is compressed (and therefore heated), and the fuel
is injected into very hot air at the end of the compression stroke, and self-
ignites.
In a petrol engine the process differs from a diesel engine in the method of
mixing the fuel and air, and in using spark plugs to initiate the combustion
process.

272
9.2 Comparison between a diesel engine and a petrol engine

9.2.1 Ignition
x Petrol
Petrol engines use spark ignition and high voltage current for the spark may be
provided by a magneto or an ignition coil.
Did you know?

In modern car engines the ignition timing is managed by an
electronic Engine Control Unit.
In a petrol engine an air/fuel mixture is compressed so that at the end of

compression stroke the spark plug sets ignites the highly combustible mixture.
x Diesel
A diesel engine (also known as a compression-ignition engine) is an internal
combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to
burn the fuel that has been injected into the combustion chamber.
9.2.2 Construction
x Petrol
Engine components are lighter in weight and construction in comparison to
diesel engines.
x Diesel
Diesel engine parts are usually heavier or more rugged than those of similar
output fuel engines. Their engine blocks and cylinder blocks are usually made
of cast iron.
9.2.3 Regulation of engine speed
x Petrol
Power and speed of the petrol engine is obtained by regulating the air supply
via the accelerator pedal which is directly connected to the throttle butterfly.
x Diesel
The speed of a diesel engine is regulated by an engine governor operated by
the accelerator pedal connected to it. Power and speed is measured by
regulating fuel supply.
9.2.4 Fuel system
x Petrol
The fuel system of a petrol engine uses a carburettor to mix the air and fuel
ratio. A coil ignition system with a spark plug ignites the air fuel mixture.

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x Diesel
In direct injection fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber. In
indirect injection fuel is sprayed into a smaller separate chamber in the
cylinder head.
Different diesel engines use different fuels. Fuel can be delivered to the
chamber in different ways:
o Direct injection means fuel is injected directly into the chamber. The
cylinder head usually has a flat surface and the combustion chamber is
formed in the piston crown. At top dead centre, there is very little
clearance between the cylinder head and the top of the piston.
o Another method of injecting fuel is indirect injection. Fuel is sprayed into a

smaller, separate chamber in the cylinder head. This chamber can have
various designs.
9.2.5 Safety
x Petrol
Gasoline is more volatile than diesel oil, Jet-A, or kerosene, not only because of
the base constituents, but also because of additives. Volatility is often
controlled by blending with butane, which boils at −0.5 °C.
Take note:
The volatility of gasoline is determined by the Reid vapour pressure
(RVP) test. The desired volatility depends on the ambient
temperature.
In hot weather, gasoline components of higher molecular weight and thus

lower volatility are used. In cold weather, too little volatility results in cars failing
to start.
x Diesel
Keyword:
Diesel fuel in general is any liquid fuel used in diesel engines. The most
common is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum fuel oil.
Alternatives that are not derived from petroleum, such as biodiesel, biomass to
liquid (BTL) or gas to liquid (GTL) diesel, are increasingly being developed and
adopted.
To distinguish these types, petroleum-derived diesel is increasingly called

petrodiesel. Ultra-low-sulphur diesel (ULSD) is a standard for defining diesel fuel
with substantially lowered sulphur.

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9.2.6 Reliability
x Petrol
In the event of failure of one of the systems, the engine will not start.
The operation of the petrol engine is purely dependant on the workings of the
carburettor and the ignition system.
x Diesel
A diesel engine has a separate fuel injector for each cylinder, thus minimising
the risk of complete engine failure. The engine is also not reliant on the battery
or generator for operation.
9.2.7 Compression ratio
x Petrol
The compression ratio in a gasoline or petrol-powered engine will usually not
be much higher than 10:1 due to potential engine knocking (detonation).
Did you know?

Some production automotive engines built for high performance
from 1955–1972, with compression ratios as high as 13.0:1, could run
safely on the high-octane leaded gasoline then available.
x Diesel
There is no electrical sparking plug in an auto-ignition diesel engine; the heat
of compression raises the temperature of the mixture to its auto-ignition point.
The CR will customarily exceed 14:1 and ratios over 22:1 are common.
The appropriate compression ratio depends on the design of the cylinder

head. The figure is usually between 14:1 and 16:1 for direct injection engines,
and between 18:1 and 23:1 for indirect injection engines.
9.2.8 Compression Pressures
x Petrol
Compression pressure = ± 800 kPa.
Final pressure = ± 2800 kPa.
x Diesel
Compression pressure = ± 2800 kPa
Final Pressure = ± 5000 kPa.
9.2.9 Thermal efficiency

In thermodynamics, the thermal efficiency is a dimensionless performance
measure of a device that uses thermal energy, such as an internal combustion
engine, a steam turbine or a steam engine, a boiler, a furnace, or a
refrigerator for example.

275
Did you know?

A typical gasoline automobile engine operates at around 25%
efficiency, and a large coal-fuelled electrical generating plant peaks
at about 46%. The largest diesel engine in the world peaks at 51.7%.
9.2.10 Engine speed
x Petrol
Petrol engines run at higher speeds than diesels, partially due to their lighter
pistons, connecting rods and crankshaft (a design efficiency made possible by
lower compression ratios) and due to petrol burning faster than diesel.
However the lower compression ratios of a petrol engine give a lower

efficiency than a diesel engine Typical Max. speed 7 000 r/min.
x Diesel
Diesel engines tend to have their torque peak quite low in their speed range
(usually between 1600 and 2000 rpm for a small-capacity unit, lower for a
larger engine used in a truck).
This provides smoother control over heavy loads when starting from rest, and,
crucially, allows the diesel engine to be given higher loads at low speeds than
a petrol engine, making them much more economical for these applications.
This characteristic is not so desirable in private cars, so most modern diesels

used in such vehicles use electronic control, variable geometry turbochargers
and shorter piston strokes to achieve a wider spread of torque over the
engine's speed range, typically peaking at around 2500–3000 rpm.
9.3 Advantages and disadvantages of a diesel engine
9.3.1Advantages
x Diesels are more efficient. Most gasoline engines convert about 30% t of
their fuel energy into actual power. A traditional diesel converts about 45%.
And advanced diesels can hit about 50 %.
x Diesels are more reliable. Because they don’t need high-voltage ignition
systems, diesel engines never fail for lack of a spark. They also don’t emit
radio frequency emissions that can interfere with a vehicle’s other
electronic systems.
x Diesels run cooler. Because they are more efficient, diesel engines release
less waste heat while in operation.
x Diesel fuel is safer. Diesel fuel doesn’t release fumes like gasoline does. It’s
more difficult to burn and won’t explode like its lighter counterpart.

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x Diesels last longer. Diesel engine parts are generally stronger than gas
engine components, and diesel fuel has superior lubricating properties. As a
result, diesel engines tend to last twice as long as gas-powered ones.
x Diesels are more easily turbo-charged. Put under sufficient pressure,

gasoline engines will spontaneously detonate. By contrast, the amount of
super- or turbo-charging pressures diesel engines can endure are limited
only by the strength of the engines themselves.
x Diesels produce minimal carbon monoxide. This makes diesel generators

useful in mines and submarines, environments in which gasoline engine
exhaust would prove deadly.
x Diesel engines can easily accept synthetic fuels. Non-petroleum-based

biofuels will run easily in diesel engines, whereas gas engines need to be
significantly modified to accept such alternative fuels.
9.3.2 Disadvantages
x The basic disadvantage of the diesel engine is that it is expensive. It

expensive both in manufacturing (due to high work load) and also in
maintenance.
It is expensive due to ecological incompatibility of its exhaust and due to

necessity to adjust its exhaust according to strict requirements of
international agreements.
x The fuel in diesel engine is ignited by the heat of the compressed air. It
results in that fact that fuel had no time to fully mix with the air and it
produces CH, NOX and carbon black during the combustion process.
Take note:
The carbon black is particularly visible when it colours the exhaust in
black. And, if in the case of hydrocarbons, it can be removed by
catalyst, the quantity of carbon black in the exhaust is adjusted by
the special exhaust filter, which is mounted between the exhaust
collector and the catalyst.
x The exhaust filter is warming up in the flow of exhaust gas that results in
carbon black afterburning.
Periodically the residual carbon black should be burned up and on the

command block instruction the gas temperature is raised at the end of the
combustion stroke due to burning of an additional quantity of fuel.
x The catalyst has more complex design due to irregular chemistry of the
exhaust gases.

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x As it’s known, the diesel fuel occurs to be of 2 kinds – summer fuel and
winter fuel. They differ in the temperature of solidification. When the fuel
freezes the fuel pump is unable to flush it and that’s the end.
You are standing idle on the road shoulder unable to start the engine. This
can be avoided by warming up the fuel piping (also fuel tank for trucks).
Contrary to diesel fuel the petrol is non-freezing.
x HPFP of diesel engine is extremely unreliable unit. Due to its operation on

high pressures the ingress of water into the fuel is a mortal danger. Therefore
water separator is required.
x The small particles of dirt also can damage the pump; therefore the filter
after filler is necessary.
Did you know?

Noise and vibration till the latest times could not be separated from
the words “Diesel engine”.
Attempts to neutralize them are in wrapping up the engine compartment

by acoustic insulation, balancing the engine moments and calibrating the
control units.
9.4 The fuel system

The basic fuel system, common to most diesel engines, includes an engine
driven fuel transfer pump, a secondary fuel filter, unit fuel injectors and a fuel
pressure regulator.
Figure 9.1 (a) In-line fuel injection pump system

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Fuel system components include flexible hoses, a manual fuel priming pump,
and a duplex primary fuel strainer. A basic fuel system schematic is shown in
Figure 9.1 (a) on the previous page and (b) below.
The engine driven transfer pump delivers fuel to the unit injectors via the
secondary fuel filter. The pump is equipped with a pump-mounted safety valve
and the fuel flow at rated rpm and varies with engine speed.
Figure 9.1 (b) Distributor type fuel injection pump system
9.5 Components of the fuel system
9.5.1 Fuel tank

The fuel tank is a reservoir that holds the fuel supply and helps maintain its
temperature at a level below its flash point.
The fuel tank also serves as an important means of dissipating heat from the
fuel that is returned from the engine. The fuel tank should be corrosion-resistant
and leak-proof to pressures of at least 30 kPa.
It must also use some means to prevent excessive pressure accumulation such
as a vent or a safety valve.
9.5.2 Primary filter

Primary filters are the first stage filters in a typical two-stage filtering fuel sub
system. Primary filters are therefore usually under lower than atmospheric
pressure in operation.

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They are plumbed in series between the fuel tank and the fuel transfer pump.
They are designed to entrap particles larger than 10 to 30μ depending on the
fuel system.
They achieve this using pleated cotton threaded fibres and resin impregnated
paper.
Figure 9.2 Element fuel filter
There are two types of fuel filters, namely the box type and the element type.
Figure 9.2 shows how an element fuel filter works.
9.5.3 Lift pump

The purpose of a lift pump is quite simple: to provide fuel to the injection pump.
The fuel doesn't need to be under high pressure (that's the job of the injection
pump), but it does need to support the volume demands of the injection
pump, which relies on diesel fuel for lubrication.
9.5.4 Secondary filter

Secondary filters represent the second filter in a typical two-stage filtering fuel
sub system.

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The secondary filter is charged by the transfer pump. Because this is at higher
pressure the filtering element used can be more restrictive.
The secondary filter is located in series between the transfer or charging pump.
The charging pump is responsible for pulling fuel from the fuel tank and
charging the high pressure fuel injection circuit.
Secondary filters trap much smaller particles than primary filters. Similar to
primary filters they use they use chemically treated pleated papers and cotton
fibres.
9.5.5 Pressure-relief valve or permanent bleed orifice

Two types of diesel fuel line valves are utilised:
x Check valves and

x Pressure relief valves.
The check valves are in-line, one-way valves that prevent fuel from being
siphoned back into an injector or injection pump which could delay a
shutdown.
The pressure relief valves relieve overpressure in a fuel system usually caused by
closing of a solenoid fuel valve. It also discharges the operating loads on
certain lift pumps.
The permanent-bleed orifice on the other hand offers continuous fuel

circulation and therefore relieves the line pressure and assist with clearing the
system of any air trapped, thus preventing air locks building up in the system.
9.5.6 Injection pump

An injection pump is the device that pumps fuel into the cylinders of a diesel
engine.
Figure 9.3 Fuel injection pump

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Traditionally, the injection pump is driven indirectly from the crankshaft by

gears, chains or a toothed belt (often the timing belt) that also drives the
camshaft, as illustrated in Figure 9.3.
It rotates at half crankshaft speed in a conventional four-stroke engine. Its

timing is such that the fuel is injected only very slightly before top dead centre
of that cylinder's compression stroke.
It is also common for the pump belt on gasoline engines to be driven directly
from the camshaft. In some systems injection pressures can be as high as 200
MPa (30,000 PSI).
There are two basic types of injection pumps:
1. The in-line multi-pumping-element type, where each element is connected

by a high-pressure pipe to its respective injector and;
2. The distributor single-element type (DPA) which performs the task of both
pumping and distributing the fuel to each individual injector pipe.
Below, Figure 9.4 illustrates the volume control of an in-line injector pump.
Figure 9.4 Volume control of an in-line injector pump
Mechanical pumps are gradually being phased out in order to comply with
international emissions directives, and to increase performance and economy.
Alternatives include common rail diesel systems and electronic unit direct
injection systems. These allow for higher pressures to be developed, and for
much finer control of injection volumes compared to mechanical systems.

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Note:
The operation of the injector pumps and governors are dealt with in
the N3 Diesel Trade Theory.
9.5.7 High-pressure pipes

In light commercial diesel engines, two fuel lines are used. One carries fuel
from the tank to the filters, and then to the fuel injection pump.
The other is the return line. It carries back to the tank the fuel that is used for
lubricating and cooling the injectors, the injector pump, and for bleeding the
filters.
They are usually made of seamless steel tubing, coated with tin to prevent rust.
Sometimes cadmium is used instead of tin. A fuel line must be large enough to
provide enough fuel flow for maximum power.
It’s supported under the vehicle by nylon insulators in brackets. Reinforced

synthetic rubber hoses allow for movement, and vibration of components.
The reinforcement is needed because the fuel line is subject to variations in

pressure.
Injector lines are made of cold-drawn, annealed, seamless steel tubing. The
bore of the pipe is kept to the smallest diameter possible, and all of the pipes
are the same length.
Take note:
If pipes of different lengths were used, it would affect injection
timing.
9.5.8 Injector units

The injection pump delivers fuel to the injector. As fuel pressure rises, it acts on
the needle valve, eventually lifting it from its seat. Highly-pressurised fuel enters
the engine in an atomised spray at a high velocity.
9.5.9 Glow plugs

The combustion cycles of a diesel engine basically correspond to those of a
petrol engine. However, no spark plugs are required for the ignition of the air-
fuel mixture.
The reason: diesel engines are self-igniting. Environmental air is suctioned in

and compressed heavily in the cylinders. The compression ratio in this process is
up to 25:1.
Through this compression the suctioned air reaches a temperature between

700 and 900 °C.

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If fuel is now added, it ignites solely on the basis of this heat. Below, Figure 9.5
illustrates a glow plug.
Figure 9.5 Glow plug
x Pre-glowing
For a reliable cold start, even with low outside temperatures, diesel engines
depend on the support of glow plugs.
The reason: When starting, the cylinders and engine have cooled down
significantly. They extract energy in addition to the already cold environmental
air.
The temperature required for self-ignition is no longer reached through

compression of the air alone.
This is where the glow plug comes into play. It is screwed into the cylinder
head. Its glow tube extends into the combustion chamber and heats up as
soon as it is energised.
Depending on the glow plug model, the temperature reaches over 1000 °C,
thus heating up the combustion chamber. This process before the actual
starting of the engine is called “pre-glowing”.
9.5.10 Glow plug operation

When internal sensors detect that the core of the engine block has reached a
certain designated temperature, or when a certain amount of time elapses,
the glowplug relay switches off the "wait-to-start" light.

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A pre-heating cycle usually lasts for 2 to 5 seconds. The operator then

proceeds to turn the key to the "start" position, as in a gasoline engine.
The glowplug relay switches off the glowplugs after the engine is running (or, in
older cars, at the same time the "wait to start" light goes out).
In some newer cars, glow plugs continue to operate for up to 180 seconds
after engine start to keep the engine within emissions regulations, as
combustion efficiency is greatly reduced when the engine is very cold.
Note:
Glow plugs are only utilised on engines with pre-combustion
chambers.
9.5.11 Leak-off pipes

Leak-off pipes take surplus diesel fuel from the injector heads and back to the
return pipe and return the unused diesel fuel via the pressure relief valve to the
fuel tank.
Below, Figure 9.6 shows an example of a diesel leak-off pipe.
Figure 9.6 Diesel leak-off pipes
9.5.12 Return-pipe
Fuel return piping, as illustrated in Figure 9.7 on the following page, should
normally enter the tank at the top and extend downward, exiting above the
fuel level.
Inlet and return lines should be separated in the tank as far apart as possible to
allow fuel warmed in the engine to dissipate excess heat.
Fuel tanks can function as a radiator of sorts, especially in engines that are not
equipped with a fuel cooler or engines that use fuel to cool the injectors.

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Figure 9.7 Fuel return pipe
Placing return lines and suction lines as far apart as possible provides the most
opportunity for cooling. Return line placement is particularly important on
smaller tanks and day tanks where the fuel volume is allowed to run down.
The fuel return line is under pressure, although not as high as the supply line.
Important:
Shut-off valves should not be used in fuel return lines. Engine
operation with the valve closed will cause damaging pressures.
9.5.13 Gravity fuel tanks

With small self-contained diesel units, the fuel tank is mounted on a structure
higher than the fuel pump level. This is necessary to allow gravity to discharge
the fuel to the fuel injection pump.
The engine is mounted upright so as not to reduce the gravity feed of the fuel.
9.6 Combustion of fuel in the diesel engine

In theory, diesel engines and gasoline engines are quite similar. They are both
internal combus-tion engines designed to convert the chemical energy
available in fuel into mechanical energy.
This mechanical energy moves pistons up and down inside cylinders.

286
The pistons are connected to a crankshaft, and the up-and-down motion of

the pistons, known as linear motion, creates the rotary motion needed to turn
the wheels of a car forward.
Both diesel engines and gasoline engines covert fuel into energy through a
series of small explosions or combustions. The major difference between diesel
and gasoline is the way these explosions happen.
In a gasoline engine, fuel is mixed with air, compressed by pistons and ignited
by sparks from spark plugs. In a diesel engine, however, the air is compressed
first, and then the fuel is injected.
Because air heats up when it's compressed, the fuel ignites. The diesel engine
uses a four-stroke combustion cycle just like a gasoline engine. The four strokes
are:
x Intake stroke
The intake valve opens up, letting in air and moving the piston down. -
x Compression stroke
The piston moves back up and compresses the air.
x Combustion stroke
As the piston reaches the top, fuel is injected at just the right moment and
ignited, forcing the piston back down.
x Exhaust stroke
The piston moves back to the top, pushing out the exhaust created from the
combustion out of the exhaust valve.
Important:
Remember that the diesel engine has no spark plug, that it intakes
air and compresses it, and that it then injects the fuel directly into
the combustion chamber (direct injection).
It is the heat of the compressed air that lights the fuel in a diesel
engine.
9.7 Phases of combustion of diesel fuel

The combustion process in the cylinder of a compression-ignition engine is
usually described in three phases: Ignition delay, flame spread and direct
burning, see Figure 9.8.
The graph shows the variations in cylinder pressure plotted on a continuous

crank angle base.

287
Figure 9.8 Phases of combustion
9.7.1 Phase 1
Ignition delay period. This is the time taken (or angle turned by the crank)
between the start of injection to the commencement of the pressure rise.
During this important period, the injected fuel particles are being heated by
the hot air to the temperature required for the fuel to self-ignite.
9.7.2 Phase 2
Flame spread causes a sharp pressure rise due to the sudden combustion of
the fuel that was injected during the first phase. The rate of pressure rise
governs the extent of the combustion knock.
Take note:
This is commonly called 'diesel knock' and is considered to be the
main disadvantage of the CI engine.
9.7.3 Phase 3
Direct burning of the fuel as it enters the chamber gives a more gradual
pressure rise. When the engine is operating at less than full load, this phase
does not exist.
9.8 Types of combustion chamber

Diesel engines fall into two broad classes:
x Direct injection, where the combustion chamber consists of a dished piston.
x Indirect injection, where the combustion chamber is in the cylinder head.
Direct injection engines usually give better fuel economy but indirect injection
engines can use a lower grade of fuel.

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9.9 Petrol and diesel combustion

A diesel engine draws in pure air, compresses it to high temperature, then fuel
is injected at the right time, just before top dead centre, in a number of very of
fine jet streams.
The fuel burns only near the jets, while the outer edges of the combustion
chamber contain only air or combustion products. Figure 9.9 illustrates the
difference between petrol and diesel combustion.
Figure 9.9 Petrol and diesel combustion
By contrast, a petrol engine takes in a more or less homogeneous mixture of

fuel and air, and compresses it to a far lower value than in a diesel.
The mixture then requires a spark to start a flame, and this expands in all
directions from the spark until it reaches the outer portions of the combustion
chamber.
9.10 Direct injection

Direct injection diesel engines have injectors mounted at the top of the
combustion chamber. The injectors are activated using one of two methods,
namely:
x hydraulic pressure from the fuel pump, or

x an electronic signal from an engine controller.
Hydraulic pressure activated injectors can produce harsh engine noise. Fuel
consumption is about 15 to 20% lower than indirect injection diesels.
The extra noise is generally not a problem for industrial uses of the engine, but
for automotive usage, buyers have to decide whether or not the increased
fuel efficiency would compensate for the extra noise.
Electronic control of the fuel injection transformed the direct injection engine
by allowing much greater control over the combustion

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Despite the variety of shapes, all the combustion chambers are claimed to
give equally good performance in terms of fuel economy, power and
emission, when properly developed.
The shape is less critical than careful design of the air motion and fuel injection.
The most important air motion in direct injection diesel engine is swirl, the
ordered rotation of air about the cylinder axis.
Swirl can be induced by shrouded or masked inlet valves and by design of the
inlet passage.
9.10.1 Phases of combustion on direct injection systems

Below, Figure 9.10 illustrates the phases of combustion on direct injection
systems.
Figure 9.10 Phases of combustion on direct injection systems
9.10.2 Combustion chamber air turbulence for direct injection

In the diesel engine, fuel in the form of small particles is sprayed into the
cylinder after the air has been compressed, thus mixing takes place within the
cylinder.
If each particle of fuel is to be surrounded by sufficient air to burn it completely

(that is, if proper air-fuel mixture is to be obtained), the air in the combustion
space must be in motion. This air motion is called turbulence.

290
Various means are used to create turbulence. Design of engine equipment

and parts and, in some engines, a process called pre-combustion enters into
the creation of proper turbulence within the cylinder of an engine.
9.10.3 Methods used to improve turbulence of air during the intake stroke
In a four stroke engine induction swirl can be obtained either by careful
formation of air intake passages or masking or shrouding a portion of
circumference of inlet valve.
The angle of mask is from 90° to 140° of the circumference. In two stroke
engine, induction swirl is created by suitable inlet port forms.
Definition:
Swirl refers to a rotational flow within the cylinder about its axes.
Induction swirl, shown in Figure 9.11, can be generated using following

methods:
x Swirl is generated by constructing the intake system to give a tangential

component to intake flow as it enters the cylinder. This is done by shaping
and contouring the intake manifold.
x Swirl can be generated by masking one side of the inlet valve so that air is
admitted only around a part of the periphery of the valve and in the
desired direction.
x Swirl can also be generated by casting a lip over one side of the inlet valve.
Swirl generated by induction is very weak. Thus single orifice injection
cannot provide the desired air fuel mixing. Therefore, with Induction swirl, it
is advisable to use a multiple-orifice injector.
Figure 9.11 Induction swirl

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x Advantages of induction swirl

o Easier starting (due to low intensity of swirl).
o High excess air (low temperature), low turbulence (less heat loss), therefore
indicated thermal efficiency is high.
o Production of swirl requires no additional work.
o Used with low speeds, therefore low quality of fuel can be used.
x Disadvantages of induction swirl

o Shrouded valves, smaller valves, low volumetric efficiency.
o Weak swirl, low air utilisation (60%), lower M.E.P. and large size (costly)
engine.
o Weak swirl, multi-orifice nozzle, high induction pressure; clogging of holes,
high maintenance.
o Swirl not proportional to speed; efficiency not maintained at variable speed
engine.
o Influence minimum quantity of fuel. Complication at high loads and idling.
9.10.4 Achieving turbulence on compression stroke

Compression swirl is generated using a swirl chamber. A swirl chamber is a
divided chamber.
A divided combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion

space is divided into two or more compartments.
Figure 9.12 Achieving turbulence on compression stroke
Pressure difference between these chambers is created by restrictions or

throats. Very strong swirl can be generated using compression swirl. Above,
Figure 9.12 illustrates how to achieve turbulence on compression stroke.
x Advantage of compression swirl

o Large valves, high volumetric efficiency.
o Single injector, pintle type (self-cleaning), less maintenance.
o Smooth engine operation.
o Greater air utilization due to strong swirl. Smaller (cheaper) engine.
o Swirl proportional to speed, suitable for variable speed operation.

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x Disadvantage of compression swirl

o Cold starting trouble due to high loss due to strong swirl, mechanical
efficiency.
o Less excess air; lower indicated efficiency; 5 to 8% more fuel consumption;
decreased exhaust valve life.
o Cylinder more expensive in construction.
o Work absorbed in producing swirl, mechanical efficiency lower.
9.10.5 Advantages and disadvantages of direct injection

The advantages and disadvantages of direct injection are as follows:
x Advantages
o DI engine has up to 20% better fuel efficiency than the IDI engine due to
less heat loss from its small surface and absence of air throttling that occurs
in IDI.
o Requires less compression ratio (16-18:1) and the cylinder pressure reaches
30-55 bar.
x Disadvantages
o Noisier
o More sensitive to fuel grade
o 15% more exhaust pollutants (NO, HC)
o More expensive injection equipment (multi-hole nozzle and high pressure)
9.11 Indirect injection

Indirection injection systems have a divided combustion chamber, with some
form of pre-chamber in which the fuel is injected, and a main chamber with
the piston and valves.
The purpose of a divided combustion chamber is to speed up the combustion

process, in order to increase the engine output by increase engine speed.
9.11.1 Operating principle of the four stroke direct combustion chamber design
engine
The Diesel cycle is the cycle used in the Diesel (compression-ignition) engine. In
this cycle the heat is transferred to the working fluid at constant pressure.
The process corresponds to the injection and burning of the fuel in the actual
engine. The cycle in an internal combustion engine consists of induction,
compression, power and exhaust strokes.
We will now examine an illustrated description of the operating principal of the

four stroke direct combustion chamber design engine.

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x Induction Stroke
The induction stroke in a Diesel engine, shown in
Figure 9.13, is used to draw in a new volume of
charge air into the cylinder.
As the power generated in an engine is

dependent on the quantity of fuel burnt during
combustion and that in turn is determined by the
volume of air (oxygen) present, most diesel
engines use turbochargers to force air into the
cylinder during the induction stroke.
From a theoretical perspective, each of the strokes

in the cycle complete at Top Dead Centre (TDC)
or Bottom Dead Centre (BDC).
In practicality, in order to overcome mechanical

valve delays and the inertia of the new charge air,
Figure 9.13 Induction and to take advantage of the momentum of the
stroke exhaust gases, each of the strokes invariably begin
and end outside the 0, 180, 360, 540 and 720 (0)
degree crank positions.
x Compression Stroke
The compression stroke, seen in Figure 9.14, begins
as the inlet valve closes and the piston is driven
upwards in the cylinder bore by the momentum of
the crankshaft and flywheel.
The purpose of the compression stroke in a Diesel

engine is to raise the temperature of the charge air
to the point where fuel injected into the cylinder
spontaneously ignites.
In this cycle, the separation of fuel from the charge

air eliminates problems with auto-ignition and
therefore allows Diesel engines to operate at much
higher compression ratios than those currently in
production with the Otto Cycle.
Figure 9.14 Compression

stroke

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x Compression Ignition
Compression ignition, seen in Figure 9.15, takes
place when the fuel from the high pressure fuel
injector spontaneously ignites in the cylinder.
In the theoretical cycle, fuel is injected at TDC, but

as there is a finite time for the fuel to ignite (ignition
lag).
In practical engines, fuel is injected into the

cylinder before the piston reaches TDC to ensure
that maximum power can be achieved.
This is synonymous with automatic spark ignition

advance used in Otto cycle engines.
Figure 9.15 Compression

ignition
x Power Stroke
The power stroke, shown in Figure 9.16, begins as
the injected fuel spontaneously ignites with the air
in the cylinder.
As the rapidly burning mixture attempts to expand

within the cylinder walls, it generates a high
pressure which forces the piston down the cylinder
bore.
The linear motion of the piston is converted into

rotary motion through the crankshaft.
The rotational energy is imparted as momentum to

the flywheel.
The flywheel not only provides power for the end

use, but also overcomes the work of compression
and mechanical losses incurred in the cycle (valve
Figure 9.16 Power stroke
opening and closing, alternator, fuel injector
pump, water pump, etc.).

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x Exhaust Stroke
The exhaust stroke, illustrated in Figure 9.17, is as
critical to the smooth and efficient operation of
the engine as that of induction.
As the name suggests, it's the stroke during which

the gases formed during combustion are ejected
from the cylinder.
This needs to be as complete a process as

possible, as any remaining gases displace an
equivalent volume of the new charge air and
leads to a reduction in the maximum possible
power.
Figure 9.17 Exhaust stroke
x Exhaust and inlet valve overlap

Exhaust and inlet valve overlap is the transition
between the exhaust and inlet strokes, as seen in
Figure 9.18.
Itis a practical necessity for the efficient running of

any internal combustion engine.
Given the constraints imposed by the operation of

mechanical valves and the inertia of the air in the
inlet manifold, it is necessary to begin opening the
inlet valve before the piston reaches Top Dead
Centre (TDC) on the exhaust stroke.
Likewise, in order to effectively remove all of the

combustion gases, the exhaust valve remains
open until after TDC. Thus, there is a point in each
full cycle when both exhaust and inlet valves are
open.
Figure 9.18 Exhaust and
inlet valve overlap The number of degrees over which this occurs and
the proportional split across TDC is very much
dependent on the engine design and the speed
at which it operates.

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9.11.2 Advantages and disadvantages of indirect-injection
x Advantages
o Quieter than DI
o Operate well over a broad speed range
o Less sensitive to the grade of fuel
o Require less expensive injection system because of low pressure and single
hole nozzle
o All Allows intensive air turbulence which assist fuel and air mixing
o Less exhaust pollutant (NOx, CO, HC)
x Disadvantages
o Require higher compression ratio (22-23:1)
o The more complicated combustion chamber design
o 5-15% penalty in fuel economy
9.12 Types of indirect injection systems

There are thee principle classes of this combustion system, namely:
x Swirl combustion chamber

o Rely on an ordered air motion to raise combustion speed.
x Pre-combustion chamber
o Rely on turbulence to increase combustion speed.
x Energy cell or air cell
9.12.1 Swirl chamber type

Small high speed direct injection engines have a deep hollow in the top of the
piston which contains most of the air when the piston is at the top of the
engine.
As air is drawn into the engine a swirling motion is initiated. The air is forced into
a horizontal rotary motion by the design of the air inlet port or valve.
Some engines have a helical or partial vortex form of inlet port to encourage
the swirl in others the inlet valve is partially masked to initiate the desired
motion.
As compression of the air begins it is forced or squished into the specially

shaped piston hollow which initiates a vertical swirl achieving ever increasing
speeds and heat as the air is compressed.
These combined movements create an air vortex within the piston into which
the fuel is injected.

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The fuel spray, finely atomised by the high-pressure injector, passes through this
air vortex where it is provided with sufficient oxygen and heat to combust.
Definition:
The termed atomise refers to the following three functions:
1. To reduce to or separate into atoms.

2. To reduce to tiny particles or a fine spray.
3. To break into small fragments.
DI engines generally utilise a multi-hole injector to provide a good distribution

of fuel, as shown in Figures 9.19 (a) and (b).
(a) (b)
Figure 9.19 (a)Squish air motion in a DI engine (b) Cross section of DI engine
x The Indirect Injection Engine (IDI)

A later development was the IDI engine that utilises a separate combustion
chamber, connected to the engine cylinder, into which the fuel is injected
and combustion is initiated.
A heat resistant insert with low heat conductivity is located within the
combustion chamber so it quickly heats up and retains heat from combustion,
providing extra heat to enable quicker ignition.
The fuel is injected into the hot combustion chamber as a jet at a low pressure
compared to the fine high-pressure spray of a DI engine.
The fuel jet hits the hot insert where ignition is initiated; the fuel is distributed
around the combustion chamber as combustion continues.

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The expanding burning fuel, along with partially burnt and unburnt fuel, is
carried into the hot engine cylinder where further oxygen is available and
combustion continues.
x Ricardo comet divided swirl combustion chamber

The most common pre-chamber format utilised is the Ricardo Comet design
developed by Ricardo and Company of Shoreham, Sussex, UK.
With this design air is pushed from the cylinder into a circular ‘swirl chamber’
through a tangentially aligned throat.
The bottom half of the chamber along with the throat is constructed from a
nimonic alloy designed to maintain high temperatures during engine
operation.
The temperature of the compressed air is raised further while passing through
the throat. A vigorous swirl motion is initiated as the air is forced into the circular
swirl chamber.
The fuel is injected into the swirl chamber and rapidly atomised within the mass
of hot turbulent air. Ricardo developed this head in 1919. His main objective
was to obtain fast flame speed and reduce knock in L design.
In Ricardo’s design the main body of combustion chamber was concentrated

over the valves, leaving slightly restricted passage communicating with
cylinder, as illustrated in Figure 9.20.
Figure 9.20 Ricardo comet divided swirl combustion chamber
x Advantages
o Additional turbulence during compression stroke is possible as gases are
forced back through the passage.
o By varying throat area of passage designed degree of additional
turbulence is possible.

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o This design ensures a more homogeneous mixture by scoring away the layer
of stagnant gas clinging to chamber wall. Both the above factors increase
the flame speed and thus the performance.
o Fast combustion make engine relatively insensitive to timing of spark
o Higher engine speed is possible due to increased turbulence
o Ricardo’s design reduced the tendency to knock by shortening length of
effective flame travel by bringing that portion of head which lay over the
further side of piston into as close a contact as possible with piston crown.
o This design reduces length of flame travel by placing the spark plug in the
centre of effective combustion space.
x Disadvantages
o With compression ratio of 6, normal speed of burning increases and
turbulent head tends to become over turbulent and rate of pressure rise
becomes too rapid leads to rough running and high heat losses.
o To overcome the above problem, Ricardo decreased the areas of passage
at the expense of reducing the clearance volume and restricting the size of
valves. This reduced breathing capacity of engine, therefore these types of
chambers are not suitable for engine with high compression ratio.
x Indirect injection swirl combustion chamber illustrating phases of

combustion (Ricardo comet)
Below, Figure 9.21 illustrates the indirect injection swirl combustion chamber
with phases of combustion (Ricardo comet).
Figure 9.21 Indirect injection swirl combustion chamber

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9.12.2 Divided pre-combustion type

In this type of chamber usually about 80% of the clearance volume in the main
chamber above the piston and about 20% of the volume as a secondary
chamber.
The main chamber is connected to secondary chamber through a small

orifice. Combustion is started in the small secondary chamber, as seen in
Figure 9.22.
As the gases in secondary chambers are consumed by combustion, pressure

rises and flaming gas expands back through orifice and act as torch ignition
for main chamber.
Secondary chamber has high swirl and designed to handle rich mixture. The
rich mixture with very high swirl in secondary chamber will ignite readily and
burn very quickly.
The flame gas expands through orifice and ignites the lean mixture in the main
chamber. The net result is an engine that has good ignition and combustion
and yet operates mostly lean to give good fuel economy.
Figure 9.22 Divided pre-combustion type

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x Pre-combustion chamber
Typical pre-combustion chamber consists of an anti-chamber connected to
the main chamber through a number of small holes (compared to a relatively
large passage in the swirl chamber).
The pre-combustion chamber is located in the cylinder head and its volume
accounts for about 40% of the total combustion, space. During the
compression stroke the piston forces the air into the pre-combustion chamber.
The fuel is injected into the pre-chamber and the combustion is initiated.
The resulting pressure rise forces the flaming droplets together with some air
and their combustion products to rush out into the main cylinder at high
velocity through the small holes.
Thus it creates both strong secondary turbulence and distributes the flaming
fuel droplets throughout the air in the main combustion chamber where bulk of
combustion takes place.
About 80% of energy is released in main combustion chamber. The rate of

pressure rise and the maximum pressure is lower compared to those in open
type chamber.
The initial shock if combustion is limited to pre-combustion chamber only. The

pre-combustion chamber has multi fuel capability without any modification in
the injection system because the temperature of pre-chamber.
Take Note:
The variation in the optimum injection timing for petrol and diesel
operations is only 2º for this chamber compared to 8˚ to 10º in other
chamber designs.
x Advantages
o Due to short or practically no delay period for the fuel entering the main
combustion space, tendency to knock is minimum, and as such running is
smooth.
o The combustion in the third stage is rapid.
o The fuel injection system design need not be critical. Because the mixing of
fuel and air takes place in pre-chamber.
x Disadvantages
o The velocity of burning mixture is too high during the passage from pre-
chambers, so the heat loss is very high. This causes reduction in the thermal
efficiency, which can be offset by increasing the compression ratio.
o Cold starting will be difficult as the air loses heat to chamber walls during
compression.

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9.12.3 Energy cell or air cell type

The ‘energy cell’ is more complex than the pre-combustion chamber, see
Figure 9.23. As the piston moves up on the compression stroke, some of the air
is forced into the major and minor chambers of the energy cell.
When the fuel is injected through the pintle type nozzle, part of the fuel passes
across the main combustion chamber and enters the minor cell, where it is
mixed with the entering air.
Combustion first commences in the main combustion chamber where the

temperature is higher, but the rate of burning is slower in this location, due to
insufficient mixing of the fuel and air.
The burning in the minor cell is slower at the start, but due to better mixing,
progresses at a more rapid rate. The pressure built up in the minor cell,
therefore, force the burning gases out into the main chamber, thereby
creating added turbulence and producing better combustion in the this
chamber.
In mean time, pressure is built up in the major cell which then prolongs the
action of the jet stream entering the main chamber, thus continuing to induce
turbulence in the main chamber.
Figure 9.23 Energy cell
9.13 Fuel injectors

The injector on a diesel engine is its most complex component and has been
the subject of a great deal of experimentation in any particular engine, it may
be located in a variety of places.
The injector has to be able to withstand the temperature and pressure inside
the cylinder and still deliver the fuel in a fine mist.
Important:
Most diesel fuel injectors use the same basic design, made from
heat-treated alloy steel. The actual shape will vary according to the
application.

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The diesel injector performs two functions:
1. It atomises the fuel by breaking up the stream of injected fuel into minute
particles suitable for quick and complete combustion.
2. It injects diesel fuel into the compressed air on compression stroke in the
combustion chamber.
9.13.1 Diesel injector nozzle operation

There are two main types of injector nozzle, namely: hole and pintle.
Take Note:
Hole-type nozzles are commonly used in direct injection engines.
They can be single-hole, or multi-hole, and they operate at very high
pressures, up to 200 atmospheres.
They give a hard spray, which is necessary to penetrate the highly compressed
air. The fuel has a high velocity and good atomization which is desirable in
open combustion chamber engines.
In pintle-type nozzles, a pin, or pintle, protrudes through a spray hole. The

shape of the pintle determines the shape of the spray, and the atomization of
the spray pattern. Pintle nozzles open at lower pressures than hole-type nozzles.
They are used in indirect injection engines, where the fuel has a comparatively
short distance to travel and the air is not as compressed as in the main
chamber.
The injection pump delivers fuel to the injector. The fuel passes through a
drilling in the nozzle body to a chamber above where the needle-valve seats
in the nozzle assembly.
As fuel pressure in the injector gallery rises it acts on the tapered shoulder of
the needle valve increasing the pressure until it overcomes the force from the
spring and lifts the needle valve from its seat.
The highly pressurized fuel enters the engine at a high velocity in an atomised
spray.
Definition:
Velocity refers to speed, therefore high velocity means at a high
speed or very fast.
As soon as delivery from the pump stops pressure under the needle tapered-
shoulder drops and the spring force pushes the needle down on the seat
cutting off the fuel supply to the engine.

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9.13.2 High pressure injector pipes

Today’s modern diesel engines place huge demands upon their mechanical
components, including the high pressure fuel lines.
Increasing injection pressures have led to manufacturers developing a fatigue

treatment process that allows high pressure fuel lines to operate comfortably
over 2000 bar pressure.
Figure 9.24 High pressure injector pipes
The pipe size on most diesel engines is 6 mm outside diameter and 2 mm inside
diameter. Figure 9.24 illustrates high pressure injector pipes.
Important:
Fuel lines should be well routed and clipped with flexible hose
connections where relative motion is present.
Lines should be routed away from hot surfaces, like manifolds and
turbochargers, to avoid fuel heating and potential hazard if a fuel
line should fail.
9.13.3 Injector and cylinder head sealing

The copper washer fitted between the injector tip and the cylinder head
performs the following functions:
1. It forms a gas-tight seal to prevent Injector „blow-by‟ when the injector does
not seal against the injector seat in the cylinder
2. It directs the heat away from the injector to the cylinder head and cooling
system
3. It obtains the correct depth of the injector nozzle into the combustion
chamber so as not to influences the spray pattern and the compression
ratio.

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On the following page, Figure 9.25 Illustrates a fuel injector sealing washer
(shim).
Figure 9.25 Fuel injector sealing washer (shim)
9.14 The complete injector

Most diesel fuel injectors use the same basic design, made from heat-treated
alloy steel. The actual shape will vary according to the application.
The injector assembly has several main parts. The nozzle assembly is made up
of a needle and body.
A pressure spring and spindle hold the needle on the seat in the nozzle body. A
cover keeps out dirt and water.
Keyword:
A nozzle holder, sometimes called the injector body, may allow for
mounting the injector on the engine, and some method of adjusting
the spring force applied to the needle valve.
Some of the fuel is allowed to leak between the nozzle needle and the body,
to cool and lubricate the injector. This fuel is collected by the leak- off line, and
returned to the fuel tank for later use.
On the following page, Figure 9.26 illustrates a detailed complete injector.
Below the figure, Table 9.1 describes the functions of each of the components
of the complete injector.

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Figure 9.26 Complete injector
Components of a complete injector
Part name Function

Leak off port A hole to release pressure from the injector if/ when it
needs changing.
Leak off cap Leak off cap, a cap which screws on to the top of
the injector and it compresses the spring.
Injector spring Injector Spring, a helical coil compression spring,
which is in-between the ‘spring cap adjustment nut’
(No.18) and the ‘Spindle’ (No.16). It is held in place
by both upper and lower spring plates. The spring’s
job is to keep the ‘Needle Valve’ (No.13) closed until
the appropriate fuel pressure is reached, also to
close the ‘Needle Valve’ (No.13) when the fuel
pressure drops.
Lower spring plate Lower Spring Plate, retains the injector spring.
Clamping flange Clamping Flange, the injector is supported by this
flange.
Nozzle holder Nozzle Holder, this is a forged-steel flanged housing

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which supports various parts; it is bolted to the

engines cylinder head. It has a threaded inlet port to
support an inlet adaptor; a supply hole is drilled to
intersect the pressure face junction between the
‘Nozzle Holder’ (No.6) and the ‘Nozzle Body’ (No.9).
The upper end has a large threaded countersunk
hole made to support the spring cap adjustment nut.
Fuel gallery Fuel Gallery, the storage chamber to hold the fuel
which has been pumped to the injector before
injection.
Tapered needle Tapered Needle Shoulder, the tapered needle
shoulder shoulder is actually tapered so that the fuel can
smoothly and quickly pass by when being injected.
Nozzle body Nozzle Body, this supports the ‘Needle Valve’
(No.13), it is cylindrical in shape and has a centrally
bored steel body. The bottom of the centrally blind
hole is conically ground to form the ‘Nozzle Valve
Seat’ (No.12).
Spray holes Spray holes, these are the holes in the end of the
nozzle. These are drilled at various angles to suit the
combustion chamber on a multi-hole type nozzle.
Nozzle tip Nozzle Tip, The extreme end of the nozzle body
containing spray holes.
Needle & nozzle seat Needle and Nozzle seat, this determines how much
fuel flows to the combustion chamber.
Needle valve Needle Valve, this has two sections of different
diameters. The bigger of the two diameters forms a
lapped fit with the ‘Nozzle Body’ (No.9). The smaller
diameter has a large clearance between it and the
‘Nozzle Body’ (No.9), its 60˚ inclusive angle conical
ground end forms the ‘Needle valve seat’ (No.12).
Feed hole One of three feed holes, where the fuel is fed from.
Supply hole Supply Hole, the hole that is responsible for taking
the fuel from the inlet port to one of three feed holes.
Spindle Spindle, the ‘spindle’ relays the spring thrust to the
needle valve from the spring, it is placed in-between
the ‘spring-cap adjustment nut’ (No.18) and the
countersunk threaded hole in the ‘Nozzle holder’
(No.6), it forces the ‘Needle Valve‘(No.13) onto the
nozzle body seat.
Inlet port Inlet Port, the port in which the fuel is fed into one of
the three feed holes.
Spring cap Spring Cap Adjustment Nut, to adjust the amount of
adjustment nut pressure in which the injector injects fuel into the
combustion chamber or the swirl chamber.
Table 9.1 Components of the complete injector

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9.15 Injector nozzle types

Three types of nozzles are used, namely:
x Hole type
x Pintle type
x Pintaux type
x Single hole
The single and multi-hole spray nozzles are similar in that, when the valve
opens, the fuel ejected can be directed through one hole in the case of the
single spray nozzle or through any number of holes at any angle in the case of
the multi-hole spray nozzle.
When this type of nozzle is used with indirect injection systems, a comparatively
low injection pressure of 80 - 100 bar is used (80 bar = 8000 kPa).
x Multi-hole nozzle (short stem)

This type of injection nozzle may have up to six spray holes in the ball-shaped
end under the needle valve seating.
Working in an identical manner to the long-stem, this nozzle was fitted to DI

engines throughout the 1970’s and 1980’s.
Did you know?

The majority of applications were fork-lift trucks and cranes. Hole sizes
vary from 0,2 mm diameter upwards and the length also varies,
depending on the desired amount of penetration and atomisation.
The operating pressure is set by adjustment of the spring tension and varies
between 80 and 210 bar, depending upon engine design (210 bar~ 21000 kPa)
x Multi-hole nozzle (long stem)

Multi-hole long-stem nozzles are used on direct injection modern diesel engines
that require an injector with a small nozzle stem diameter, see Figure 9.27 on
the following page.
These nozzles are generally used on engines fitted to commercial vehicles and
for industrial/agricultural applications.

309
Figure 9.27 Multi-hole nozzle (long stem)
x Pintle type
The valve of the pintle nozzle has an extension that protrudes through the hole
in the bottom of the nozzle body and produces a hollow cone-shaped spray,
see Figure 9.28.
The included angle of the spray cone may be up to a maximum of 60 degrees,

depending on the type of combustion chamber in which it is used.
A pintle nozzle generally opens at a lower pressure than the pressure at which
the hole nozzle opens because fuel flows more readily from the large hole of
the pintle nozzle.
Although atomization of the fuel is not so complete in the pintle nozzle as it is in

the hole nozzle, penetration into the combustion space is greater.
Consequently, pintle-type nozzles are used in engines having pre-combustion,

divided, air cell or energy-cell combustion chambers, where mixing of fuel and
air is largely dependent on combustion reaction or turbulence.
In addition, the motion of the pintle tends to inhibit the formation of carbon
crust on the tip of the nozzle.
On the following page, a pintle type valve is illustrated in Figure 9.28.

310
Figure 9.28 Pintle type
x Pintaux-type
The Pintaux, as seen in Figure 9.29, is a variation on the basic pintle nozzle,
incorporating an additional auxiliary spray hole.
The auxiliary spray is directed towards a glow plug and hence aids starting
under cold conditions and reduces engine knock when idling.
Figure 9.29 Pintaux nozzle

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9.16 Other types of nozzles
9.16.1 Delay nozzles and injectors

The delay nozzle, as seen in Figure 9.30, is also known as throttling type of Pintle
nozzle.
This differs from the ordinary version in having an increased length designed to
improve the cold starting behaviour of swirl chamber indirect-injection diesel
engines.
Figure 9.30 Delay nozzles and injectors
It does so by means of an auxiliary spray hole, such that under starting

conditions when the main spray hole is obstructed by the pintle, practically the
whole of the diesel fuel injected issues from the auxiliary spray hole.
The spray is directed towards the throat of the anti-chamber to attack the air
for combustion entering therein before it has had the chance to lose any of its
heat to the cylinder head.
Take note:
At the higher fuel injection pressures that accompany normal
operating speeds, the Pintaux nozzle behaves in the manner of a
normal Pintle nozzle, since the Pintle valve is then lifted higher to
clear the main spray hole.
9.16.2 Cooled nozzles

Several oil or water cooled injectors are used to inject atomized fuel into the
cylinder combustion area in medium speed marine engines.

312
Figure 9.31 Cooled nozzles
Nozzle cooling is required due to the high temperatures the injectors are
exposed to during combustion, see Figure 9.31.
x The operating principles of a marine diesel engine fuel injector

The fuel injector consists of a steel body that has fuel oil supply and return
channels drilled from the top down through the body ending in a chamber in
the nozzle.
There are also channels for supply and return of cooling fluid to the nozzle. A
fine tolerance hole is drilled down the centre of the valve to house a steel rod.
A coiled spring holds it tight against the nozzle needle valve, with its load being
adjusted by an external set of locknuts on the rod.
The nozzle is fitted to the fuel valve body, secured by the nozzle nut and
containing a needle valve that is held against its seat by the rod and spring.
The valve will operate when the pressure from fuel pump supplying the oil
chamber overcomes the spring compression, lifting the shoulder of the needle
valve instantaneously.
9.16.3 Two-stage injector

The continuing research by Lucas engineers into the combustion process of
direct injection diesel engines has indicated that if the diesel is injected in two
stages, see Figure 9.32.

313
It can significantly reduce noise levels at idle and low speeds, provide better
control over harmful exhaust emissions and improve drivability in terms of
smoother power delivery.
All these factors are important in the successful application of the more
economical direct-injection diesel engine to passenger cars.
Unlike a conventional single-stage injector

nozzle in which the needle valve
unhesitatingly attains a full lift when the rising
delivery pressure overcomes its spring pre-
load, the needle valve in a two-staged nozzle
is controlled by two springs with each exerting
a different pre-load on the needle valve.
The arrangement of these springs which

includes a take-up clearance for the needle
valve before the second spring becomes
active is such that initially the rising delivery
pressure overcomes the pre-load of the lower
spring so that the needle valve opens by an
amount limited to the take-up clearance.
This is called the “pre-lift” stage and provides

the first nozzle opening pressure when a small
quantity of fuel is injected.
Full opening of the needle valve is then

delayed until the delivery pressure has risen
much higher to overcome the pre-load of the
upper spring, which similarly provides the
second nozzle opening pressure and allows
the remaining larger quantity of diesel to be
injected. Figure 9.32 Two-stage injector
9.16.4 Unit injectors

A unit Injector (UI) is an integrated direct fuel injection system for diesel
engines, combining the injector nozzle and the injection pump in a single
component, see Figure 9.33.
The plunger pump used is usually driven by a shared camshaft. In a Unit

injector, the device is usually lubricated and cooled by the fuel itself.
The basic operation can be described as a sequence of four separate phases:

the filling phase, the spill phase, the injection phase, and the pressure
reduction phase.

314
A low pressure fuel delivery pump supplies filtered diesel fuel into the cylinder
head fuel ducts, and into each injector fuel port of constant stroke pump
plunger injector, which is overhead camshaft operated.
Figure 9.33 Unit injectors
x Fill phase
The constant stroke pump element on the way up draws fuel from the supply
duct in to the chamber, and as long as electric solenoid valve remains de-
energized fuel line is open.
x Spill phase
The pump element is on the way down, and as long as solenoid valve remains
de-energized the fuel line is open and fuel flows in through into the return duct.
x Injection phase
The pump element is still on the way down, the solenoid is now energized and
fuel line is now closed.
The fuel cannot pass back into return duct, and is now compressed by the
plunger until pressure exceeds specific "opening" pressure, and the injector
nozzle needle lifts, allowing fuel to be injected into the combustion chamber.
x Pressure reduction phase

The plunger is still on its way down, the engine ECU de-energizes the solenoid
when required quantity of fuel is delivered, the fuel valve opens, fuel can flow

315
back into return duct, causing pressure drop, which in turn causes the injector
nozzle needle to shut, hence no more fuel is injected.
The start of an injection is controlled by the solenoid closing point, and the
injected fuel quantity is determined by the closing time, which is the length of
time the solenoid remains closed.
The solenoid operation is fully controlled by the engine ECU. Design of the Unit
Injector eliminates the need for high pressure fuel pipes, and with that their
associated failures, as well as allowing for much higher injection pressure to
occur.
The unit injector system allows accurate injection timing, and amount control
as in the common rail system.
The Unit Injector is fitted into the engine cylinder head, where the fuel is
supplied via integral ducts machined directly into the cylinder head. Each
injector has its own pumping element, and in the case of electronic control, a
fuel solenoid valve as well.
The fuel system is divided into the low pressure (<500 kPa) fuel supply system,
and the high pressure injection system (<2000 bar).
9.17 Testing diesel injection operation

To test a faulty injector while the engine is idling, a cylinder balance test can
be performed.
9.17.1 Cylinder balance test

A cylinder balance test is a logical incapacitating of cylinders one by one to
determine if the cylinders are “firing”. This is similar as to when a spark plug wire
is removed on a petrol engine while the engine is idling.
In a diesel engine, the engine is starved of Diesel by loosening the injector line
causing the injector to leak fuel so that the cylinder is not firing.
In order to perform the test and to avoid excessive spillage, wrap a cloth
around the injector.
The injector pipe must then be loosened, which will cause the Diesel to leak
out slowly. The injector will seize to supply fuel to that specific combustion
chamber.
The engine revolutions will drop and the idling will become very erratic.
However if the idling of the engine has not been affected with the release of
the diesel pipe, it means the cylinder was not operating.

316
Further tests will then be needed as this will indicate a bad injector, low
compression or a faulty injection pump. The cylinder balance test should be
checked in the same manner for all the other cylinders.
9.17.2 Nozzle testing

There are certain terms that should be understood that pertain to nozzle testing
and service. They are nozzle opening pressure (NOP), back leakage, and
forward leakage.
Figure 9.34 Nozzle testing
An injector nozzle can be considered a hydraulic switch. Incorrect functioning

of the injector may lead to bad starting, poor idling of the engine, diesel knock
or black smoke emitting from the exhaust, see Figure 9.34.
9.17.3 Opening pressure (also called pop test)

One of its design elements is the pressure at which it opens. This is usually set
with either a spring tension adjustment, or on some models, with shims.
The term "pop-open pressure" or "popping pressure" is often used instead of

nozzle opening pressure.
Regardless of which term you use, it describes the amount of pressure that
must be created by the injection pump before the nozzle will pass fuel into the
cylinder.
Each model of engine and nozzle design has its own NOP value that typically
varies from 1,000 to 5,880 psi.
9.17.4 Back leakage

Some nozzles employ an internal opening valve that returns unused fuel to the
tank. The internal leakage is a result of the nozzle-valve to nozzle-body
clearance.

317
It is measured during bench testing for ten seconds and recorded as back
leakage.
9.17.5 Spray pattern

Some diesel injectors make chattering sound during operation while others do
not. However, all nozzles should make a swishing or pinging sound when
spraying fuel.
As shown above there should be a narrow, cone shaped mist of fluid. A solid
stream of fuel, uneven spray, excessively wide spray or spray filled with solid
droplets indicates that the injector needs service and or replacement.
9.17.6 Dry seat test

For this test the nozzle tip must be fairly dry. If good performance is required,
then blobs and dribbles of fuel are not permitted.
Excessive cylinder wear will be the result as excessive nozzle dribbling will wash
the lubricating oil off the cylinder wall.
Black smoke from the exhaust can also be prevented by make sure of a tight
injector sealing. To maintain an efficient seal, the injector must return quickly to
its seat.
9.17.7 Injector nozzle opening pressures

Reference to injector nozzle opening pressures must always be compared to
manufacturer’s specifications. Opening pressures are as follows:
1. Multi-hole injector nozzles used in small diesel engines of the direct-injection

type - 210 bar.
2. Multi-hole injector nozzles used in large diesel engines of the direct injection
type - 245 bar.
3. Pintle injector nozzles used in small diesel engines of the indirect-injection
type -140 bar.
9.17.8 Injector troubles in service

x Wear safety glasses when working on a diesel injection system.
x When in doubt, refer to a service manual for the make of vehicle being
serviced. The slightest mistake could upset engine performance or cause
engine damage.
x Always cap lines or plug fuel end fittings to prevent entry of foreign matter.
x Never drop a diesel injector or injection pump. They can be damaged.
x Remember that high pressure inside a diesel injection system can cause
serious injury.
x Some diesel injection systems must be bled (air removed) after repairs.
x Clean around fittings before they are disconnected.
x Adhere to all torque specifications. This is extremely all the more important
on a diesel engine.

318
x Never use a bent, frayed, or kinked injection line.

x Place a screen mesh over the air inlet when the engine is to be operated
without the air cleaner. Rags and other objects can be sucked into the
engine. Also, do not cover the air inlet with your hand with the engine
running or injury may result.
x Check fuel filters and water separators periodically. Water can cause
extensive corrosion of injection system parts.
Most diesel engine problems are related to the injection system. As such
diagnosing diesel engine problems requires knowledge of engine and injection
system operation.
9.17.9 Diesel engine diagnostics

Diesel engine problems that are most frequently encountered may be
identified as follows:
x Excessive exhaust smoke

x Engine knocking
x Engine missing
x Hard starting
x Lack of power
x Poor fuel efficiency
x Fuel leaks
x Clogged fuel filters
These potential problems are briefly discussed below.
x Excessive exhaust smoke

Excessive diesel smoke is due to incomplete combustion, normally caused by
faulty injection system or other engine troubles. A small amount of exhaust
smoke is normal during initial start-up or rapid acceleration.
o Black Smoke
Excessive black smoke is caused by a rich air-fuel mixture.
This may result from problems with the injection pump or infection timing, which
may in turn be clue to a choked air cleaner, worn fuel injectors, adulterated
diesel fuel or the engine itself.
o White Smoke
White smoke occurs mainly during cold starts, when the fuel tends to condense
into liquid and does not burn due to cold engine parts.
The most common reason for white smoke are in-operative glow plugs low
engine compression, a bad injector spray pattern, late injection timing or
injection pump problems.

319
o Blue Smoke
Excessive blue smoke indicates problems from low engine compression and/or
worn piston rings, scored cylinder walls or leaking valve stem seals.
The blue smoke is caused by crankcase oil entering the combustion chamber
and being emitted after partial combustion through the exhaust
x Engine knocking
All diesel engines produce a "knocking" sound when running. In a diesel engine
fuel ignites when infected into the combustion chamber. This rapid combustion
produces very high pressures generating a rumble or dull clattering sound.
Abnormally loud "knocking" may be due to diesel engine miss.
x Engine missing
A diesel engine miss results from one or more cylinders not burning fuel
properly. This is caused by injection system problems which include:
o Faulty injectors
o Clogged fuel filters
o Incorrect injection timing
o Low engine compression
o Injection system leaks
o Air leaks
o Faulty injection pump
x Hard starting
If diesel engine does not start it may be due to:
o In-operative glow plugs

o Restricted air or fuel flow
o Bad fuel flow solenoid
o Contaminated fuel
o Injection pump problem
o Low battery power
A slow cranking speed is a common cause for starting problem. Being a

compression ignition engine, a diesel engine must crank fast enough to
produce sufficient heat for combustion.
x Lack of power
Lack of engine power may be caused by:
o Slack throttle cables

o Incorrect governor settings
o Clogged fuel filters
o Dirty air fillers

320
o Low engine compression

o Other factors affecting combustion
x Poor fuel economy

Poor fuel economy may be due to:
o Fuel leak
o Dirty air filter
o Corrected injection timing
o Leaking injectors
x Fuel leaks
Leaking fuel lines or loose connections can adversely affect the performance
of a diesel engine. Pinpointing exact locations of fuel leak becomes much
easier when the engine is on.
Since fuel is injected at high pressure extra care must be taken as the leaking
fuel can cause serious injury.
Important:
If signs of fuel leakage are detected use a piece of cardboard to
find the leak, move the cardboard around each fitting.
If there is a serious leak, it will strike the cardboard and not your
hand, thereby avoiding serious injury to your hand.
x Clogged fuel filters

Other than the main filter installed in the fuel line for draining water, diesels
have sock filters fitted in the fuel tank and some times in the injector assembly
as shown below For optimum performance these filters must be kept clean.
9.17.10 Diesel tests
x Diesel compression test

Diesel engine compression test is similar to compression test for petrol engine.
In diesels compression pressures are in the range of 3,000/ 4,500 psi Readings in
each cylinder should be in the range of 50 to 75 psi of each other
x Cylinder-not-firing test
The resistance of each glow plug increases as the cylinders fire A no change in
the resistance of any particular cylinder's flow plug will show that the cylinder in
not firing.
Pyrometer, a temperature sensing device can be used to detect temperatures

at exhaust of each cylinder to confirm the not firing cylinder.

321
x Injection pressure test

An injection pressure test uses special valves and high pressure gauge to test
the following:
o Injector opening pressure

o Injector nozzle leakage
o Injection line pressure balance
o Injection pump condition
Due to the versatility of this tester it helps in quickly locating bad nozzle,
clogged injector filter or faulting pump.
9.17.11 Diesel injector service

Most diesel engine problems are associated with the injection system.
x Injector opening pressure

Typical diesel injector opening pressure is approximately 1,700 to 2,000 psi
(pound per square inch) of opening pressure is not within service manual
specifications, rebuild or replace the injector.
9.18 Injector-pump test room

Repairs to pumps and injectors are carried out in a clean, dismantling and
assembly room, using tools specifically designed for this specialised and
intricate work.
Pumps and injectors are rebuilt strictly to manufacturer's specifications.
Maintaining cleanliness is extremely important in diesel fuel system service, and

even the smallest speck of foreign matter or dirt can upset the operation of an
injection pump or an injector.
A diesel pump room has to comply with strict requirements before services to
diesel injection components are carried out.
9.18.1 Cleanliness
The pump room must be dustproof which implies that the windows must be air-
tight so as to not allow dust inside the working area.
9.18.2 Constant temperature

Air conditioning units are essential equipment to maintain the temperature in
the pump room.
9.18.3 Extractor fans

In order to protect humans and the environment from excessive exhaust
emissions, extraction fans are very important as the fumes are hazardous to
health.

322
9.18.4 Safety
Safety in the pump room must be adhered to. Take care with the storing and
handling of diesel fuels.
Safety:
Smoking in the pump room is not allowed and diesel spill can cause
a floor to be very slippery so no running is allowed in the workshop.
9.18.5 Tools
In order to perform component failure analysis, the workshop and pump room
must be fully equipped with specialised tools and equipment and test
benches.
Activity 9.1
1. Give a detailed comparison of a diesel and petrol engine.

2. Name the advantages and disadvantages of a diesel engine.
3. Identify the different parts of an in-line and distributor type fuel injection
pump system.
4. Name and describe the various parts of the fuel system.
5. Describe the combustion of fuel in the diesel engine.
6. State and explain the four phases of combustion of diesel fuel.
7. List the types of combustion chambers.
8. Explain diesel and petrol combustion.
9. Define ‘direct injection’, describing the phases of combustion, the
involvement of air turbulence and the advantages and disadvantages.
10. Define ‘indirect injection’, describing the disadvantages and advantages
thereof, the operating principle and the types of systems.
11. Explain the functions of fuel injectors, describing the different components
and nozzle types.
12. Describe in detail the procedure and tests involved for testing diesel
injection operation.
13. Name and explain the requirements and components of a injector-pump
test room.

323
Self-Check

x Give a detailed comparison of a diesel and petrol engine
x Name the advantages and disadvantages of a diesel engine
x Identify the different parts of an in-line and distributor type fuel
injection pump system
x Name and describe the various parts of the fuel system
x Describe the combustion of fuel in the diesel engine
x State and explain the four phases of combustion of diesel fuel
x List the types of combustion chambers
x Explain diesel and petrol combustion
x Define ‘direct injection’, describing the phases of combustion,
the involvement of air turbulence and the advantages and
disadvantages
x Define ‘indirect injection’, describing the disadvantages and
advantages thereof, the operating principle and the types of
systems
x Explain the functions of fuel injectors, describing the different
components and nozzle types
x Describe in detail the procedure and tests involved for testing
diesel injection operation
x Name and explain the requirements and components of a
injector-pump test room

324
Table of C
NOVEMBER 2011
NATIONAL CERTIFICATE
MOTOR TRADE THEORY N2

(11040662)
24 November (X-Paper)
09:00 – 12:00
REQUIREMENTS:
Candidates will require drawing instruments, pens and a ruler.
This question paper consists of 4 pages.

325
TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
__________________________________________________________________
INSTRUCTIONS AND INFORMATION
1. Answer ALL the questions.
2. Read ALL the questions carefully.
3. Number the answers correctly according to the numbering system used in this
question paper.
4. Write neatly and legibly.

___________________________________________________________________

326
QUESTION 1
1.1 Name THREE circuits of a down draught carburetor and state the function (6)
of each.
1.2 State TWO functions of the ballast resistor of an ignition system. (2)
1.3 State THREE characteristics of a spark plug. (3)
1.4 Define, with the aid of a sketch, the term cam dwell angel. (4)
1.5 Give THREE reasons for using an air cleaner in motor vehicles and name (5)
TWO types of air cleaners used in motor vehicles.
[20]
QUESTION 2
2.1 State THREE causes of oversteer of a motor vehicle. (3)
2.2 State FIVE preliminary checks that should be performed before setting (5)
wheel alignment.
2.3 Make a neat sketch of a float system as used in carburettors. (8)
2.4 Give THREE reasons for Jack of fuel in the float bowl of a carburettor. (3)
2.5 What are the symptoms of a choke being closed when the engine is at (1)
operating temperature?
[20]
QUESTION 3
3.1 Explain, with the aid of a single sketch, wheel base, track width and the (8)
Ackerman angle.
3.2 State TWO adverse effects of unbalanced wheels. (2)
3.3 Name THREE types of suspension systems. (3)
3.4 State THREE advantages of leaf springs as used in motor vehicles. (3)
3.5 Define the term un-sprung mass of a motor vehicle and why it is (4)
advantageous for the un-sprung mass to be as low as possible.
[20]

327
QUESTION 4
4.1 Draw a sectional sketch of a constant velocity joint showing ALL details. (8)
4.2 State TWO functions of the final drive assembly. (2)
4.3 Explain the limitation of conventional differentials. (3)
4.4 Name TWO types of gears found in conventional gearboxes. (2)
4.5 Give THREE reasons for gears grating when changing gears in a (3)
synchromesh gearbox.
4.6 Where is the speedometer drive gear mounted and why is it mounted there? (2)
[20]
QUESTION 5
5.1 Refer to FIGURE 1 below and fill in the labels (A-H) in the ANSWER BOOK. (8)
5.2 State THREE advantages of the torsion bar suspension system. (3)
5.3 State TWO disadvantages of disc brakes. (2)
5.4 Give THREE reasons for a spongy brake pedal. (3)
5.5 Name TWO types of disc brake calipers used on motor vehicles. (2)
5.6 Give TWO reasons for the use of tandem brake master cylinder. (2)
[20]
TOTAL: 100

328
NOVEMBER 2011
(11040662)

329
QUESTION 1
1.1 x Choke: Provides rich mixture when engine is cold, easier starting. (6)
x Float assembly: Controls fuel entry and stores fuel in chamber.
x Idle circuit: Provides mixture for low engine speed, below 800rpm.
x Venturi: Narrowed portion that creates mixing.
x Power Valve: Enriches mixture for high speed or for load conditions
ANY 3 x 2
1.2 The ballast resistor is designed to reduce voltage at low engine speeds and (2)
to increase the voltage at high engine speeds.
1.3 Size - Diameter of threaded section (3)

Type - Resistor or non resistor
Reach - Length of threaded section
1.4 Cam dwell angle refers to the period the points are closed and is measured (4)
in degrees.
1.5 1. To Filter or clean air (5)

2. To suppress mductlon no1se
3. To act as flame arrestor in case of backfire.
x Paper element (Dry Type)

x Oil Bath air cleaner
x Oil wetted polyurethane air cleaner
[20]
QUESTION 2
2.1 x When cornering speed is high , it causes a large load transfer from inner (3)
wheel to outer wheel.
x Low tyre pressure at rear wheels.
x By mixing tyres, using radial ply on one axel and cross ply on the other
axel.
2.2 x Check vehicle frame and suspension for damage, bent parts etc. (5)
x Check wheel bearings for play.
x Check the suspension height.
x Check tyre sizes, pressure and rim sizes.
x Check curb mass.

330
2.3 (8)
2.4 Defective or inoperative fuel pump (3)

Blocked or clogged fuel hoses, filter or pick up tube in tank
Needle valve stuck in closed position.
2.5 The engine will run extremely rough and black smoke will come out of the (1)
exhaust system.
[20]
QUESTION 3
3.1 (8)
3.2 x Unbalanced wheels lead to wheel tramp (wheel hopping up & down) (2)
x Wheel shimmy (shaking from side to side)
3.3 x Wishbone type system Conventional springing (3)

x Macpherson suspension system Independent spring
x Torsion bar suspension system Torsion bar spring

331
3.4 x Relatively cheap to manufacture and maintain (3)

x Simple connection to axle and body
x Can be easily up-rated by addition of leaves
x High frictional resistance
x Absorb shock
3.5 Un-sprung mass is the mass of the components of the parts below the (4)
spring, i.e. tyre, brake calipers, rims etc. If it is low, the rolling mass is less
leader to easier rolling movement and making vehicle more efficient.
[20]
QUESTION 4
4.1 (8)
4.2 x It provides a permanent gear reduction (Approx. 4:1) (2)

x It transfers the drive through 90 degrees from propeller shaft to drive
shafts
x Provides a final drive
4.3 Power goes to wheel of least resistance, therefore when one wheel on loose (3)
gravel or mud, power will go to that wheel casing it to freewheel and have no
traction
4.4 x Spur gears (2)

x Helical gears
4.5 x Incorrect clutch adjustment (3)

x Binding clutch cable
x Worn or damaged synchroniser unit
x Low oil
x Idle sped to high
x Worn shafts, selector rods, bearings
4.6 The speedometer drive gear must be mounted on the output shaft side of (2)
the
gearbox or at the differential as the true speed of the vehicle is obtained at

332
the output shaft.
[20]
QUESTION 5
5.1 A - Stub axle (8)

B - Steering knuckle
C - Ball joint
D - Upper control arm
E - Bump stop
F - Shock absorber
G - Coil spring
H - Lower control arm
5.2 x It is adjustable compared to leaf and coil spring systems (3)

x It has four times as much spring per unit volume
x Minimal friction
x Takes less space
5.3 x Corrosion (2)

x No self energisation action
x Difficult to arrange handbrake mechanism
x Brake squeal
5.4 x Air in system (3)

x Shoes not centered on drum
x Soft brake hoses, swell under pressure
5.5 x Fixed Caliper (2)

x Floating Caliper
5.6 x Hydraulic systems for rear and front are separate (2)
x Failure or leak in one will not affect other system
x Prevent complete brake failure
[20]
TOTAL: [100]

333
Table of C
AUGUST 2011

(11040662)
21 July (X-Paper)
09:00 – 12:00

334
TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
__________________________________________________________________
question paper.
4. 100 marks: 100%

___________________________________________________________________

335
QUESTION 1
1.1 State THREE functions of the gearbox. (3)
1.2 Make a simple sketch of a cluster shaft assembly showing the helical gears. (6)
1.3 State TWO main causes for a gear jumping out of gear. (2)
1.4 Explain the power flow in a four speed gearbox, when reverse gear is (6)
selected.
1.5 State THREE functions of the synchroniser unit as used in gearboxes. (3)
1.6 What is the main function of the shock absorber? (2)
[22]
QUESTION 2
2.1 Make a simple sketch of a venturi of a carburettor and explain the function of (8)
the venturi.
2.2 Name THREE methods used to heat the spring of an automatic choke (3)
2.3 Briefly explain the function and operation of the float system of the (4)
carburettor.
2.4 State THREE functions of an air cleaner as used in motor vehicles. (3)
2.5 State THREE functions of a carburettor. (3)
[21]
QUESTION 3
3.1 Name FIVE components of a conventional ignition system and state the (10)
function of each component.
3.2 State THREE characteristics indicated by the letter code on a spark plug. (3)
3.3 Name the TWO main causes of dwell angle variation. (2)
3.4 Name the unit that advances ignition timing under load conditions and (5)
explain
its operation.
[20]

336
QUESTION 4
4.1 With the aid of ONE sketch, show the following wheel alignment angles: (8)
4.1.1 Positive camber

4.1.2 Included angle
4.1.3 Steering axis inclination
4.1.4 Scrub radius
4.2 State FOUR pre-checks before setting wheel alignment. (4)
4.3 Name THREE types of steering boxes used in motor vehicles. (3)
4.4 Name THREE adjustments that can be made to a steering box. (3)
[18]
QUESTION 5
5.1 State FOUR qualities that a good brake fluid should fulfill (4)
5.2 What is the function of the compensator as used in the handbrake (2)
Mechanism?
5.3 Name TWO types of disc brake calipers that are used on disc brakes. (2)
5.4 Why is it important to check the level of the brake fluid before changing the (3)
brake pads?
5.5 State THREE disadvantages of disc brakes as used in motor vehicles. (3)
5.6 Explain, with the aid of a sketch, the self-adjusting action of disc brakes. (5)
[19]
TOTAL: 100

337
AUGUST 2011
(11040662)

338
QUESTION 1
1.1 x To provide a permanent neutral (3)

x To enable the engine torque to be increased in stages
x To provide a forward and reverse gears
1.2 (6)
1.3 x Mis - alignment between engine and gearbox (2)

x Worn clutch pilot bearing/ or worn gear teeth
x Incomplete engagement
1.4 Input shaft - Cluster shaft – cluster reverse gear – reverse idler gear – main (6)
reverse gear - output shaft
1.5 x It must prevent gears from grinding or clashing (3)

x It locks the output gear to output shaft
x It synchronises the speed of the gears prior selection
1.6 The main function of shock absorber is to control the spring movement (2)
[22]
QUESTION 2
2.1 (8)

339
The function of the venturi is to create a vacuum as incoming air is speeded

up, thereby leading to a decrease in pressure.
2.2 x Warm air from engine (3)

x Engine coolant at operating temperature
x Electric heating element operated from temperature sensitive switch
2.3 To control and store the fuel in the float bowl. It operates via a needle and (4)
seat controlled by a float which rises and falls as dependent on fuel quantity
in
bowl.
2.4 x Remove dust and dirt particles from air entering engine/ (3)
x Dampens noise of rushing air into engine.
x It acts as a flame arrester in case engine backfires.
2.5 x To atomise the petrol in dr9plets (3)

x Mix petrol and air
x Meters correct amount of petrol in air stream
x Controls air flow and regulates engine speed and power
[21]
QUESTION 3
3.1 x Battery - Supplies 12 volts to the ignition system/coil (10)

x Coil - transforms or steps up voltage of 12 volts to between 12 000 to 20
000 volts
x Ignition points - acts as a switch by activating and deactivating the coil.
x Condenser - Prevents arcing (burning) of points. Boosts primary circuit
x Spark plug - provides spark of high intensity to ignite highly
compressed
mixture
3.2 1. Diameter and reach of spark plug (3)

2. Heat range
3. Firing end configuration
4. Seat sealing and radio interference features
5. Resistor specification
3.3 1. Distributor shaft and bushing worn (2)

2. Advance plate worn or loose
3. point spring tension not correct
3.4 Vacuum Advance unit - It relies on the vacuum in the intake manifold to (5)
alter timing. The vacuum pulls the diaphragm which is connected to the
distributor base plate. Movement of the base plate moves the ignition points
to meet the cam sooner thereby advancing the timing.
[20]

340
QUESTION 4
4.1 (8)
4.2 x Suspension for damage or wear (4)

x Vehicle height
x Steering box for free lay and if properly mounted
x Type size, type and pressure
x Chassis for damage
4.3 x When cornering at high speeds, load transferred from inner to outer road (2)
wheel
x Lower tyre pressure
x Mixed tyre arrangement: Radial and cross ply tyres used on same axle.
4.4 x Rack & Pinion (3)

x Worm & Sector
x Re-circulating Ball type
x Worm and Peg
4.5 x End float of inner column (3)

x End float of rocker shaft
x Backlash between the worm and gear
[18]
QUESTION 5
5.1 x Maintain even viscosity for wide temperature range. (4)

x Lubricate internal parts of brake systems.
x Must not corrode metal parts or damage rubber seals.
x Be hydroscopic

341
5.2 The function of the compensator is to allow each wheel actuator to (2)
receive an equal pull force
5.3 x Floating disc brake caliper (2)

x Fixed calliper
5.4 When changing brake pads, the fluid immediately behind the piston of the (3)
calliper will have to be pushed back to accommodate the new thicker pads.
This displacement of brake fluid will return to the reservoir and if already full,
brake fluid will overflow into the engine compartment/body. Checkingof the
level of brake fluid allows us to take corrective action to avoid spillage
5.5 x Corrosion of disc due to water (3)

x No self energising action
x Difficult to arrange effective hand brake mechanism
5.6 As the brake pads wear, the piston moves out against the pads and the (5)
space is filled with brake fluid.
[19]
TOTAL: 100

342
Table of C
APRIL 2011

(11040662)
30 March (X-Paper)
09:00 – 12:00

343
TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
__________________________________________________________________
question paper.

___________________________________________________________________

344
QUESTION 1
1.1 State FOUR circuits of a down draught carburettor and give the function of (8)
each circuit.
1.2 Briefly explain what an ideal air fuel ratio should be and what instrument is (2)
used to set it.
1.3 State THREE methods by which a choke is activated in a carburettor. (3)
1.4 Give THREE reasons why an engine will continue running, after you have (3)
switched the ignition off.
1.5 Name TWO fuel pump checks and the importance of each. (2)
1.6 State TWO carburettor defects which causes an excessively lean mixture. (2)
[20]
QUESTION 2
2.1 Make a neat drawing of a conventional ignition system. (10)
2.2 What is the function of a condenser in an ignition system? (2)
2.3 Name the device used to advance the ignition timing when a vehicle is under (1)
load conditions.
2.4 Explain the term dwell angle. A simple sketch may be used. (3)
2.5 State THREE characteristics under which spark plugs are classified. (3)
[19]
QUESTION 3
3.1 What is the purpose of toe-out on tums? (3)
3.2 Make a sectional drawing of a worm and sector steering box. (8)
3.3 State FIVE checks that must be performed before setting wheel alignment (5)
motor vehicle.
3.4 Explain with the aid of a drawing positive camber. (5)
[21]
QUESTION 4
4.1 Explain what is meant by a gear ratio of 0,8:1 and how this ratio is possible. (4)

345
4.2 Tabulate the path of power for a four-speed gearbox when engaged in third (6)
gear.
4.3 State THREE differences between a torque tube drive and a hotchkiss drive. (6)
4.4 Name FOUR types of final drives used in vehicles. (4)
[20]
QUESTION 5
5.1 Name THREE types of brake shoe arrangements used in motor vehicles. (3)
5.2 State THREE advantages of the double leading brake shoe assembly. (3)
5.3 Briefly explain the process and steps involved when you would bleed the (6)
hydraulic braking system.
5.4 State FOUR advantages of the disc brake assembly. (4)
5.5 State FOUR advantages a good hydraulic brake fluid should. (4)
[20]
TOTAL: 100

346
APRIL 2011
(11040662)

347
QUESTION 1
1.1 x Choke circuit - Supply an extremely rich mixture for cold engine (8)
starting.
x Float Bowl - Storage area for fuel before being drawn into air horn.
x Venturi - Narrowed portion of air horn that helps mixing
x Accelerator Circuit - Provides extra fuel above idle speeds
x Idle circuit - Provides adequate air/fuel ratio for speeds below 800rpm
1.2 x Ideal air fuel ratio is 14:1 (2)

x CO meter or gas analyser
1.3 x Warm air from engine (3)

x Engine coolant
x Electric heating element operated from temperature sensitive switch
x Manual Cable
1.4 x High idle speed (3)

x Low octane fuel
x High heat range spark plugs
1.5 x Fuel pump volume Checks the amount of fuel delivered in a specific (2)
time
x Fuel pump pressure Checks the rate of delivery of fuel from the tank
1.6 x Incorrect mixture adjustment (2)

x Air correction jet too big
[20]
QUESTION 2
2.1 (10)

348
2.2 The condenser reduces arcing or burning of the ignition points and also (2)
boosts the primary circuit.
2.3 Vacuum Advance Unit (1)
2.4 Dwell angel refers to the period that the points are closed (3)
2.5 x Size (3)

x Reach
x Type
[19]
QUESTION 3
3.1 In order for the inner wheels to tum at a shorter radius than the outer wheels (3)
the wheels must automatically toe out on turns so the inner wheel can turn
sharply. The rear wheels follow the track of the front wheels
3.2 (8)
3.3 x Steering linkages for damage or wear (5)

x Suspension and chassis for damage
x Spring/suspension height
x Steering box free play and mounting bolts
x Wheel Bearing Free play

349
3.4 Positive Camber is the outward tilt or inclination of the wheel as viewed from (5)
above
[21]
QUESTION 4
4.1 This is termed as an overdrive ratio and is when the input shaft turns 0.8 (4)
times and the output shaft turns 1 revolution. A bigger gear is essentially
driving smaller gear. This is normally the fifth speed in a five seed gearbox.
4.2 x Input shaft (6)

x Cluster shaft/gear
x Third gear
x Synchro cone
x Synchro hub
x Output / main shaft
4.3 Torque tube drive: (6)

1. Solid propeller shaft propeller shaft
2. Universal joints protected from dirt & water exposed
3. Greater bending loads in shaft only
4. Rigidly fixed to rear axle to axle
Hotchkiss drive:
1. Hollow cross section
2. Universal joints and bearings exposed
3. Shaft transmit torque
4. Propeller shaft not rigidly fixed

350
4.4 1. Hyoid gear type (4)

2. Helical gear
3. Spiral bevel gear
4. Worm and wheel
5. Spur gear type
[20]
QUESTION 5
5.1 1. Double leading (3)

2. Leading and trailing type
3. Duo servo type
5.2 1. Self energisation action is obtained on both shoes (3)

2. A more powerful and stable brakingaction is obtained
3. Linings wear more evenly.
5.3 x Start at the wheel furthest away from the master cylinder (6)
x Use a clean container and transparent plastic tube/pipe
x Get an assistant to pump the pedal several times and hold pedal down
whilst you open the bleeding valve slowly to dispel fluid and any air
which can be noticed in the transparent pipe. Close the nipple and
repeat above steps until all air is displaced. Keep topping up brake fluid
in reservoir
5.4 1. Greater heat dissipation (4)

2. Cleaner disc surface. Centrifugal forces flings dirt and water of disc
3. Simple construction and easy to service
4. Brake pads can be seen without removing tyre for wear.
5.5 1. It must maintain even viscosity (4)

2. Must have a high boiling point and low freezing-point
3. Brake fluid must not corrode the metal parts
4. Brake fluid should absorb and retain moisture
[20]
TOTAL: 100

351
Table of C
NOVEMBER 2011
DIESEL TRADE THEORY N2

(11040192)
09:00 – 12:00

352
TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
__________________________________________________________________
question paper.
4. ALL sketches must be labelled.
5. Keep subsections of questions together.
6. Marks indicated are percentages.

___________________________________________________________________

353
QUESTION 1
1.1 Show, by means of THREE neat sketches, the difference in construction (9)
between the following interlocking mechanisms:
1.1.1 The interlocking plate

1.1.2 The interlocking ball
1.1.3 The interlocking gate
1.2 Explain in the correct sequence, the power flow in a gearbox connected in first (3)
gear (sketches may also be used).
1.3 The sketch below shows a gearbox. Label the sketch (A- J) in the ANSWER (5)
BOOK.
1.4 In which gear is this gearbox? (1)
1.5 Give ONE reason for the necessity of the use of a sinchronising ring in a gearbox. (1)
1.6 What is the purpose of a thrust washer on the cluster gear of some gearboxes? (1)
[20]
QUESTION 2
2.1 Explain how drive is transmitted in a differential from the pinion to the side shafts (5)
when going around a corner.
2.2 Give TWO means by which the bearing preload on the differential carrier bearings (2)
can be altered.
2.3 Which TWO parts on the final drive of a heavy duty vehicle prevent deflection of the (2)
crown wheel?
2.4 Give TWO measurements that have to be taken with a dial gauge before removing (2)
the crown wheel from the carrier during disassembly of the final drive.
2.5 What is the purpose of steering clutches on certain earth-moving machinery? (1)
2.6 Name FIVE types of final drives in use on rear axle drives. (5)

354
2.7 Give TWO reasons for the importance of correct backlash adjustment between the (2)
crown wheel and pinion of final drives.
2.8 Name the tool in use to measure the backlash between the crown wheel and (1)
pinion.
[20]
QUESTION 3
3.1 Show, by means of TWO neat sketches, the difference in construction between an (6)
Elliot and a reverse Elliot type of front axle.
3.2 By what means can the castor angle be altered on this type of front axle? (1)
3.3 Give FOUR different preliminary checks which have to be done before checking (4)
wheel alignment.
3.4 The sketch below shows a half shaft assembly. Label the sketch (A - J) in the (5)
ANSWER BOOK.
3.5 What is the spring medium of the following types of suspensions: (3)
3.5.1 Pneumatic suspension

3.5.2 Hydraulic suspension
3.5.3 Mechanical suspension
3.6 State ONE advantage of a torsion bar suspension when compared with a (1)
short-and-long arm suspension.
[20]

355
QUESTION 4
4.1 Draw a neat sectional view of a double piston wheel cylinder as in use on the (6)
hydraulic rear wheel brakes of trucks. Label the sketch
4.2 The sketch below shows a tandem brake master cylinder. Label the sketch (A- K) in (7)
the ANSWER BOOK.
4.3 Which law in science is based on the principle of equal pressure in directions, in (1)
use in hydraulic braking systems?
4.4 Explain the procedure to follow when adjusting the drum brakes on trucks making (2)
use of hydraulic brakes.
4.5 Give TWO reasons for the necessity of replacement of brake drums of which the (2)
wall thickness is not within limits.
4.6 What is the purpose of a brake booster? (1)
4.7 What is meant by the term hygroscopic when referring to brake fluid? (1)
[20]
QUESTION 5
5.1 Make a neat sketch to show the construction of an indirect injection Ricardo (5)
combustion chamber.
Show the following on the sketch:
5.1.1 The sleeve piston and rings

5.1.2 The position of the pre-combustion chamber
5.1.3 The position of the glow plug in the pre-combustion chamber
5.1.4 The position of the air passage and the injector in the pre-combustion
chamber
5.1.5 The spray pattern of the injector and the airflow
5.2 Is it necessary to use a glow plug on the above-mentioned type of combustion (2)
chamber design? Motivate the answer.

356
5.3 Fully explain and in the correct order, how the FOUR tests are carried out on a (8)
diesel fuel injector.
5.4 Name TWO ways by which turbulence can be increased when air is being sucked (2)
into the combustion chamber during the intake stroke.
5.5 What is the colour of the exhaust smoke of a diesel engine when the timing is too (2)
much advanced and what in the combustion process causes this smoke colour?
5.6 What is the purpose of the cut-out mechanism in use on low-pressure fuel delivery (1)
pumps?
[20]
TOTAL: 100

357
NOVEMBER 2011
(11040192)

358
QUESTION 1
1.1 (9)
1.2 The drive is transmitted from the engine to the following parts in the gearbox (3)
a) inputs haft and gear

b) clustergear
c) firstgear
d) dogteeth I" gear
e) sinchrosleeve I'' gear
f) sinchro hub I" gear
g) mainshaft
1.3 A. Reverse idler gear (5)

B. Clustergear
C. Inputshaft and gear
D. Sinchronizing unit 3rd&4th gear
E. Third gear
F. Second gear
G. Sinchronizing unit 1" &2"d gear
H. First gear
I. Reverse sliding gear
J. Outputshaft
1.4 4th gear (1)
1.5 To enable the driver to change gears easy (1)
1.6 To prevent excessive endplay at clustergear but at the same time allow sufficient (1)
oil clearance between the washer and the clustergear.
[20]
QUESTION 2
2.1 Rotational drive come in from the pinion to drive the crown wheel, the differential (5)

359
carrier is bolted on to the crown wheel thus rotating with the crown wheel.
When the vehicle is moving around a corner the inner wheel will turn slower
because this wheel has to take a smaller radius than the outer wheel because of
the resistance of the road.
The side shafts is fixed to the wheel on one end and the other end is splined where
the sun gears are splined on. The side shafts and sun gears turn at different
velocities, this difference in velocity is taken up by the planetary gears which
meshes between the sun gears.
The planetary gears rotate around the cross-pin whilst the cross-pin is fixed into the
differential carrier while cornering but is stationary about the cross pin when the
vehicle is moving straight ahead. By this means drive can still be obtained whilst
the vehicle is cornering.
2.2 (2)
2.2.1 By means of adjustment nuts

2.2.2 By means of shims
2.3 (2)
2.3.1 Thrust bolt and block

2.3.2 Pinion housing
2.4 (2)
2.4.1 Axial runout of crownwheel

2.4.2 Radial runout
2.5 To enable the machine to change direction without a differential (1)
2.6 (5)
2.6.1 Straight tooth bevel gear.

2.6.2 Spiral bevel gear
2.6.3 Hypoid gear type
2.6.4 Worm - and- wheel type
2.6.5 Helical gears type
2.7 (2)
2.7.1 Reduce finaldrive noise.

2.7.2 Prevent finaldrive gears from jamming into each other.
2.8 Dial gauge (1)
[20]
QUESTION 3
3.1 ELLIOT FRONT AXLE: Thrust bearing on top of the stub axle: (6)

360
REVERSE ELLIOT FRONT AXLE:
3.2 By putting a taper wedge between the spring blade and the axle housing. (1)
3.3 (4)
3.3.1 By checking the steering box, knuckles and joints for wear.
3.3.2 By ensuring that tyres are the same type with the same amount of wear
3.3.3 By checking the wheelbearings for looseness.
3.3.4 By ensuring that the vehicle carry the correct amount of mass as specified by the
manufacturers
3.4 Full Floating Halfshaft assembly (5)
A = Sideshaft Flange
B = Wheel bolts
C = Wheel hub
D = Taper bearing
E = Sideshaft
F = Axle housing
G = Oil seal
H = Lockwasher
I = Flange bolts
J = Taper bearing adjustment locknuts
3.5 Spring mediums (3)

361
3.5.1 Air pressure

3.5.2 Oil (Fluid)
3.5.3 Metal resistance
3.6 Adjustable (1)
[20]
QUESTION 4
4.1 (6)
A = Bleeding nipple
B = Piston return spring
C = Intake pipe
D = Rubber washers
E = Piston
F = Casing
G = Dustcover
Inscriptions = ½ point each = 3 points

Correctness = 2 points
Neatness = 1 point
4.2 Tandem mastercylinder (7)
A= Compensating port rear

B = Brakefluid in reservoir secondary
C = Compensating ports I
D = Filler plug
E = Brakefltiid in primary reservoir
F =. Connecting pin between pedal and master cylinder
G = Circlip
H = Primary piston front brakes
I = Primary cup seals
J = Outlet front brakes
K = Secondary piston
L = Secondary piston stop bolt
M = Primary piston rear brakes
N = Check valve secondary
Inscriptions = ½ point each

362
4.3 Pascal’s law (1)
4.4 Lift the wheels to be adjusted up in the air to enable them to be turned by hand, (2)
adjust each lining by means of an adjuster tight against the drum until that wheel
cannot be turned by hand and just loosen the adjuster until the wheel can be turned
by hand.
Remember each wheel consist of two linings to be adjusted.
4.5 (2)
4.5.1 When brakes are applied the force on the brake drum will cause it to become oval
causing brake shudder.
4.5.2 Can crack when brakes are applied causing brake failure.
4.6 To provide a leverage between the brake pedal and the master cylinder when the (1)
brakes are applied.
4.7 It is that property of brakefluid to enable it to absorb moisture in the brake system. (1)
[20]
QUESTION 5
5.1 Ricardó combustion chamber. (5)
A= Heat absorbent insert block

B = Injector
C = Glowplug
D =Tangential port
E = Piston
F =Hollow in piston to direct air

363
Correctness & inscriptions = 5 points
5.2 Yes, because of the fact that the thermal efficiency of an engine using a pre- (2)
combustion chamber are not high enough to ignite the diesel when cold.
5.3 Injectors cannot be tested if we do not make use of an injector tester in order to (8)
pressurize the injector.
5.3.1 The most important test that has to be carried out is the pressure test. The
injector is attached to the tester and the hand lever of the tester is depressed a few
times to fill the injector and expel the air.
When this is finished the lever of the tester is gradually depressed until the needle
on the pressure tester flicks and diesel spray pit of the nozzle of the injector.
This is the pressure at which injection takes place and must be compared with the
specifications of of the engine and set according to these specifications.
5.3.2 The back leakage test is the next test that must be carried out and must be done
as follows.
Operate the lever of the tester until the pressure tester shows a pressure slightly
lower than injection pressure and release the handle, check then with a stop watch
the time taken for the pressure to drop a specific amount, due to specifications.
This reading must also be compared with specifications on the instruction manual.
5.3.3 The dry test is carried out as follows. Carefully dry the injector nozzles. Build up
pressure on the tester until 10 bar under injection pressure and examine the nozzle
under pressure, it should be dry and free from leakage.
5.3.4 The atomizing test is carried out to make sure that the spray pattern is correct.
Apply about eight quick jerks on the gauge lever to examine the spray quality.
Make sure that the spray come out of all the holes in the nozzle and that the spray
is atomizing properly , also check for the signs of leaks on the injector itself.
5.4 (2)
5.4.1 By using a masked intake valve

5.4.2 The angle the intake ports is positioned.
5.5 Black, excessive combustion of fuel. (2)
5.6 To prevent the diaphragm to move up if the chamber on top of the diagram is filled (1)
with fuel and the engine is running.
[20]
TOTAL: 100

364
Table of C
APRIL 2011

(11040192)
24 March (X-Paper)
09:00 – 12:00

365
TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
__________________________________________________________________
question paper.
5. Keep subsections of questions together.

___________________________________________________________________

366
QUESTION 1
1.1 The sketch below shows a four-speed gearbox. Label the sketch in the ANSWER (5)
BOOK. Write only the answer next to the letter (A - J) in the ANSWER BOOK.
1.3 What is the purpose of part A on the sketch? (1)
1.4 Give TWO reasons for the use of helical gears on gearboxes. (2)
1.5 Which type of sinchronising unit is in use on this gearbox? (1)
[10]
QUESTION 2
2.1 Explain the power flow through the differential and final drive when a vehicle is (6)
moving around a corner. (Sketches may be used to aid in the explanation).
2.2 State TWO functions of the final drive as in use on heavy - duty vehicles. (2)
2.3 State TWO functions of the differential as in use on heavy - duty vehicles. (2)
2.4 The sketch below shows a pinion as in use in the final drive. Label the sketch in the (3)
ANSWER BOOK. Write only the answer next to the letter (A - F) in the ANSWER
BOOK.

367
2.5 Explain where the pinion depth adjustment shims are fitted on the sketch. (2)
2.6 What is the purpose of the pinion depth adjustment shims? (1)
2.7 Explain where the preload adjustment shims are fitted on a pinion. (2)
2.8 What is the purpose of the pinion preload adjustment shims on the sketch? (1)
2.9 What type of material is used for the manufacturing of the worm on the worm and (1)
wheel final drive?
[20]
QUESTION 3
3.1 Name any FIVE important preliminary checks that should be carried out before (5)
checking wheel alignment.
3.2 Show, by means of TWO sketches, the difference between positive camber and (6)
zero camber.
3.3 Name any TWO steering boxes in use on heavy duty trucks. (2)
3.4 State TWO functions of a steering box on a heavy duty vehicle. (2)
3.5 Which TWO types of wheel balancing must be done, when tyres are balanced and (3)
which type needed to be done first?
3.6 What is the purpose of ensuring that the 'Ackerman Principle' is correct when (1)
checking wheel alignment?
3.7 What is the purpose of the dot on the outer wall of a tyre? (1)
[20]

368
QUESTION 4
4.1 Draw a neat sectional view of a double piston wheel cylinder as in use on the (6)
hydraulic rear wheel brakes of trucks. Label the sketch.
4.2 The sketch below shows a tandem brake master cylinder. Label the sketch in the (7)
ANSWER BOOK. Write only the answer next to the letter (A - N) in the
ANSWER BOOK.
4.3 What is the purpose of point Con the sketch above? (1)
4.4 Can a brake master cylinder with a check valve be used on disk brakes? Motivate (3)
your answer.
4.5 Explain the procedure to follow when adjusting the drum brakes on a truck. (3)
[20]
QUESTION 5
5.1 Draw a neat sketch of a paper element air cleaner. (5)
5.2 State TWO functions of an air cleaner. (2)
5.3 What is meant by the term cetane rating when referred to diesel fuel? (1)
5.4 Name any TWO methods to increase turbulence of air during the intake stroke on (2)
diesel engines.
5.5 State FIVE requirements for a suitable injection-pump test room. (5)
5.6 What is meant by the term ignition delay period? (2)
5.7 State the function of the following: (3)
5.7.1 Fuel lift pump

369
5.7.2 Diesel injection pump

5.7.3 Injector
[20]
QUESTION 6
6.1 The sketch below shows a direct type combustion chamber as in use on diesel (3)
engines. Label the sketch in the ANSWER BOOK. Write only the answer next to
the letter (A- G) in the ANSWER BOOK.
6.2 Is the above-mentioned combustion chamber a single swirl or a double swirl (2)
combustion chamber? Motivate your answer.
6.3 Draw a neat sketch to show the construction of the 'Ricardo Comet' pre- (5)
combustion chamber as in use on certain diesel engines.
[10]
TOTAL: 100

370
APRIL 2011
(11040192)

371
QUESTION 1
1.1 Gearbox (5)
A = Reverse idler shaft

B = Clustershaft
C = Inputshaft
D = Sinchronizing unit 3rd & 4th gear
E = Third gear
F = Second gear
G =Sinchronizing unit 2nd & 1st gear
H =First gear
I = Main shaft
J = Reverse gear
1.2 Third Gear (1)
1.3 To change the direction of rotation of the mainshaft in order to enable the vehicle (1)
to reverse.
1.4 (2)
1.4.1 Cause the gearbox to rotate noiselessly

1.4.2 Is stronger than straight teeth gears with the same teeth module
1.5 Baulkring type (1)
[10]
QUESTION 2
2.1 Rotational drive come in from the pinion to drive the crown wheel, the differential (6)
carrier is bolted onto the crown wheel thus rotating with the crown wheel. When the
vehicle is moving around a corner the inner wheel will tum slower because this
wheel has to take a smaller radius than the outer wheel because of the resistance
of the road.
The side shaft is fixed to the wheel on one end and the other end is splined where
the sun gears is splined on. The side shafts and sun gears turn at different
velocities, this difference in velocity is taken up by the planetary gears which
meshes between the sun gears.
The planetary gears rotate around the cross-pin whilst the cross-pin is fixed into the
differential carrier while cornering but is stationary about the crosspin when the
vehicle is moving straight ahead. By this means drive can still be obtained whilst
the vehicle is cornering.
2.2 (2)
2.2.1 Provide a constant gear reduction to enable the vehicle to pull away from rest.
2.2.2 Change the direction of drive with 90° angle

372
2.3 (2)
2.3.1 Enable the drive wheels to turn at different velocities.

2.3.2 Prevent unnecessary wear on parts and tyres.
2.4 A = Pinion pilot bearing (3)

B = Pinion
C =Taper bearings
D = Flange
E = Differential housing
F = Preload adjustment nut.
2.5 On the pinion shaft, behind the pinion gear. (2)
2.6 To ensure that the pinion meshes at the correct depth on the crown wheel. (1)
2.7 On the pinion shaft, between the flange and the bearing. (2)
2.8 To· ensure that the pinion do not move axially. (1)
2.9 Phosporous bronze (1)
[20]
QUESTION 3
3.1 Preliminary checks. (5)
3.1.1 Make sure the vehicle are on a level surface.

3.1.2 Make sure the vehicle has it's recommended mass.
3.1.3 Inspect front suspension for worn tie-rod end, balljoints etc.
3.1.4 Make sure that the front and rear wheels are in line
3.1.5 Make sure that the vehicle riding height is within specifications.
3.2 (6)
3.2.1 Positive camber
Correctness = 3 points each

373
3.2.2 Zero camber
Correctness = 3 points each
3.3 (2)
3.3.1 Recirculating ball and nut steeringbox

3.3.2 Worm and roller steeringbox
3.4 (2)
3.4.1 Provide a reduction in order to enable the driver to use a small effort to turn the
wheels of a truck.
3.4.2 To enable the driver to move the truck straight as well as to change direction.
3.5 (3)
3.5.1 Static balancing

3.5.2 x Dynamic balancing
x Static balancing first
3.6 To ensure precise geometrical roll of all the wheels around a common point when (1)
moving around a corner
3.7 To indicate the lightest point of the tyre, must be put in line with the valve of the rim (1)
[20]
QUESTION 4
4.1 (6)
A = Bleeding nipple

374
B =Piston return spring

C = Intake pipe
D =Rubber washers
E = Piston
F = Casing
G = Dustcover

Correctness = 2 points
Neatness = I point
4.2 Tandem master cylinder (7)
A = Compensating port rear

B =Brake fluid in reservoir secondary
C = Compensating ports
D =Filler plug
E = Brake fluid in primary reservoir
F = Connecting pin between pedal and master cylinder
G = Circlip
H = Primary piston front brakes
I = Primary cup seals
J = Outlet front brakes
K = Secondary piston
L = Secondary piston stop bolt
M = Primary piston rear brakes
N = Check valve secondary
Inscriptions = ½ point each
4.3 Vacuum is formed behind the front of the piston when the brakes are released after (1)
being applied, this port allow brake fluid from the reservoir to compensate for this
vacuum.
4.4 No, Because the purpose of the check valve is to enable a pre-determined amount (3)
of pressure into the brake pipes. Therefore if a check valve should be used then the
brakes will be permanently partially applied on the disk brakes.
4.5 Lift the wheels to be adjusted up in the air to enable them to be turned by hand, (3)
adjust each lining by means of an adjuster tight against the drum until that wheel
cannot be turned by hand and just loosen the adjuster until the wheel can be turned
by hand. Remember each wheel consist of two adjusters to be adjusted.
[20]

375
QUESTION 5
5.1 Paper element air cleaner (5)
A= Aircleaner cover
B = Wingnut
C = Aircleaner casing
D= Dirty Air intake
E = Clean Air intake into intake manifold
F = Paper element
5.2 (2)
5.2.1 Reduce engine noise

5.2.2 Prevent all types of filth (vapour) to enter the engine.
5.3 It is that property of diesel which measures it's resistance against combustion (1)
under pressure.
5.4 (2)
5.4.1 By using a masked intake valve

5.4.2 Design the intake manifold in such a way to increase the turbulence of air during
the intake stroke.
5.5 (5)
5.5.1 Must be clean, no dust and spillages are allowed.
5.5.2 Due to fine tolerances of equipment and parts a constant temperature must be
maintained.
5.5.3 Due to diesel fuel which can cause fire hazards extractor fans must be used.
5.5.4 Care must be taken when handling or storing fuel, remember that diesel oil is
slippery also do not smoke in test room.
5.5.5 The test room must be equipped with the correct tools and care must be taken that
testing equipment are calibrated as specified.
5.6 It is the time taken from the moment that the diesel is injected in the combustion (2)

376
chamber until it ignites.
5.7 (3)
5.7.1 Transfer the diesel from the fueltank to the fuel injection pump on applications
where the
fueltank is lower than the engine.
5.7.2 Is to pump the correct amount of diesel at the correct time to the injector to be
delivered for a specific condition.
5.7.3 Is to deliver diesel under pressure and in vapour form into the combustion chamber
for complete combustion during the power stroke.
[20]
QUESTION 6
6.1 Combustion chamber. (3)
A = Injector
B =Exhaust Valve
C = Cylinder sleeve
D = Airflow
E = Injection Spray pattern
F = Piston
G = Intake Valve
6.2 Double Swirl , piston combustion chamber is design to allow air swirl inside the (2)
combustion chamber as well as on top of the piston.
6.3 Ricardo Comet Combustion chamber. (5)
A = Heat Absorbent Insert Block

377
B = Injector
C = Glowplug
D = Tangent Arranged Passage
E = Piston
F = Piston chamber
[10]
TOTAL: 100

378
Table of C
NOVEMBER 2010

(11040192)
09:00 – 12:00

379
TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 100
__________________________________________________________________
4. Keep sub-sections of questions together and underline after each completed question.

___________________________________________________________________

380
QUESTION 1
1.1 The sketch below shows a gearbox. Label the sketch in the ANSWER BOOK. (5)
1.3 What is the purpose of part A on the sketch? (1)
1.4 Give TWO reasons for the use of helical gears on gearboxes. (2)
1.5 FOUR different roller bearings are in use on this gearbox. Explain where they must (4)
be placed and why. (The position of the bearings can be shown on the sketch and
the sketch can be placed in the ANSWER BOOK).
1.6 Which type of synchronizing unit is in use on this gearbox? (1)
1.7 Explain the operation of this type of synchronizing unit when changing from second (6)
gear to third gear.
[20]
QUESTION 2
2.1 The sketch below shows a final drive and differential system as in use on trucks. (6)
Label the sketch in the ANSWER BOOK.

381
2.2 What is the purpose of the thrust washers fitted at the back of the planetary and (1)
sun gears in a differential?
2.3 Name the parts which form the final drive. (2)
2.4 Give TWO functions of the final drive. (2)
2.5 Name the parts that form the differential. (4)
[15]

382
QUESTION 3
3.1 The sketch below shows a brake drum arrangement as in use on the rear brakes of (7)
some heavy duty vehicles. Label the sketch in the ANSWER BOOK.
3.2 Explain the operation of this brake assembly at the moment that the brakes are (4)
applied.
3.3 Brake drums are .replaced when they reach a minimum thickness. Give TWO (2)
reasons for this.
3.4 What is the purpose of a brake servo unit? (1)
3.5 Draw a simple sketch to show a vacuum brake booster in the applied position. (6)
[20]

383
QUESTION 4
4.1 The sketch below shows a mechanical fuel lift pump. Label the sketch in the (8)
ANSWER BOOK:
4.2 What is the purpose of part Con the sketch? (1)
4.3 What is the purpose of part F on the sketch? (1)
4.4 Explain the operation of the fuel pump in the sketch during all operating conditions. (6)
4.5 Name and explain the THREE tests which have to be carried out on a fuel pump. (6)
4.6 Draw a neat sketch to show the construction of a paper element-type air cleaner. (5)
[27]
QUESTION 5
5.1 Name any FIVE important preliminary checks that should be carried out before (5)
checking wheel alignment.
5.2 Give TWO reasons why the correct castor angle is a necessity. (2)
5.3 Show, by means of TWO sketches, the difference between a positive castor and a (6)
zero castor.
5.4 Name any FIVE steering boxes in use. (5)
[18]
TOTAL: 100

384
NOVEMBER 2010
(11040192)

385
QUESTION 1
1.1 Gearbox (5)
A = Reverse idler shaft

B = Cluster shaft
C = Input shaft
D = Sinchronizing unit 3rd & 4th gear
E = Dogteeth 2"d gear
F = Sinchronizing ring 2nd gear
G =Sinchronizing unit 2"d & I" gear
H =First gear
I = Reverse gear
J =Main shaft
1.2 Third gear (1)
1.3 To change the direction of rotation of the mainshaft in order to enable the vehicle (1)
to reverse.
1.4 (2)
1.4.1 Cause the gearbox to rotate noiselessly

1.4.2 Is stronger than straight teeth gears with the same teeth module
1.5 (4)
On the input shaft

On the main shaft
On the cluster shaft on input side
On the cluster shaft at output side
1.6 Baulk ring type (1)
1.7 When the gearlever moves it move the selector shaft and the selector fork which is (6)
fixed to the selector shaft, the fork fits in the groove of the sliding hub and moves
the sliding hub in the direction of the chosen gear.
The spring loaded rings keep the activator plates which fit into slots into the
sinchro hub under pressure against the sliding sleeve. When axial movement of
the sliding sleeve occur the activator plate moves with them during movement of
the sliding sleeve these activator plates are forcing the taper face of the sinchro-
ring axially against the taper face of the third gear.
Friction due to the force exerted between the sinchro-ring and the taper face of the
gear cause the gear to accelerate or retard until the speed of the sinchro-ring arid
the gear become the same, at this stage the sliding sleeve move over the teeth of
the sinchro-ring as well as the dogteeth the gear thus connecting the main shaft to
the chosen gear.
It is important to know that the sinchro hub is splined to the main shaft while the
gears on both side of the sinchro unit rotate freely on the shaft when not being

386
engaged by the sinchro-unit.
[20]
QUESTION 2
2.1 Final drive and differential assembly (6)
A= Left hand side shaft

B = Planetary gears
C =Crown wheel
0 = Pinion bearing
E = Pinion gear
F = Cross pin
G = Planetary gear housing
H = Right side side shaft
I = Sun gears
J = Differential carrier bearings
K = Planet gear
L =Differential housing
Inscriptions: ½ point each
2.2 To provide a predetermined endplay on the sun gears and planetary gears in order (1)
to ensure noiseless operation of the spider gear system when going around
comers.
2.3 (2)
2.3.1 Pinion
2.3.2 Crown wheel
2.4 (2)
2.4.1 To change the direction of the drive at 90° from the pinion to the driving wheels.
2.4.2 To supply a constant gear reduction from the gearbox to the rear wheels.
2.5 (4)
2.5.1 Planetary gears

2.5.2 Sun gears
2.5.3 Planetary gear housing
2.5.4 Cross pin
[15]
QUESTION 3
3.1 Brake drum arrangement (7)
A = Wheel cylinder housing

B = Wheel cylinder return spring
C = Dust cover
D = Secondary Wheel Cylinder Piston

387
E = Brakeshoe returnspring
F = Brake adjuster secondary shoe
G = Sideshaft
H = Shoe retainers
I = Secondary Brake shoe
J = Double Anchor pins
K = Brake Backing plate
L = Primary Brake shoe
M = Brake adjuster primary shoe
N = Primary Wheelcylinder piston
3.2 When pressure of the brakefluid from the brake master cylinder act against the (4)
seals in the wheelcylinders i forces the wheelcylinder pistons away from each other
against the tension of the return springs. The brak shoes is forced against the
wheeldrums and the primary shoe cause a self energizing effect against the drum
while the secondary shoe cause frictional force against the brakedrum which helps
to slow the vehicle down.
3.3 (2)
3.3.1 Because the brakedrum are forced open causing the brakepedal to become
spongy.
3.3.2 Because, if the brakedrum is forced open it become oval causing brakepedal
shudder.
3.4 The brake servo unit increase the pressure in the braking system in order to (1)
improve the braking force between the linings and the brakedrum when the brakes
are applied
3.5 (6)
A= Vacuumpipe
B = Diaphragm return spring
C = Diaphragm
D =Atmospheric valve

388
E = Vacuum valve
F = Mastercylinder pushrod

Correctness: 3 points
[20]
QUESTION 4
4.1 Mechanical Fuel lift pump. (8)
A = Camshaft
B = Swivelpin
C = Split coupling
D = cam arm return spring
E = Diaphragm seal
F = Atmospheric hole
G = Fuel inlet sieve
H = Casing
I = Fuel inlet
J = Inlet valve
K = Outlet valve
L = Outlet port
M = Diaphragm
N = Pin/ Pen
0 = Calibrated spring
P = Cam Arm
Inscriptions: ½ point each.
4.2 Is to allow the cam arm still to move with the camshaft while the diaphragm is (1)
stationary, this happen during periods when the engine do not need fuel from the
fuel system while it is in operation.
4.3 It enables the diaphragm to move up and down (breath) through this hole while in (1)
operation (also allow the oil to leak out if seal gets worn).
4.4 The low pressure fuel pump sucks fuel from the fuel tank and deliver the fuel under (6)
low pressure to the high pressure diesel fuel injection pump, if the high pressure
diesel fuel injection pump needs fuel.
When there is enough fuel in the high pressure fuel injection pump the fuel on top
of the diaphragm in the low pressure fuel lift pump prevent the diaphragm to move
up due to the pressure in the calibrated spring underneath the diaphragm.
At this stage the split coupling in the low pressure lift pump come into operation and
it disconnect the diaphragm from the camlever, thus allowing the camlever to move
with the camshaft while the diaphragm remains stationary because of the fuel in the
chamber on top of the diaphragm in the chamber.
When the high pressure diesel injection pump needs fuel the spring forces the
diaphragm up allowing fuel to be pumped to the high pressure fuel injection pump,
after which the cam lever will pull the diaphragm down again to allow fuel to be

389
sucked into the low pressure fuel injection pump to be delivered by the diaphragm.
The spring determines the pressure by which the fuel is delivered to the high
pressure fuel injection pump
4.5 (6)
4.5.1 Suction test: with this test a vacuum gauge is connected to the suction side of the
pump and the' pump arm is pumped, the reading is then taken and compared with
manufacturers specifications, if not correct it means that the inlet valve is faulty or
the diaphragm is tom
4.5.2 Pressure test: with this test the operating pressure of the pump is tested and
compare with manufacturer specifications if not correct it means that the calibrated
spring is faulty or the diaphragm is worn out.
4.5.3 Capacity test: with this test a flow meter is connected on the supply side of the
pump and the engine is cranked to measure the amount of fuel delivered at a
specific time and engine speed, possible faults can be worn pump arms and
diaphragms.
4.6 (5)
A = Aircleaner cover
B = Wingnut
C = Aircleaner casing
D = Air inlet into aircleaner
E = Airflow into engine
F = Paper airfilter
Inscription: ½ point = 3 points

Correctness: 2 points
[27]
QUESTION 5
5.1 (5)
5.1.1 Make sure that the tyres have the same wear and are pumped the same pressure.
5.1.2 Make sure the vehicle has it's normal mass, spare wheel, wheel spanner and full
tank of fuel.
5.1.3 Make sure the ball joints, tie rod ends and wheel bearings are not worn.

390
5.1.4 Make sure· that the steering box play is· correct and that the steeringbox is
tightened properly.
5.1.5 Make sure that the front wheels are directed straight forward before starting with
wheel alignment.
5.2 (2)
5.2.1 To ensure that the steering wheel will turn lightly and with the same effort in both
directions.
5.2.2 To prevent the steering wheel from picking up roadshocks on uneven ground
surfaces.
5.3 (6)
A = Wheel
B = Centre line through kingpin
C = Centre line at front of centre of wheel to show positive castor
D = Kingpin
Inscriptions : ½ point each

Correctness : 4 points
5.4 (5)
5.4.1 Worm and sector

5.4.2 Worm and nut with recirculating balls
5.4.3 Cam and roller
5.4.4 Cam and lever
5.4.5 Worm and wormgear
[18]
TOTAL: 100

391

Motor and Diesel Trade Theory N2

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Motor and Diesel Trade Theory N2

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Motor and Diesel Trade Theory N2

1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 16

Gateways to Engineering Studies

1.11 Dieseling (run on) ....................................................................................................................... 53

Gateways to Engineering Studies

1.21.1 Factors determining fuel pump volume........................................................................... 69

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 72

Gateways to Engineering Studies

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 107

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3.5 Types of gears used in a gearbox ......................................................................................... 110

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4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 130

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4.11.3 Full floating.............................................................................................................................. 148

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 150

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5.10 Backlash between pinion and crown wheel ................................................................... 164

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 168

Gateways to Engineering Studies

6.11 Torsion bar suspension (rear) ................................................................................................ 186

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 204

Gateways to Engineering Studies

7.4 Types of steering boxes ............................................................................................................ 209

8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 237

Gateways to Engineering Studies

8.3.1 Brake lines ................................................................................................................................. 240

9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 272

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9.7.3 Phase 3....................................................................................................................................... 288

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9.17.5 Spray pattern ......................................................................................................................... 318

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Icons used in this book

Icon Description Icon Description

Assessment / Activity Multimedia

Demonstration/ observation Presentation/ Lecture

Did you know? Read

Experiment Site visit

Group work/ discussions, role-

Keywords Think about it

Gateways to Engineering Studies

These items will be discussed in detail in this module.

Figure 1.1 The basic fuel system components

Gateways to Engineering Studies

1.2 Fuel tank

Aluminum or steel is used on commercial vehicles. The tank is usually in two

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Figure 1.2 (b) The fuel tank

Some systems have a small container, called a liquid-vapor separator, above

1.3 Fuel level gauge

1.3.1 The Sending Unit

The end of the rod is mounted to a variable resistor. A resistor is an electrical

In a fuel tank, the variable resistor consists of a strip of resistive material

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Figure 1.3 The sending unit

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Figure 1.4 Components of the sending unit