Concrete Structures

Mehdi Setareh • Robert Darvas

Concrete Structures
Second Edition
Mehdi Setareh Robert Darvas
College of Architecture College of Architecture
and Urban Studies and Urban Planning
Virginia Tech University of Michigan
Blacksburg, VA, USA Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Additional material to this book can be downloaded from http://www.springer.com

The previous edition was published by Pearson Education, Inc. in 2006.

ISBN 978-3-319-24113-5 ISBN 978-3-319-24115-9 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-24115-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015954568

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To Roufia, Ali, and Kamran with love
Mehdi

To Eva with love,

Robert
Preface to the Second Edition

Since the publication of the first edition, the requirements for the design of concrete
structures have gone through a number of changes as reflected in the American
Concrete Institute, ACI 318 publication. The latest revision of the Code was
published in 2014 and represents the state-of-the-art of the current knowledge in
concrete and reinforced concrete design. This revision, ACI 318-14, forms the basis
of the second edition of this textbook.
The book retains the features that made it well received by students, instructors,
and practitioners alike. The popular step-by-step approach of problem solving,
augmented by flowcharts and supported by numerical solutions, clearly describes
the processes that need to be followed to provide safe and economical designs of
reinforced concrete components. The self-experiments included at the end of the
chapters help students better understand the behavior of concrete structures through
the construction and testing of scaled models.
To make the book more useful to students in Construction Engineering pro-
grams, a new chapter (Chapter 8) on formworks for monolithic concrete construc-
tion has been added. This chapter covers the fundamentals of formwork and shoring
design, and detailed step-by-step solutions of numerical problems along with
mathematical formulae and tables to help students and practitioners to design
these temporary structures. In addition, to provide more visual clarifications of
the topics discussed in the book, a new appendix (Appendix B) is added, which
includes color images of various stages of concrete construction and completed
buildings.
We gratefully acknowledge the support of the following individuals and orga-
nizations by providing images that are used in the book: Professor Jack Davis, Dean
of Virginia Tech College of Architecture and Urban Studies, Ms. Kathe Hooper
from the American Society for Testing and Materials, Mr. Charles James from the
National Information Service for Earthquake Engineering, Ms. Angela Matthews
from the American Concrete Institute, Ms. Gwen Wang from the Portland Cement
Association, and Mr. Doug Peters, PE, President of Christman Constructors, Inc.

vii
viii Preface to the Second Edition

We also owe special thanks to the following individuals: Mr. Nadir Makhlouf, a
partner of Robert Darvas Associates, PC, for his great help in preparing the graphics
work for Chapter 8, Mr. Xiaoyao Wang, Mr. Hasheem Halim, and Mr. Sriram
Sankaranarayanan, students at Virginia Tech schools of architecture and engineer-
ing, for their efforts on updating the book and the solutions manual.
The authors would like to express their thanks to Springer International Pub-
lishing AG Switzerland, in particular Mr. Michael Luby, senior publishing editor,
and Mr. Brian Halm, project coordinator for helping us bring this second edition to
publication.

Mehdi Setareh Blacksburg, VA

Robert Darvas Ann Arbor, MI
Preface to the First Edition

The intended audience of this book is architectural engineering, undergraduate civil

engineering, building construction, and architecture students. The manuscript com-
plies with the provisions of the ACI Code 318-05. The easy to follow style of the
text makes it valuable to engineering and nonengineering students. Furthermore,
educators and practitioners interested in the analysis and design of concrete struc-
tures based on the latest ACI Code provisions may also benefit from it.
Chapter 1 covers the topic of concrete technology. It discusses the most impor-
tant properties of the main components of reinforced concrete. This technology is
essential for both architecture and engineering students.
Chapter 2 discusses the analysis and design of rectangular beams and one-way
slabs, including a complete treatment of the Unified Design Method as recommended
by the ACI 318-05. Several examples demonstrate the provisions of the latest
changes in the ACI Code. It is written to benefit architecture and engineering students
as well. Depending on the main objectives of the course and class time constraints,
the instructor can select the specific topics and their details to be included for the
intended audience.
Chapter 3 “Special Topics in Flexure” covers T-beams, doubly reinforced
beams, and a discussion of the deflection of reinforced concrete beams and slabs.
These topics are more complex, but indispensable in the design of concrete struc-
tures. The detailed technical information presented is essential for engineering
students. We recommend that only a brief discussion of each topic be used in
courses for architecture students.
Chapter 4 “Shear in Reinforced Concrete Beams” covers the design of shear
reinforcements in reinforced concrete beams. We consider this chapter to be
important in both engineering and architecture courses. The depth of coverage
may be left to the discretion of the instructor.
Chapter 5 covers the analysis and design of reinforced concrete columns.
It includes a complete treatment of “short” columns with small and large eccen-
tricities. Because most reinforced concrete columns are short and a complete
treatment of slender columns is usually only covered in advanced engineering

ix
x Preface to the First Edition

courses, we decided to cover that topic generally. We recommend this chapter be

covered in engineering and architecture courses.
Chapter 6 is a treatise on the different floor systems typically used in reinforced
concrete buildings. A simplified approach appropriate for both architecture and
engineering students is used.
Chapter 7 discusses foundations and earth-retaining walls. The chapter starts
with a background on some aspects of soil mechanics and geotechnical investiga-
tions for building design. These topics are not usually covered in reinforced
concrete structures textbooks. However, we are aware that many engineering
students do not take a soil mechanics course as a prerequisite for a reinforced
concrete class. Furthermore, soil mechanics and foundations courses are
unavailable in nearly all architecture curriculums. The treatment of the subjects
of foundations and earth-retaining walls are well-suited for both architecture and
engineering students.
Chapter 8 is an introduction to prestressed concrete for both architecture and
engineering students.
Chapter 9 discusses the use of the SI System in reinforced concrete design and
construction. We decided against the use of the equivalent SI System within the
main body of the book, as is done in many other textbooks. We felt that this resulted
in a clearer text. Several examples on different topics covered in other chapters are
again presented using the equivalent SI System.
Two unique features of this book are the “self-experiments” and an accompa-
nying CD with images of concrete structures. From our experience we know that
some engineering students and nearly all architecture students do not have access to
a testing laboratory. Therefore, we included these simple-to-do sets of experiments
that students can perform to learn about reinforced concrete from their own
experiences. We believe these experiments may also help students gain a better
understanding of concrete as a building material. The accompanying CD has a
number of high-quality images of reinforced concrete structures, so that students
can develop an appreciation of the potential this building material offers.
There are numerous problems at the ends of each chapter to be used as home-
work assignments. A complete Instructor’s Solutions Manual is available upon
request.
A step-by-step approach was adopted throughout the text. Most of the pro-
cedures for design or analysis are summarized in flowcharts, where all steps are
numbered, and the example solutions follow these steps. In our experience this
approach helps students try to follow the numerical solutions of various problems.
We would like to thank Professors Jay Stoeckel, Jack Davis, and Mr. Gerry
Martin from the Ceco Concrete Construction, LLC, for providing some of the
images in the accompanying CD-ROM. The continued educational support by the
Northeast Cement Shippers Association, and in particular Kim Frankin, is greatly
appreciated. We are also grateful to students at the School of Architecture + Design
of Virginia Tech for their help and comments during the development of this book,
in particular Mr. Amir Abu-Jaber for his assistance in typing and editing the
manuscript and the solutions manual.
Preface to the First Edition xi

Finally, we wish to thank the Pearson Education editorial and production staff
for their support and assistance. Many thanks to Bret Workman, who did a great job
with text editing. In particular, the assistance of Penny Walker from Techbooks is
greatly appreciated.

Mehdi Setareh Blacksburg, VA

Robert Darvas Ann Arbor, MI
Contents

1 Reinforced Concrete Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The ACI Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Concrete Ingredients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Portland Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Fine and Coarse Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.3 Water and Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.4 Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Testing Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.1 Slump Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5.2 Cylinder Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5.3 Core-Cylinder Test and In Situ Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.6 Mechanical Behavior of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.6.1 Concrete in Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.6.2 Concrete in Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.7 Volume Changes in Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.7.1 Temperature Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.7.2 Concrete Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.7.3 Creep of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.8 Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.8.1 Behavior of Steel Under Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Self-Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2 Rectangular Beams and One-Way Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2 Advantages of Reinforced Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3 Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4 On the Nature of the Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

xiii
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2.5 Live Load Reduction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

2.6 Continuity in Reinforced Concrete Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.7 Propagation of Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.8 On the “Fickleness” of Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.9 The ACI Code Moment and Shear Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.10 The Concept of Strength Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.11 Design (Ultimate) Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.12 Assumptions for the Flexural Design of Reinforced
Concrete Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.13 Different Failure Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.14 The Equivalent Stress Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.15 The Steel Ratio (ρ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.16 The Balanced Steel Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.17 Elaboration on the Net Tensile Strain in Steel (εt) . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.18 The Location of the Neutral Axis and Limit Positions . . . . . . . . 75
2.19 Relationship Between ϕ and dt/c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.20 Limitations on the Steel Percentage (ρ)
for Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.21 Minimum Steel Ratio (ρmin) for Reinforced
Concrete Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.22 Analysis of Rectangular Reinforced Concrete Sections . . . . . . . 80
2.22.1 MR Calculation: Method I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.22.2 MR Calculation: Method II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.23 Selection of Appropriate Dimensions for Reinforced
Concrete Beams and One-Way Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.23.1 Selection of Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.23.2 Selection of Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.24 Crack Control in Reinforced Concrete Beams
and One-Way Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.25 Design of Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.26 Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.27 Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Slabs Under Loads . . . . . . . . 113
2.28 Reinforcement in One-Way Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.28.1 Main Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.28.2 Shrinkage and Temperature (S & T) Reinforcement . . . 116
2.28.3 Minimum Reinforcements for One-Way Slabs . . . . . . . 117
2.29 Areas of Reinforcing Bars in Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.30 Analysis of Reinforced Concrete One-Way Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.31 Design of Reinforced Concrete One-Way Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Self-Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3 Special Topics in Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.1 T-beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.1.2 Effective Flange Width (beff) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Contents xv

3.1.3 Minimum Steel for T-beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

3.1.4 Analysis of T-beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.1.5 Design of T-beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.2 Doubly-Reinforced Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.2.2 Analysis of Doubly-Reinforced Concrete Beams . . . . . 176
3.2.3 Design of Doubly-Reinforced Concrete Beams . . . . . . 190
3.2.4 Lateral Support for Compression Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
3.3 Deflection of Reinforced Concrete Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
3.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
3.3.2 The Effective Moment of Inertia (Ie) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.3.3 Cracked Section Moment of Inertia (Icr) . . . . . . . . . . . 205
3.3.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3.3.5 Comments on the Effective Moment of Inertia (Ie) . . . . 214
3.3.6 Long-Term Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
3.4 Reinforcement Development and Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
3.4.1 Bond Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
3.4.2 Development Length for Bars in Tension . . . . . . . . . . 218
3.4.3 Tension Bars Terminated in Hooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
3.4.4 Development Length for Bars in Compression . . . . . . . 223
3.4.5 Splices of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Self-Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
4 Shear in Reinforced Concrete Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.2 Shear in Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.3 The Design of Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
4.3.1 Zone 1 (Vu  ϕVc/2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4.3.2 Zone 2 (ϕVc/2 < Vu  ϕVc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4.3.3 Zone 3 (ϕVc < Vu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4.4 Additional Requirements for the Design
of Shear Reinforcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4.5 Stirrup Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
4.6 Additional Formulas to Calculate the Shear Strength
of a Beam Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
4.6.1 Beams Subject to Flexure and Shear Only . . . . . . . . . . 262
4.6.2 Members Subject to Axial Compression . . . . . . . . . . . 262
4.6.3 Members Subject to Significant Axial Tension . . . . . . . 262
4.7 Corbels and Brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Self-Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
5 Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
5.2 Types of Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
xvi Contents

5.2.1 Based on Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

5.2.2 Based on Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5.2.3 Based on Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
5.2.4 Based on Structural System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
5.2.5 Based on Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
5.3 Behavior of Short Columns with Small Eccentricity
Under Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
5.4 General ACI Code Requirements for Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
5.5 Some Considerations on the Design of Reinforced
Concrete Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
5.5.1 Column Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
5.5.2 High-Strength Material Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
5.6 Analysis of Short Columns with Small Eccentricity . . . . . . . . . 294
5.7 Design of Short Columns with Small Eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . 302
5.7.1 Ag ¼ Known, Ast ¼ Unknown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
5.7.2 Ag and Ast ¼ Unknown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
5.8 Behavior of Short Columns Under Eccentric Loads . . . . . . . . . 316
5.9 ACI Column Interaction Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
5.10 Design Axial Load Strength (ϕPn), and Moment
Capacity (ϕMn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
5.11 Analysis of Short Columns with Large Eccentricity
Using Interaction Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
5.11.1 Analysis of Columns with Compression-
Controlled Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
5.11.2 Analysis of Non-compression-Controlled
Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
5.12 Design of Short Columns with Large Eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . 347
5.12.1 Design of Columns with Compression-
Controlled Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
5.12.2 Design of Non-compression-Controlled
Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
5.13 Slender Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
5.13.1 Column Buckling and Slenderness Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . 358
5.13.2 P–Δ Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Self-Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
6 Floor Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
6.2 Flat Slabs and Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
6.3 Shears in Flat Slabs and Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
6.4 Flexure in Flat Slabs and Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
6.5 Flat Slabs and the Use of Drop Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
6.6 Waffle Slab Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
6.7 One-Way Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
6.8 Beams and One-Way Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Contents xvii

6.9 Two-Way Slabs on Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

6.10 Two-Way Joists with Slab Band Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Self-Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
7 Foundations and Earth Supporting Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
7.2 Types of Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
7.3 Soil Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
7.4 Test Borings and the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) . . . . . . . 404
7.5 Soil Failure Under Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
7.6 Pressure Distribution Under Footing and Soil Settlement . . . . . 408
7.7 Allowable Bearing Soil Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
7.8 Types of Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
7.8.1 Shallow Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
7.8.2 Deep Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
7.8.3 Considerations for the Placement of Foundations . . . . . 418
7.9 Distribution of Soil Pressure Under Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
7.10 Design of Wall Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
7.10.1 Plain Concrete Wall Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
7.10.2 Reinforced Concrete Wall Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
7.11 Reinforced Concrete Square Spread Footing Design . . . . . . . . . 436
7.12 Rectangular Reinforced Concrete Footing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
7.13 Earth Supporting Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
7.13.1 Lateral Earth Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
7.13.2 Basement Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
7.13.3 Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Self-Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
8 Formwork for Monolithic Concrete Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
8.2 Planning for Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
8.3 Loads on Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
8.3.1 Gravity Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
8.3.2 Lateral Pressure on Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
8.3.3 Lateral Loads on the Shoring
and Forming Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
8.4 Materials for Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
8.4.1 Form Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
8.4.2 Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
8.4.3 Formwork Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
8.4.4 Release Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
8.5 Design of Formwork Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
8.5.1 Typical Design Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
8.6 Wall Formwork Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
xviii Contents

8.7 Column Formwork Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546

8.8 Floor Slab Formwork Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
8.9 Beam Formwork Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Self-Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
9 Overview of Prestressed Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
9.2 Advantages of Prestressed Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
9.3 Types of Prestressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
9.3.1 Pretensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
9.3.2 Posttensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
9.4 Prestressed Concrete Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
9.4.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
9.4.2 Prestressing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
9.5 Loss of Prestressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
9.5.1 Elastic Shortening of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
9.5.2 Shrinkage of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
9.5.3 Creep of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
9.5.4 Relaxation of the Prestressing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
9.5.5 Friction Losses in Curved Tendons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
9.5.6 Total Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
9.6 Ultimate Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
9.7 The Concept of Load Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Self-Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
10 Metric System in Reinforced Concrete Design
and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
10.2 Brief History of Metric System Adoption
in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
10.3 Conversion to SI Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603

Appendix A: Tables and Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607

Appendix B: Concrete Structure and Construction Images . . . . . . . . . . 643

Appendix C: Standard ACI Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663