The Skeletal System

Parts of the Skeletal System

● Bones Classification of Bone(shape)
● Joints
● Cartilages ● Long
● Ligaments - Longer than wide
Two subdivisions of the skeleton - Shaft with enlarged ends
1. Axial Skeleton - Contain mostly of compact bone;
2. Appendicular Skeleton spongy bone at ends
Functions of the Bones - All bones of the limbs(except wrist,
● Support the body ankle, and kneecap bones) are long
● Protect soft organs bones.
- Skull and vertebrae protect the - Ex. Femur, Humerus
brain and spinal cord.
- RIbcage protects thoracic cavity ● Flat
organs. - Thin, flattened, and usually curved
● Attached skeletal muscles allow - Two thin layers of compact bone
movement sandwich a layer of spongy bone
● Store minerals and fats between them
- Calcium and phosphorus - Ex. Most bones of the skull, ribs, and
- Fat in the internal marrow cavity. sternum.
● Blood and cell formation(hematopoiesis)
● Short
Classification of Bones - Cube shaped
● The adult skeleton has 206 bones - Mostly spongy bone with an outer layer
● Two basic types of osseous(bone) of compact bone
Tissue - Sesamoid bones are a type of short
1. Compact Bone bone that form within tendons(patella)
- Dense, smooth, and - Ex. carpals,tarsals
homogenous
2. Spongy Bone
- Small needle-like pieces ● Irregular
of bone - Irregular shape
- Many open spaces - Do not fit into other bone classification
categories
- Ex. Vertebrae. Hipbones
 - Sites of attachment for muscles,
tendons, and ligaments
- Passages for nerves and blood
Structure of Bones vessels
Long bone anatomy
● Diaphysis(shaft)
- Makes up most of the bone’s
length
- Composed of compact bone
● Periosteum
- Outside covering of diaphysis
- Fibrous connective tissue
membranes
- Perforating(Sharpey’s) Fibers
secure periosteum to underlying
bone
● Epiphysis(end)
- Mostly spongy bone enclosed
by thin layer of compact bone
● Articular Cartilage
- Covers the external surface of
the epiphysis
- Made up of Hyaline cartilage
- Decreases friction at joint
surfaces

● Epiphysis Line
- Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
- Seen in adult bones
● Epiphyseal Plate
- Flat plate of hyaline cartilage
seen in young, growing bone
- Cause lengthwise growth of a
long bone
● Endosteum
- Lines the inner surface of the
shaft ● Categories of bone markings
- Made of connective tissues - Projections or processes out from the bone
● Medullary Cavity surface
- Cavity inside the shaft - Terms begin with “T”
- Contains yellow marrow(mostly - Depressions or cavities-Indentations
fat) in adults - Terms begin with “F”
- Contains red marrow for blood
cell formation in infants until age
6-7
● Bone markings
 Microscopic anatomy of compact bone
● Osteocytes - Mature bone cells situated
in bone matrix
● Lacunae - cavities in bone matrix house
osteocytes
● Lamellae - Concentric circles of lacunae
situated around the central(harvesian)
canal
● Central(Harvesian) canal
- Opening in the center of an
osteon(harvesian system)
- Runs lengthwise through bone
- Carries blood vessels and
nerves
● Osteon(Harvesian system)
- Unit of bone containing central
and matrix rings
- Structural and functional unit of
compact bone

Structure of Bone
● Microscopic anatomy of spongy bone
- Composed of small, needlelike pieces of
bone called trabeculae and open spaces
- Open spaces are filled by marrow, blood
vessels, and nerves.
Canaliculi
● Tiny canals
● Radiate from the central canal to
lacunae
● Form a transport system connecting all
bone cells to a nutrient supply
● Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal
 - Canal perpendicular to the
central canal
- Carries blood vessels and
nerves
Bone Fractures
● Fracture: break in a bone
Types of bone fractures
● Closed(simple) fracture is a break that
does not penetrate the skin
● Open(compound) fracture is a broken
bone that penetrates through the skin
● Bone fractures are treated by reduction Axal Skeleton
and immobilization ● Forms the longitudinal axis of the body
- Closed reduction: bones are Divided into 3 parts
manually coaxed into position 1. Skull
by physician’s hands 2. Vertebral column
- Open reduction: bones are 3. Bony thorax
secured with pins or wires
during surgery
● Healing is 6-8 weeks
● Repair of bone fractures involves four Skull
major events ● Two sets of bones form the skull
- Hematoma(blood-filled swelling, 1. Cranium bones enclose the brain
or bruise) is formed 2. Facial bones
- Fibrocartilage callus forms - - Holds the eye in anterior
cartilage matric, bony matric, position
collagen, fibers splint the broken - Allows facial muscles to express
bone feelings
● Bony Calluses replace the fibrocartilage ● Bones are joined by sutures
callus ● Only the mandible is attached by a
- Osteoblasts and osteocytes freely movable joint
migrate in ● 8 Cranial bones protect the brain
● Bone remodeling occurs in response to - 1 frontal bone
mechanical stresses - 2 Occipital bone
- 3 Ethmoid bone
- 4 Sphenoid bone
- 5-6 Parietal Bones(pair)
- 7-8 Temporal bones(pair)
● 14 Facial Bones
- 1-2 Maxillae(pair)
- 3-4 Palatine Bones(pair)
- 5-6 Lacrimal Bones(pair)
- 7-8 Zygomatic bones(pair)
- 9-10Nasal bones(pair)
- 11 Vomer bone
- 12-13 Inerios nasal
conchae(pair)
- 14 Mandible
 ● Hyoid Bone
- Closely related to mandible and
temporal bones
- Only bone that doesn’t articulate
with another bone ● Primary curvatures
- Serves as a movable base for - Spinal curvatures of the thoracic and
the tongue sacral regions
- Aids in swallowing and speech - Present from birth
- Form a C-shaped curvature in newborns

● Secondary curvatures
- Spinal curvatures of the cervical
and lumbar regions
- Form an S-shaped curvature in
adults

Vertebral Column(Spine)
● Vertebral column provides axis support
- Extends column provides axial support
● 26vertebral bones are separated by
intervertebral discs
● 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck
● 12 Thoracic vertebrae are associated
Parts of a typical vertebra
with the lower back
● Body (centrum)
● Sacrum(formed by fusion of 5 vertebrae)
● Vertebral arch
● Coccyx(formed by fusion of 3-5
- Pedicle
vertebrae)
- Lamina
● Vertebral foramen
● Transverse processes
● Spinous processes
● Superior and inferior articular processes
 Bones of the Shoulder Girdle
● Also called pectoral girdle
● Composed of two bones that attach the
upper limb to the axial skeletal
1. Clavicle
2. Scapula
● Light, poorly, reinforced girdle
Thoracic Cage ● Allows the upper limb a exceptional
● Bony thorax, or thoracic cage, protects flexibility
organs of the thoracic cavity
● Consists of three parts
1. Sternum
2. Ribs
- True ribs (Pair 1-7)
- False ribs (Pairs 8-12)
- Floating ribs(Pairs 11-12)
3. Thoracic vertebrae

Appendicular Skeleton
Bones of the upper limb
● Composed of 126 bones
● Humerus
● Limbs (appendages)
- Forms the arm
● Pectoral girdle
- Single bone
● Pelvic girdle
 - Proximal end
articulation ● Metacarpals—palm bones
- Head articulates with - 5 per hand
the glenoid cavity of the
scapula
● Phalanges—fingers and thumb
● Distal end articulation
- 14 phalanges in each hand
- Trochlea and capitulum - In each finger, there are 3 bones
articulate with the bones of the - In the thumb, there are only 2 bones
forearm

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

● The forearm has two bones
● Formed by two coxal(ossa coxae) bones
1. Ulna-medial bone in anatomical position
● Composed of 3 pair of fused bones
- Proximal end articulation 1. Ilium
● Caronoid processes and 2. Ischium
olecranon articulate with the 3. Pubis
humerus ● Pelvic girdle = 2 coxal bones, sacrum
2. Radius-lateral bone in anatomical position ● Pelvis - 2 coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx
- Proximal end articulation The total weight of the upper body rests on the
● Head articulates with the pelvis
capitulum of the humerus ● Pelvis protects several organs
● Reproductive organs
● Urinary bladder
● Part of the large intestine

Hand
● Carpals—wrist bones
- 8 bones arranged in two rows of 4 Bones of the lower limbs
bones in each hand ● Femur-thighbone
 - Heaviest, strongest bone in the
body Foot
- Proximal end articulation ● Tarsals—7 bones
- Head articulates with the - Two largest tarsals are the:
acetabulum of the coxal(hip) - Calcaneus (heel bone)
bone - Talus
● Distal end articulation ● Metatarsals —5 bones form the sole of
- Lateral and medial condyles the foot
articulate with the tibia in the ● Phalanges—14 bones form the toes
lower leg

Joints
The lower leg has two bones
● Joints are articulations
1. Tibia lower leg has two bones - Occur when two or more bones meet
● Proximal end articulation ● Functions of joints
- Medal lateral condyles - Hold bones together securely
articulate with the femur - Allow for mobility
to form the knee point ● Two ways joints are classified
● Distal articulation - Functionally
- Medial malleolus forms - Structurally
the inner part of the ● Structural joint classifications
ankle - Fibrous joints
2. Fibula-thin and sticklike; lateral to tibia - Generally immovable
● Has no role in forming the knee ● Cartilaginous joints
joint - Immovable or slightly movable
● Distal end articulation ● Synovial joints
- Lateral malleolus forms the - Freely movable
outer part of the ankle ● Fibrous joints
● Bones are united by fibrous tissue
Types
- Sutures
- Immobile
● Syndesmoses
- Allow more movement than sutures but
still immobile
- Found on the distal ends of tibia and
fibula
● Gomphoses
- Immobile
- Found where the teeth meet the facial
bones
 ● Synovial joints
● Cartilaginous Joints - Articulating bones are separated
- Bones are connected by by a joint cavity
fibrocartilage - Synovial fluid is found in the
Types joint cavity
● Four distinguishing features of synovial
● Synchrondrosis joints
- Immobile
- Found in epiphyseal plates of 1. Articular cartilage
growing long bones 2. Articular capsule
● Symphysis
- Slightly movable 3. Joint cavity
- Found in the pubic symphysis, 4. Reinforcing ligaments
and intervertebral joints.

Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

● Fetal skull
- Fontanels are fibrous membranes
connecting the cranial bones
● Known as “soft spots”
● Allow skull compression during birth
● Allow the brain to grow during later
pregnancy and infancy
● Usually, ossify by 2 years of age
● Skeletal changes
- At birth, the head and trunk are
proportionately much longer than the
lower limbs
● During puberty:
- Female pelvis broadens
- Entire male skeleton becomes more
robust
● By the end of adolescence:
- Epiphyseal plates become fully ossified