Chapter 3

Skeletal System
 RELATED COMBINING FORMS
Related Combining
Structures Primary Functions
Forms
oss/e, oss/i, oste/o, Act as the framework for the body, protect the
Bones
ost/o internal organ, and store calcium
Bone myel/o (also means Red bone marrow helps form red blood cells.
marrow spinal cord) Yellow bone marrow stores fat
Creates a smooth surface for motion within the
Cartilage chondr/o
joints and protects the ends of the bones
Work with the muscles to make a variety of
Joints arthr/o
motions possible
Ligaments ligament/o Connect one bone to another
Synovial
synovi/o, synov/o Forms the lining of synovial fluid
membrane
Synovial Lubricant that makes smooth joint movements
synovi/o, synov/o
fluid possible
Cushions areas subject to friction during
Bursa burs/o
movement
 STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE
SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Consists of
– Bones (oss/e, oss/i, oste/o, ost/o)
– Bone marrow (myel/o)
– Cartilage (chondr/o)
– Joints (arthr/o)
– Ligaments (ligament/o)
– Synovial membranes and fluids (synovi/o, synov/o)
– Bursae (burs/o)
 STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE
SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Functions
– Framework of the body
– Provide support and protection to internal organs
– Provide wide variety of body movements
– Storage of important minerals (calcium, a mineral
required for normal nerve and muscle function, is
stored in bones)
– Red bone marrow, which plays an important role
in the formation of blood cells, located in spongy
bone
• Formation of Bones
– Ossification process begins after 3-months
gestation and continues through adolescence
– After growth is completed, this process of new
formation continues as osteoclasts break down
old or damaged bone and osteoblasts help rebuild
the bone.
– Ossification repairs the minor damage to the
skeletal system that occurs during normal activity
and also repairs bones after injuries such as
fractures
 STRUCTURE OF BONES
• Bone is the second hardest tissue in human
body
Cancellous bone,
porous (sponge- Cortical bone, the dense,
like), which makes it hard, and very strong bone
lighter and weaker that forms the protective
than compact bone outer layer of bones
 Located within the spongy bone, is a
hemopoietic tissue that manufactures red
blood cells, haemoglobin, white blood cells,
and thrombocytes. Partially replaced by The end of the
yellow bone marrow during adolescence bone located
nearest to the
The central cavity located in the shaft of long midline of the
bones, where it is surrounded by compact body
bone. (Medullary: pertaining to the inner
section) The
shaft
The tissue that lines the medullary
of a
cavity (end- : within, oste: bone, -um:
long
noun ending)
bone
Functions as a fat storage area. Composed of fat cells
and is located in the medullar cavity of long bones. The end of the
bone located
The tough, fibrous tissue that forms the outermost farthest away
covering of bone (peri: surrounding, -um: noun ending) from the
midline of the
body
 Covers the surfaces of bones where they
• Foramen: An
articulate, or come together, to form a joint. This
opening in a bone
cartilage makes smooth joint movement possible
through which blood
and protects the bones from rubbing against
vessels, nerves, and
each other.
ligaments passes
through the foramen
• Cartilage:
magnum of the
• Cartilage: The smooth, rubbery, blue-
occipital bone at the
white connective tissue that acts a shock
base of the skull
absorber between bones. More elastic
• A process is a
than bone, also makes up the flexible
normal projection
parts of the skeleton such as the outer
on the surface of a
ear and the tip of the nose
bone that most
• Meniscus: The curved, fibrous cartilage
commonly serves as
found in some joints, such as the knee
an attachment for a
and temporomandibular joint of the jaw
muscle or tendon.
• Anatomic Landmarks of Bones:
Ex: the mastoid
• Epiphyses: The wider ends of long bones
process is the bony
such as the femurs of the legs (singular
projection located
epiphysis). Each epiphysis is covered with
on the temporal
articular cartilage to protect it
bones just behind
the ears
 JOINTS
• Articulations, are the place of union between
two or more bones.
• Classified either according to their
construction or based on the degree of
movement they allow
• Fibrous joint:
– Inflexible layers of dense connective tissue
– Hold bones tightly together
– Also known as sutures
– Do not allow for movement
– Fontanelles:
• The soft spots, are normally present on the skull of a
newborn.
• These flexible soft spots facilitate the passage of the infant
through the birth canal
• Allow for the growth of the skull during the first year. As
the child matures, and the sutures close, the fontanelles
gradually harden
• Cartilaginous joint:
– Consist of bones connected by cartilage
– Allow slight movement of joint
– Example:
• Where the ribs connect to the sternum (breast
bone), these joints allow movement during
breathing
• The pubic symphysis allows some movement to
facilitate childbirth. This joint is located
between the pubic bones in the anterior (front)
of the pelvis
 • Synovial joints:
– Created where two bones articulate to permit a
variety of motions.
– Articulate, means to come together.

Ball-and-socket joints, such as Hinge joints, such as the knees and elbows, are
the hips and shoulders, allow a synovial joints that allow movement primarily in
wide range of movement in one direction or plane
many directions
 – Components of synovial joints:
• Synovial capsule: The outermost layer of strong fibrous
tissue that resembles a sleeve as it surrounds the joint

Lines the capsule and

secretes synovial fluids A fibrous sac that acts
as a cushion to ease
Flows within the movement in areas
synovial cavity, acts as that are subject to
a lubricant to make the friction, such as in the
smooth movement of shoulder, elbow, and
the joint possible knee joints where a
tendon passes over a
bone
Ligaments: Bands of fibrous tissue that form joints by connecting one
bone to another bone or by joining a bone to cartilage. Complex hinge
joints, such as the knee, are made up of a series of ligaments that
permit movement in different directions
 SKELETON
• Axial skeleton:
– Protects major organs of nervous,
respiratory, and circulatory systems
– Organized into five parts
• Bones of skull
• Ossicles (bones) of middle ear
• Hyoid bone, located on throat between chin
and thyroid
• Rib cage
• Vertebral column
• Appendicular skeleton:
– Protects organs of digestion, excretion, and
reproduction
– Organization
• Upper extremities (shoulders, arms, forearms, wrists,
hands)
• Lower extremities (hips, thighs, legs, ankles, feet)
– Appendage: Anything that is attached to a major
part of the body
– Appendicular: Refer to an appendage
– Extremity: The terminal end of a body part such as
an arm or leg
 SKELETON

Upper extremities
(shoulders, arms,
forearms, wrists,
hands)

Lower extremities
(hips, thighs, legs,
ankles, feet)
• Bones of skull:
– Cranium
• 8 bones
– Face
• 14 bones
– Middle ear
• 6 bones
 – Bones of cranium (crani: skull, -um: noun ending)
The anterior portion of the
cranium that forms the forehead.
This bone houses the frontal
sinuses and forms

An irregular, wedge-shaped bone

at the base of the skull. This bone
makes contact with all of the
other cranial bones and helps
form the base of the cranium, the
sides of the skull, and the floors
and sides of the eye sockets

Light, spongy bone located at the

roof and sides of the nose. Here it
separates the nasal cavity from
the brain, and it also forms a
portion of each orbit. An orbit is
the bony socket that surrounds
and protects each eyeball
 Two of the largest bones of the
skull. Together they form most
of the roof and upper sides of
the cranium

Form the sides and base of the

cranium

Forms the back part of the skull

and the base of the cranium

The opening of the external auditory

canal of the outer ear. This canal is
located within the temporal base on
each side of the skull. A meatus is the
external opening of a canal
 – The auditory ossicles:
• The three tiny bones located in each middle ear.
• These bones, known as the malleus, incus, and stapes
– Bones of the face:

2 Form the upper part of the bridge of the nose

2 Cheekbones, articulate with the frontal

bone that makes up the forehead

2 Forms the base for the nasal septum.

The nasal septum is the cartilage wall
divides the two nasal cavities
2 Form most of the upper jaw (singular,
maxilla). These bones known as the maxillae.
Jawbone, the only movable bone of the
skull. The mandible is attached to the
skull at the temporomandibular joint,
which is commonly known as the TMI
 2 Make up part of the orbit
(socket of the eye) at the
inner angle

2 The thin, scroll-like

bones that form part of
the interior of the nose
(singular, concha)

2 Palatine bones: Form the anterior

(front) part of the hard palate of the
mouth and the floor of the nose.
• Thoracic cavity:
– Also known as rib cage
– Protects heart and lungs
– Consists of ribs, sternum, upper portion of
spinal column extending from neck to the
diaphragm
– The ribs:
• Also known as costals, attach posteriorly to the
thoracic vertebrae (cost: rib, -al: pertaining to)
 • Also known as rib
cage
• Protects heart and
Also known as lungs
costals, attach • Consists of ribs,
posteriorly to the sternum, upper
thoracic vertebrae portion of spinal
(cost: rib, -al: column extending
pertaining to) form neck to the
diaphragm
 The first 7 pairs of ribs and they attach
anteriorly to the sternum

The next 3 pairs of ribs and they

attach anteriorly to cartilage that
connects them to the sternum

The last 2 pairs of ribs and they are only attached

posteriorly to the vertebrae but are not attached
anteriorly
 The bony structure that forms the
upper portion of the sternum
• Also known as breast bone, is a flat, dagger-
shaped bone located in the middle of the
chest.
• By joining with the ribs, it forms the front of
the rib cage.
• Body of the sternum:
• The bony structure that forms the
middle portion of the sternum

The structure made of

cartilage that forms the
lower portion of the
sternum. Xiphoid comes
from the Greek word for
a straight word
• Shoulders
– The shoulders form the pectoral girdle, which
supports the arms and hands
– Also known as shoulder girdle. Girdle refers to a
structure that encircles the body
Also known as collar bone, a slender bone that connects the
manubrium of the sternum to the scapula

An extension of the scapula that forms the

high point of the shoulder

Also known as shoulder blade

• Arms
The bone of the upper arm

Commonly known as funny bone, a large projection on

the upper end of the ulna. This forms the point of the
elbow and exposes a nerve that tingles when struck

The larger and longer bone of the forearm. The

proximal end of the ulna articulates with the distal
end of the humerus to form the elbow joint

The smaller and shorter bone in the

forearm. The radius runs up the thumb
side of the forearm
• Wrists, hands, and fingers.

The 14 bones of the fingers.

The 5 bones that form the

palms of the hand
The bones that form the wrist.
These bones form a narrow
bony passage known as the
carpal tunnel. The median
nerve and the tendons of the
fingers pass through this tunnel
to reach hand.
• Spinal column
– Also known as the vertebral column
(vertebral: pertaining to the vertebrae)
– Protects spinal cord
– Supports head and body
– Consists of 26 vertebrae
 – The structures of vertebrae:
• The anterior portion of the vertebra is solid to provide
strength and is known as the body of vertebra

The posterior portion of the vertebra. The

transverse and spinous processes extend
from this area and serve as attachments for
muscles and tendons

The opening in the middle of the vertebra.

This opening allows the spinal cord to pass
through and to protect spinal cord
 The 1st set of 7 vertebrae,
and they form the neck.
Cervical means pertaining
to the neck
Made of cartilage, separate and
cushion the vertebrae from each The 2nd set of 12 vertebrae.
other. They also act as shock Each of these vertebrae
absorbers and allows for movement has a pair of ribs attached
of the spinal column to it, and together they
form the outward curve of
the spine. Thoracic:
pertaining to the thoracic
The slightly curved, triangular- cavity
shaped bone near the base of the
spine that forms the lower portion The 3rd set of 5 vertebrae,
of the back. At birth, the sacrum is and together they form the
composed of 5 separate bones, inward curve of the lower
however, in the young child, they spine. These are the
fuse together to form a single bone largest and strongest of
the vertebrae, and they
Also known as tailbone, bear most of the body’s
forms the end of the spine weight. Lumbar: relating to
and is actually made up of 4 the part of the back and
small vertebrae that are sides between the ribs and
fused together. the pelvis
• Pelvis
– Also known as the bony pelvis, protects
internal organs and supports the lower
extremities.
– It includes the pelvic girdle, a cup-shaped
ring of the bone at the lower end of the
trunk consisting of the ilium, ischium, and
pubis.
Sacroiliac, the slightly movable articulation between
the sacrum and the posterior portion of the ilium
(sacr/o: sacrum, ili: ilium, -ac: pertaining to)

The broad, blade-shaped

bone that forms the back and
sides of the pubic bone

Forms the anterior portion of

the pubic bone, is located just
below the urinary bladder

Forms the lower posterior portion

of the pubic bone, bears the
weight of the body when sitting The cartilaginous joint that unites the left
and right pubic bones. A cartilaginous joint
allows slight movement between bones
 At birth the ilium, ischium,
and pubis are 3 separate
bones. As the child matures,
these bones fuse to form the
left and right pubic bones, Pubic bone
which are held securely
together by the pubic
symphysis. A symphysis is a
place where two bones are
closely joined
Also known as the hip
socket, the large
circular cavity in each
side of the pelvis that
articulates with the
head of the femur to
form the hip joint
 Kness
• Legs and knees • Patella
• Popliteal, describes the
posterior space behind
• The largest bones in the body. the knee where the
Femoral: pertaining to the femur ligaments, vessels, and
• Also known as thigh bones muscles related to the
• The head of the femur articulates joint are located
with the acetabulum (hip socket) • Cruciate ligament, make
• The femoral neck is the narrow area possible the movements
just below the head of the femur of the knee. Known as
anterior and posterior
Also known as kneecap, the bony
cruciate ligaments
anterior portion of the knee
because they shaped like
Also known as the shinbone, a cross
the larger anterior weight-
bearing bone of the lower leg

The smaller of the 2

bones of the lower leg
• Ankles
– The joints that connect the lower leg and foot
and make the necessary movement possible
– Each ankle is made up of 7 short tarsal bones.
These bones are similar to the bones of the
wrists, however, they are much larger in size

A rounded bony projection

on the tibia and fibula on the
sides of each ankle joint
 The ankle bone that articulates
with the tibia and fibula

5 metatarsals form that part of the foot

to which the toes are attached

The bones of the toes. The

great toe has 2 phalanges.
Each of the other toes has 3
phalanges.

Also known as heel bone, the

largest of the tarsal bones
 MEDICAL SPECIALTIES RELATED TO
SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Chiropractor
– Specializes in manipulative treatment of disorders
related to misalignment of the spine. Manipulative
treatment involves manually adjusting the
positions of the bones
• Orthopedic surgeon
– Specializes in diagnosing/treating diseases and
disorders involving bones, joint, and muscles
• Osteopath
– Uses traditional forms of medical treatment in
addition to specializing in treating health problems
by spinal manipulation. (oste/o: bone; -path:
disease)
• Podiatrist
– Specializes in diagnosing/treating disorders of the
foot. (pod: foot; -iatrist: specialist)
• Rheumatologist
– Specializes in diagnosis and treatment of arthritis
and disorders such as osteoporosis, fibromyalgia,
and tendinitis that are characterized by
inflammation of joints and connective tissue
 PATHOLOGY OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Joints:
– Ankylosis
• Loss or absence of mobility in a joint due to disease,
injury, or surgical procedure
• (ankyl: crooked, bent, or stiff; -osis: abnormal condition
or disease)
• Mobility means being capable of movement
– Adhesive capsulitis
• Frozen shoulder, painful ankylosis of the shoulder
• (capsul: little box; -itis: inflammation)
• Caused by adhesions forming in the synovial capsule
surrounding the shoulder, making joint become thicker
and tighter
– Arthrosclerosis
• Stiffness of joints
• (arthr/o: joint; -sclerosis: abnormal hardening)
– Baker's cyst
• Popliteal cyst, fluid-filled sac behind the knee
• Result from a condition such as rheumatoid
arthritis triggering the production of excess
synovial fluid
– Bursitis
• Inflammation of a bursa (burs: bursa; -itis:
inflammation)
– Chondromalacia
• Abnormal softening of cartilage
• (chondr/o: cartilage; malacia: abnormal
softening)
– Costochondritis
• Inflammation of the cartilage that connects a
rib to the sternum
• (cost/o: rib; chondr: cartilage; -itis:
inflammation)
– Hallux valgus
• Bunion, abnormal enlargement of joint at the
base of the great toe
– Hemarthrosis
• Blood within a joint
• (hem: blood; arthr: joint; -osis: abnormal
condition or disease)
• Occur due to a joint injury
• Occur spontaneously in patients taking blood
thinning medications or those having a blood
clotting disorder such as hemophilia
– Polymyalgia rheumatic
• Inflammatory disorder of muscles and joints
characterized by pain and stiffness in the neck,
shoulders, upper arms, and hips and thighs
• (poly-: many; my: muscle; -algia: pain)
– Sprain
• Occur when a ligament that connects bones to a joint is
wrenched or torn
– Synovitis
• Inflammation of synovial membrane, resulting in swelling
and pain of affected joint
• (synov: synovial membrane; -itis: inflammation)
• Caused by arthritis, trauma, infection, or irritation
produced by damaged cartilage
– Dislocation:
• Luxation
– Total displacement of a bone from its joint
• Subluxation
– Partial displacement of a bone from its joint
• Arthritis:
– Inflammatory condition of one or more joints
– More than 100 types
– (arthr: joint; -itis: inflammation)
– Common types of arthritis:
• Osteoarthritis:
– Known as wear-and-tear arthritis, is most commonly associated
with aging (oste/o: bone, arthr: joint, -itis: inflammation)
– Known as a degenerative joint disease because it is characterized
by the wearing away of the articular cartilage within the joints.
Degenerative: the breaking down or impairment of a body part
– It is also characterized by hypertrophy of bone and the formation
of osteophytes, also known as bone spurs
– Spondylosis also known as spinal osteoarthritis. This degenerative
can cause loss of normal spinal structure and function (spondyl:
vertebrae, -osis: abnormal condition or disease)
• Gout:
– Also known as gouty arthritis, a type of arthritis
characterized by deposits of uric acid crystals in the
joints, usually beginning with the big toe.
– Joints affected by gout are typically warm, red, and
excruciatingly sensitive
• Rheumatoid arthritis:
– A chronic autoimmune disorder in which the joints
and some organs of other body systems are
attacked
– RA progressively attacks the synovial membranes,
they become inflamed and thickened so that the
joints are increasingly swollen, painful, and
immobile.
• Ankylosing spondylitis:
– A form of rheumatoid arthritis that primarily causes
inflammation of the joints between the vertebrae
(ankylosing: the progressive stiffening of a joints,
spondyl: vertebrae, -itis: inflammation)
– This type of chronic inflammatory back disorders is
collectively called spondyloarthropathies
• Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis:
– An autoimmune disorder that affects children ages
16/younger, with symptoms that include stiffness,
pain, joint swelling, skin rash, fever, slowed growth,
and fatigue
• Spinal cord:
– Herniated disk
• Also known as slipped or ruptured disk
• Breaking apart of intervertebral disk resulting in pressure on spinal
nerve roots
– Lumbago
• Also known as low back
• Pain of lumbar region of the spine (lumb: lumbar; -ago: diseased
condition)
– Spondylolisthesis
• Forward slipping movement of body of one of lower lumbar vertebrae
or sacrum (spondyl/o: vertebrae; -listhesis: slipping)
– Spina bifida
• Congenital defect that occurs during early pregnancy when the spinal
canal fails to close completely around the spinal cord to protect it.
(Spina: pertaining to the spine, bifida: split) some case of spina bifida
are due to a lack of the nutrient folic acid during early stages of
pregnancy
– Curvatures of spine:
• Kyphosis
– Abnormal increase in outward curvature of thoracic
spine as viewed from the side (kyph: hump, -osis:
abnormal condition or disease)
– Known as humpback or Dowager's hump
• Lordosis
– Abnormal increase in forward curvature of lumbar
spine
– Known as swayback (lord: bent backward, -osis:
abnormal condition)
• Scoliosis
– Abnormal lateral curvature of the spine (scoli:
curved, -osis: abnormal condition or disease)
• Bones:
– Avascular necrosis
• Also known as osteonecrosis
• An area of bone tissue death due to insufficient blood
flow (a-: without; vascul: blood vessels; -ar: pertaining
to; necrosis: tissue death)
• Most commonly occurs in the hip joint, and often
requires a hip replacement
– Craniostenosis
• Malformation of skull due to premature closure of
cranial sutures (crani/o: skull; -stenosis: abnormal
narrowing)
– Osteitis (oste: bone)
• Inflammation of a bone
– Osteomalacia
• Also known as adult rickets
• Abnormal softening of bones in adults (oste/o: bone; -
malacia: abnormal softening)
• Usually caused by a deficiency of vitamin D, calcium,
and/or phosphate
– Osteomyelitis
• Inflammation of bone marrow and adjacent bone
(oste/o: bone; myel: bone marrow)
• The bacterial infection that causes osteomyelitis often
originates in another part of the body and spreads to
the bone via the blood
– Paget's disease
• A chronic bone disease of unknown cause
• The condition is characterized by the abnormal
breakdown of bone usually in pelvis, skull, spine, and
legs followed by abnormal bone formation
• The new bone is often structurally enlarged, misshapen
and weak
– Periostitis
• Inflammation of periosteum (peri: surrounding; ost:
bone, -itis: inflammation)
• This condition is often associated with shin splints
– Rickets
• A deficiency disease occurring in children
• This condition is characterized by defective bone
growth resulting from a lack of vitamin D necessary for
the body to maintain calcium and phosphorus levels in
the bones
– Short stature
• Also known as Dwarfism
• Condition results from failure of bone of limbs to grow
to appropriate length compared to the size of head and
trunk
– Talipes
• Describes any congenital deformity of the foot involving
the talus (ankle bones)
• Also known as Clubfoot
– Bone tumors:
• Primary bone cancer
– A relatively rare malignant tumor that originates in a bone
– Malignant: Becoming progressively worse and life-threatening
– Ex: Ewing’s sarcoma, a tumor that occurs in the bones of the upper
arm, legs, pelvis, or rib
• Secondary bone cancer
– Describes tumors that have metastasized (spread) to bones from
other organs such as the breasts and lungs
• Myeloma
– A type of cancer occurring in blood-making cells found in red bone
marrow (myel: bone marrow; -oma: tumor)
– This condition can cause pathologic fractures and is often fatal
• Osteochondroma
– A benign bony projection covered with cartilage (oste/o: bone;
chondr: cartilage)
– Benign: something that is not life-threatening and does not recur,
this type of tumor also known as exostosis
• Osteoporosis and Osteopenia Compared:
– Osteoporosis
• Marked loss of bone density with increase in bone porosity
that is frequently associated with aging. (oste/o: bone; por:
small opening; -osis: abnormal condition or disease)
– Osteopenia
• Thinner-than-average bone density. (oste/o: bone; -penia:
deficiency)
• Used to describe the condition of someone who does not
yet have osteoporosis but has a greater-than-average
chance of developing it
• Risk factors for osteopenia include aging, smoking,
drinking, and lack of calcium in the diet
• Young females who do not consume enough calories may
also develop the condition
– Osteoporosis-related fractures:
• Compression fracture
– Also known as a vertebral crush fracture, occurs when the bone is pressed
together (compressed) itself
– These fractures are sometimes caused by the spontaneous collapse of
weakened vertebrae or can be due to an injury
– This results in pain, loss of height, and development of the spinal curvature
known as dowager’s hump
• Colles' fracture
– Also known as a fractures wrist
– This fracture occurs at lower end of radius when a person tries to stop a fall
by landing on his/her hands
– The impact of this fall causes the bone weakened by osteoporosis to break
• Osteoporotic hip fracture
– Also known as broken hip, usually caused by weakening of the bones due
osteoporosis and can occur either spontaneously or as the result of a fall
– Complications from these fractures can result in the loss of function,
mobility, and independence, or death.
– Osteoporotic: pertaining to or caused by the porous condition of bones
• Fractures:
– Broken bone, is described in terms of complexity
– Closed fracture
• Also known as simple fracture or a complete fracture
• Bone is broken but there is no open wound in skin
– Open fracture
• Also known as compound fracture
• Bone is broken and there is an open wound in the skin
– Comminuted fracture
• Bone is splintered or crushed
• Comminuted: crushed into small pieces
– Greenstick fracture/ incomplete fracture
• Bone is bent and only partially broken
• Seen frequently in children
– Oblique fracture
• Occurs at an angle across the bone
– Pathologic fracture
• Occurs when a weakened bone breaks under normal strain.
• Due to bones being weakened by osteoporosis or a disease
process such as cancer
– Spiral fracture
• A fracture in which the bone has been twisted apart
• Occurs as the result of a severe twisting motion such as in a sport
– Stress fracture
• An overuse injury, a small crack in the bone that often develops
from chronic excessive impact
– Transverse fracture
• Occurs straight across the bone
• Additional terms associated with fractures:
– Fat embolus
• May form when a long bone is fractured and fat cells from yellow bone
marrow are released into the blood
• Embolus: Any foreign matter circulating in the blood that can become
lodged and block the blood vessel
– Crepitation
• Also known as crepitus
• The grating sound heard when the ends of broken bone move together
• Refers to any unusual crackling sound or sensation within the body
• Frequently used to describe the popping or clicking sound heard in the
movements of some joints
– Callus
• As the bone heals, it forms as a bulging deposit around the area of the
break
• Tissue eventually becomes bone
• A callus is also a thickening of the skin caused by repeated rubbing
 DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURES OF
SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Radiograph (X-ray)
– Visualizes bone fractures/abnormalities
• Arthroscopy
– Use of arthroscope to visually examine internal
structure of a joint using an arthroscope (arthr/o:
joint; -scopy: visual examination)
• Bone marrow biopsy
– Diagnostic test that may be necessary after abnormal
types or numbers of red or white blood cells are found
in a complete blood count test
• Bone marrow aspiration
– The use of a syringe to withdraw tissue from the
red bone marrow
– Used to obtain tissue for diagnostic purposes or to
collect bone marrow for medical procedures such
as stem cell transplantation
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
– Used to image soft tissue structures such as the
interior complex joints
• Bone scans and arthrocentesis
– Additional diagnostic procedures
• Bone density testing:
– Used to determine losses or changes in bone
density
– These tests are used to diagnose conditions such
as osteoporosis, osteomalacia, osteopenia, and
Paget’s disease
– Ultrasonic bone density testing
• Screening test for osteoporosis or other conditions
related to loss of bone mass
• Sound waves are used to take measure calcaneus bone
– Dual x-ray absorptiometry (DXA)
• A low-exposure radiographic measurement of spine
and hips to measures bone density
 TREATMENT PROCEDURES OF SKELETAL
SYSTEM
• Bone marrow transplant:
– Treats certain types of cancers, such as leukemia
and lymphomas that affect bone marrow
• Types of bone marrow transplants:
• Allogenic bone marrow transplant: use of healthy bone
marrow cells from compatible donor
• Autologous bone marrow transplant: use of harvested,
cleansed, treated, and stored bone marrow cells from
the patient, before the cells are destroyed by the
disease
• Medical devices:
– Orthotic
• Mechanical appliance designed to control,
correct, or compensate for impaired limb
function
– Prosthesis
• Substitute for a diseased or missing body part
• Joints:
– Arthrodesis
• Also known as surgical ankylosis
• Surgical fusion (joining together) of two bones to stiffen
a joint, such as an ankle, elbow, or shoulder (arthr/o:
joint; -desis: to bind, tie together)
• This procedure to treat severe arthritis or a damaged
joint
– Arthrolysis
• Surgical loosening of ankylosed joint (arthr/o: joint; -
lysis: loosening or setting free)
• Arthroscopic surgery
– Minimally invasive procedure for treating interior of
joint
– Ex: torn cartilage can be removed with the use of an
arthroscope and instruments inserted through small
incisions
• Chondroplasty
– Surgical repair of damaged cartilage (chondr/o:
cartilage; -plasty: surgical repair)
• Synovectomy
– Surgical removal of synovial membrane from a joint
(synov: synovial membrane; -ectomy: surgical
removal)
– Joint replacement:
• The joint replacement part is a prosthesis that is
commonly referred to as an implant
• Total knee replacement
– Also known as a total knee artroplasty
– All parts of the knee are replaced
• Partial knee replacement
– Only part of the knee is replaced
• Total hip replacement
– Also known as a total arthroplasty
– Restores damaged hip to full function
• Hip resurfacing
– Placing of metal cap over head of femur to restore function of the
hip
• Revision surgery
– Replacement of worn or failed implant
• Spinal column:
– Percutaneous diskectomy
• Ruptured disk is suctioned out or vaporized with a laser
– Percutaneous vertebroplasty
• Injection of bone cement to stabilize compression
fractures within spinal column (vertebr/o: vertebra; -
plasty: surgical repair)
– Laminectomy
• Surgical removal of posterior portion of a vertebra
(lamin: lamina; -ectomy: surgical removal)
– Spinal fusion
• Immobilization of spine by fusing two or more
vertebrae
• Bones:
– Craniectomy
• Surgical removal of a portion of the skull (crani: skull; -
ectomy: surgical removal)
– Craniotomy
• Surgical incision or opening into the skull (crani: skull; -
otomy: surgical incision)
– Cranioplasty
• Surgical repair of the skull (crani/o: skull; -plasty: surgical
repair)
– Osteoclasis
• Surgical fracture of a bone to correct deformity (oste/o:
bone; -clasis: to break)
– Ostectomy
• Surgical removal of a bone
– Osteorrhaphy
• Surgical suturing of bones (oste/o: bone; -rrhaphy:
surgical suturing)
– Osteotomy
• Surgical cutting of a bone (oste: bone; -otomy: surgical
incision)
– Periosteotomy
• Incision through periosteum to the bone (peri-:
surrounding)
• Treatment of fractures:
– Closed reduction
• Manipulating and realigning fractured bone or joint
dislocation
– Open reduction
• Surgical procedure if closed reduction is not practical
– Immobilization
• Holding, suturing, or fastening bone in fixed position
with strapping or a cast
– Traction
• Pulling of limb in distal direction in an attempt to return
bone/joint to normal alignment
– External and internal fixation:
• External fixation
– Use of external device to hold the pieces of
bone firmly in place during healing
• Internal fixation
– Surgical procedure placing plates/pins
directly into the bone to hold the broken
pieces in place