ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

TOPIC: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

REFERENCE: ESSENTIAL OF HUMAN ANATOMY (EIGHT EDITION) BY ELAINE MARIEB
PROFESSOR: MA. ROSARIO MEÑEZ-QUEJADO, Ed.D., MAEd., LPT, RMT

▪ Parts of the skeletal system

▪ Bones (skeleton) ▪ Cartilages
▪ Joints ▪ Ligaments
▪ Divided into two divisions
▪ Axial skeleton
▪ Appendicular skeleton
▪ Functions of Bones
Support of the body Storage of minerals and fats
Protection of soft organs Blood cell formation
Movement due to attached skeletal
muscles
▪ The adult skeleton has 206 bones
▪ Two basic types of bone tissue
▪ Compact bone- Homogeneous
▪ Spongy bone- Small needle-like pieces of bone and with Many open spaces
▪ Classification of Bones
Long bones
▪ Typically longer than wide
▪ Have a shaft with heads at both ends
▪ Contain mostly compact bone
▪ Examples: Femur, humerus
Short bones
▪ Generally cube-shape
▪ Contain mostly spongy bone
▪ Examples: Carpals, tarsals
Flat bones
▪ Thin and flattened
▪ Usually curved
▪ Thin layers of compact bone around a layer of spongy bone
▪ Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum
Irregular bones
▪ Irregular shape
▪ Do not fit into other bone classification categories
▪ Example: Vertebrae and hip
▪ Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone
Diaphysis- shaft and composed of compact bone
Epiphysis -ends of the bone and composed mostly of spongy bone
Periosteum -outside covering of the diaphysis and fibrous connective tissue membrane
Sharpey’s fibers -secure periosteum to underlying bone
Arteries-supply bone cells with nutrients
▪ Structures of a Long Bone
Articular cartilage
▪ Covers the external surface of the epiphyses
▪ Made of hyaline cartilage
▪ Decreases friction at joint surfaces
Medullary cavity
▪ Cavity of the shaft
▪ Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults
▪ Contains red marrow (for blood cell formation) in infants
▪ Bone Markings
Surface features of bones
Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments
Passages for nerves and blood vessels
 ▪ Categories of bone markings
▪ Projections and processes – grow out from the bone surface
▪ Depressions or cavities – indentations
▪ Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
Osteon (Haversian System)- A unit of bone
Central (Haversian) canal- Opening in the center of an osteon
Carries blood vessels and nerves
Perforating (Volkman’s) canal- Canal perpendicular to the central canal
Carries blood vessels and nerves
Lacunae- Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes) and arranged in concentric rings
Lamellae- Rings around the central canal and sites of lacunae
Canaliculi - Tiny canals and radiate from the central canal to lacunae
Form a transport system
Changes in the Human Skeleton
▪ In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
▪ During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone
▪ Cartilage remains in isolated areas : Bridge of the nose, Parts of ribs, Joints
▪ Bone Growth
Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during childhood
▪ New cartilage is continuously formed
▪ Older cartilage becomes ossified
▪ Cartilage is broken down
▪ Bone replaces cartilage
Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
▪ Bones change shape somewhat
▪ Bones grow in width
▪ Types of Bone Cells
Osteocytes -Mature bone cells
Osteoblasts - Bone-forming cells
Osteoclasts - Bone-destroying cells and Break down bone matrix for remodeling and
release of calcium
Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Bone Fractures- A break in a bone
Types of bone fractures
▪ Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not penetrate the skin
▪ Open (compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates through the skin
Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization
Repair of Bone Fractures
▪ Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
▪ Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
▪ Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
▪ Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch
The Axial Skeleton- forms the longitudinal part of the body
Divided into three parts
▪ Skull
▪ Vertebral column
▪ Bony thorax
The Skull Two sets of bones
1. Cranium
2. Facial bones
Bones are joined by sutures
▪ Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint
Paranasal Sinuses
▪ Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity
Functions of paranasal sinuses
▪ Lighten the skull and Give resonance and amplification to voice
The Hyoid Bone
▪ The only bone that does not articulate with another bone
 ▪ Serves as a moveable base for the tongue
The fetal skull is large compared to the infants total body length
The Fetal Skull
▪ Fontanelles – fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones. Allow the brain to
Grow convert to bone within 24 months after birth
The Vertebral Column
▪ Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs
▪ The spine has a normal curvature
▪ Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location
The Bony Thorax
▪ Forms a cage to protect major organs
▪ Made-up of three parts
▪ Sternum, Ribs, Thoracic vertebrae
The Appendicular Skeleton
▪ Limbs (appendages)
▪ Pectoral girdle
▪ Pelvic girdle
The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
▪ Composed of two bones
▪ Clavicle – collarbone
▪ Scapula – shoulder blade
▪ These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free movement
Bones of the Upper Limb
▪ The arm is formed by a single bone - > Humerus
▪ The forearm has two bones - > Ulna Radius
▪ The hand
▪ Carpals – wrist
▪ Metacarpals – palm
▪ Phalanges – fingers
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
▪ Hip bones- Composed of three pair of fused bones - > Ilium, Ischium, Pubic bone
▪ The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
▪ Protects several organs
▪ Reproductive organs, Urinary bladder, Part of the large intestine
Bones of the Lower Limbs
▪ The thigh has one bone - > Femur – thigh bone
▪ The leg has two bones
▪ Tibia
▪ Fibula
▪ The foot
Tarsus – ankle Metatarsals – sole Phalanges – toes
Arches of the Foot
Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong arches
1. Two longitudinal 2. One transverse
Joints- Articulations of bones
Functions of joints
▪ Hold bones together
▪ Allow for mobility
Functional Classification of Joints
▪ Synarthroses – immovable joints
▪ Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints
▪ Diarthroses – freely moveable joints
Structural Classification of Joints
▪ Fibrous joints- Generally immovable
▪ Cartilaginous joints- Immovable or slightly moveable
▪ Synovial joints- Freely moveable
Fibrous Joints-Bones united by fibrous tissue
Examples: Sutures
Syndesmoses- Allows more movement than sutures
Example: distal end of tibia and fibula
Cartilaginous Joint- Bones connected by cartilage
Examples: Pubic symphysis and Intervertebral joints
Synovial Joints- Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity and found in the joint cavity
Features of Synovial Joints
- Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers the ends of bones
- Joint surfaces are enclosed by a fibrous articular capsule
- Have a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid
- Ligaments reinforce the joint
Structures Associated with the Synovial Joint
Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs
-Lined with synovial membranes
- Filled with synovial fluid
- Not actually part of the joint
Tendon sheath- Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon
Inflammatory Conditions Associated with Joints
▪ Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow or friction
▪ Tendonitis – inflammation of tendon sheaths
▪ Arthritis – inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints
▪ Over 100 different types
▪ The most widespread crippling disease in the United States
Clinical Forms of Arthritis
1. Osteoarthritis- Most common chronic arthritis
Probably related to normal aging processes
2. Rheumatoid arthritis- An autoimmune disease – the immune system attacks
the joints. Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of certain joints
and Often leads to deformities
3. Gouty Arthritis- Inflammation of joints is caused by a deposition of urate
crystals from the blood. Can usually be controlled with diet
Developmental Aspects of the Skeletal System
- At birth, the skull bones are incomplete
- Bones are joined by fibrous membranes – fontanelles
- Fontanelles are completely replaced with bone within two years after birth