Geomorphology

Bhavamanyu Gokul
 Rocks
What is the basic component of Earth’s
crust and mantle…
Our crust and earthen landforms are
constantly changing, morphing. The
extent to which a landscape is
modified depends on many factors
such as internal processes, external
forces, nature of rocks and the
length of time these processes have
been acting.
 Then there are smaller
nevertheless, significant forces
such as weathering, or gradation
that affect land. Common and
massive agents such as rivers,
winds and even glaciers have an
effect on the morphology of
 Introduction to Rocks
Rocks are naturally occurring
solid materials.

Being one of the basic

components of Earth, it mainly
makes up all but the inner
most layers.

Rocks are composed of one or

more minerals.

Click for a fun and detailed explanation on rocks!

 Types of Rocks
Rocks are broadly classified
into three major groups
according to how they were
formed.

Igneous rocks, sedimentary

rocks, metamorphic rocks.

Like all living organisms,

rocks also go through a life
cycle.
Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed
when magma/lava cools
and solidifies.

Magma is a molten mixture

of rock forming minerals,
gases, and steam produced
at high-temperature within
the earth.

When a volcano erupts, or

a deep crack occurs in the
earth, the magma rises.
 Magma Oozing Out
Fun Fact - The word igneous, comes from the Latin word
ignis, meaning ‘fire’.
 Types Of Igneous Rocks
There are two major types of igneous rocks. Extrusive
Larger crystals, take thousands of years to coo
and Intrusive igneous rock.

As the name suggests, extrusive

rocks are rocks that ‘extrude’;
that is, formed above the crust
Smaller crystals, take less (seconds to months) time
when lava cools.

And for intrusive rocks, it is the

opposite… Rocks formed below
the crust when magma cools.
 Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed
when sediments like mud, sand,
and rock fragments are cemented
together.

Layers of sediments are deposited

by agents like wind, ice, water etc.

When the layers build up, the

weight of the top layers, press and
cement the bottom layers
together.
Fun Fact - Sedimentary rocks can often harbour fossils millions
of years old.
 Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are formed

when other rock types change.

This is caused by immense heat,

and/or pressure.
Fun Fact - Metamorphic comes from the word ‘metamorphosis’ which means
to change. As in GeoMORPHOLOGY, which means change of GEO, or Earth.
 Rock Cycle
How the life cycle of a rock is…
The Rock Cycle
 Rock Cycle *Refer to previous slide…

Rocks start out as magma or lava, and when it crystallises,

rocks are formed. As we saw before, these are igneous rocks.

Under immense pressure and heat, (igneous, sedimentary or

earlier metaphoric) rocks start changing into metamorphic
rocks.

As rocks erode, and these sediments solidify into sedimentary

rocks, which melt and cool to form igneous rocks.

This is an ever going cycle and never stops.

Click for a fun explanation!
 Internal and External
Forces
What causes the Earth’s landscape to
change…
 Natural Processes
The Earth's surface
consists of a variety of
landforms. The natural
processes that change the
Earth's physical
appearance, are of two
major types:

The Internal Processes

The External Processes

 Internal Forces
Internal Forces are forces acting on the surface and landscape
of the earth, from within the earth.

These are tectonic forces such as earthquakes, volcanic

eruptions and mountain building.
 External Forces
External Forces are forces acting on the surface and landscape of
the earth.

There are mainly two external forces, weathering* and

gradation**.

* See page 21.

** See page 46.
 Weathering
What is the process that causes rocks to
break apart…
 Weathering
The wearing away or break
down of rocks by agents
present in the atmosphere.

Weathering is the static

process of decay or
disintegration of rocks on the
surface of the Earth.

There are three types of

weathering. Chemical,
biological and mechanical.
 Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical Weathering: This is a physical process in which the
rock is broken into smaller pieces, each retaining the
characteristic of the original rock.

The end result is many small pieces from a single large one.
The chemical nature and composition of the rock remains the
same.

Mechanical weathering can occur in many ways.

Fun Fact - Mechanical weathering takes place in all regions where there are
changes in temperature,
 Agents of Mechanical Weathering
Frost-Thaw : In cooler regions,
water that fills up in crack in
rocks, freezes and turns to ice
at night.

When water freezes, it expands by

about one-tenth of its volume. This
causes the rocks to crack. During
the day the ice melts and the water
seeps further into the crack. At
night the water again freezes,
widening the crack.

This continuous freezing and

thawing of water ultimately causes
the rock to crumble.
Exfoliation: In very hot and dry regions like deserts,
extreme temperature differences cause rocks to break.

During the day : Rocks, especially on the surface, get very hot
and expand. At night : Rapid
cooling takes place causing the rocks to contract.

This continuous expansion and contraction cause rocks to crack

and eventually break up
 Chemical Weathering

Chemical Weathering: During chemical weathering,

the materials that make up the rocks are changed.

Water is the main agent of chemical weathering.

Water is inactive in its pure form but even a small
amount of some dissolved material makes it very
active.

Fun Fact - Chemical weathering takes place in all regions where

there is rain, but is most marked in wet regions which
 Agents of Chemical Weathering
Sometimes carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere or decaying
matter combines with water.

A weak acidic solution is produced

that can dissolve limestone and
other rocks that have calcium
carbonate. When the solution seeps
underground, it may dissolve
calcium carbonate in the rocks and
create cracks. It may also hollow
out caves or network of caves.
Some rocks contain iron compounds which combine with
water and form rust or iron-hydroxide.

The rust expands, breaking up the iron-bearing rocks.

Acid Rain : In built-up areas, rain contains acids from

dissolved industrial gases, such as carbon dioxide and
sulphur dioxide.

This causes acid rain. Acid rain causes widespread damage to

soil, plants, buildings and monuments.
Fun Fact - Our Taj Mahal, is also facing the effects of acidic rain! The
government is trying it’s best to counteract this natural process.
 Biological Weathering
Plants and Trees : Tree roots may grow into cracks in
the rocks in search of nourishment, or the seed of a tree
may sprout in soil that has collected in a cracked rock.
As the roots grow they exert great pressure on the rocks
causing them to break.

Animals : Burrowing animals such as rodents, insects

and worms actively contribute to the weathering
process. They loosen material and also expose more
rock to the other agents of weathering.
Want some trivia
questions on
weathering? Click here!
Effects of Weathering

What does weathering affect…

 Effects Of Weathering
Weathering has a lot of effect on the surrounding
environment and land scapes.

Movement of Weathered Material : Weathered material

can slide downhill as soon as it is detached from the
underlying rock, due to the pull of gravity.

There are many occurrences caused due to weathering

in the nearby areas.
Fun Fact - Weathering and withering have similar word roots,
and both mean to erode away, or to slowly disintegrate!
Soil Creep is a very slow mass
movement that goes on for years
Soil Creep
or even centuries.

It can be noticed by falling of

walls, tilting of poles and trees.

In dry areas (sandy soil) wind will

cause soil movement.

In areas where you get freeze-

thaw conditions, the freeze part
lifts the soil particles and the
thaw part drops then but to a
new location. This too is a slower
soil creep.
 Landslide is a sudden
Landslides collapse of a large mass of
hillside.

Landslides usually occur

after heavy rains on steep
slopes. As rain water seeps
through the weathered
particles, it reduces the
friction between them. Also,
the weight of the weathered
particles increases.

Landslides often cause loss

of life and property.
It is the flow of weathered
material, sodden with water,
down a hillside. Mudflow
Mudflows are most common in
dry mountainous regions
where rainfall is very heavy.
Large amounts of weathered
particles result in a rapidly
moving mass of mud.

Because of its high density, a

mudflow can easily carry large
rocks and boulders. Fast-
moving mudflows can travel
over 100 km clogging stream
channels, destroying roads,
 Mudflows also occur on the slopes of erupting stratovolcanoes
when heavy rain turns freshly fallen volcanic ash into mud. On
high volcanoes, melting snow may provide large volumes of water.

Fun Fact - Herculaneum, a city at the base of Mt. Vesuvius, was destroyed by
a mudflow during the eruption of 79 A.D., while the neighbouring city of
Pompeii was buried under volcanic ash.
 Erosion and Deposition
What happens to rocks sediments after
weathering…
 Erosion
Erosion is the wearing away
of rocks by agents on the
surface of the Earth like
running water, moving ice,
wind and waves.

Sometimes erosion is also

known as denudation
(meaning laying bare). It is
the wearing away of rock so
that the underlying rocks are
laid bare.
 Deposition

Deposition is the laying down

of sediments carried by wind,
flowing water, the sea or ice.

Sediments can be
transported as pebbles, sand
and mud, or as salts
dissolved in water.
 Click here for a revision on
Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition!
 Gradation
What is the combined process of erosion,
deposition and weathering…
 Gradation
Gradation means to bring to a common
level. Gravity is the driving force behind the
movement of material from high areas to
low areas, thus, reducing the height
differences between them.
But before this can happen, the rocks have
to be eroded (broken) into smaller pieces.
They are then transported and deposited.
This process of
erosion,
transportation and
deposition is known
as gradation.
Gradation = Erosion +
Transportation +
Deposition
Gradation consists of
both degradation and
 Degradation
When landforms of high
elevation are reduced in
height, the process is
known as degradation.
(degrade means to
lower)

Example: When a river

flows down a mountain
slope it wears away the
rocks in its path.
 Aggradation
When landforms of low
elevation are increased in
height, the process is known
as aggradation. ( aggregate
means add to )

Example: Eroded material,

known as load, is transported
by the river. This load may
be deposited along the bank
of the river or at the mouth
of the river forming a delta.
An easy way to remember gradation!
Remember grade, A from
aggradation, and D from degradation.
An A-Grade is doing well; ie. going
uphill, a D-Grade is doing ‘not so
well’; ie progressing downhill!
 Factors Affecting
Landscapes
What are factors that change and affect
landscapes…
 Factors Affecting Landscapes
Internal processes*

External processes*

Nature of rocks : Landforms

made up of harder and more
resistant material would change
more slowly compared to softer
materials.

Length of time : Generally, older

landforms will show more change
since the forces have been
*See page
working for a longer period of
17
time.
 How do they
change
landforms…

What is the role

of rivers in
Geomorphology…

Work Of Rivers
 Rivers form a vital link in the
hydrological cycle between
the water on the land and the
sea, and also have the power
to change the landscape by
their ability to erode,
transport and deposit.
Features of A River
 Main Features of a River
1. Source - The beginning of a
river is called its source.
2. Gradient - A river makes its way
to the sea under the influence of
gravity. The slope of the river is
known as the gradient of the river.
3. Channel - The bed of the river
through which the river flows.
4. River valley - The entire low-
lying area or the depression
through which the river flows.
5. Load - The particles carried by a river. It
includes large boulders and rocks, as well as
fine gravel, sand and silt. Also called sediment
6. Basin - The area drained by a single river
system.
7. Catchment area - The area from where the
river and its tributaries get most of their
water.
 Rivers have three sections: the
upper course, the middle course
and the lower course. The shape
of the river valley changes as the
river flows through the three
courses. The speed of the flow of
the river also changes as does the
work of the river as an agent of
gradation.
Courses of A River
The Upper Course
Introduction to Upper Course
In this region, a river usually flows
through mountainous region. The volume
of water is not much, but the gradient
being steep, the water flows swiftly. The
dominant work of the river in this course
is that of erosion. A swift current can
move even large rocks and boulders.
Introduction to Upper Course
These break apart as they are knocked
around. The smaller pieces carried by the
river scrape and dig into the river bed. Rocks
and pebbles keep on rubbing against each
other. They also rub along the rocky bed of
the river resulting in smooth and rounded
rocks and pebbles. The river in this course
develops typical landforms.
Landforms In The Upper
Course
 Gorge or I Shaped Valley
When a river flows through a
mountainous region made up of
hard rock and little rainfall, most
of the energy of the river is
spent in down-cutting action,
resulting in a narrow valley with
almost vertical walls.

The Indus River and many

tributaries of the Ganga flow
through many deep gorges. A
gorge of considerable size is
known as a canyon.
V Shaped Valley
When a river flows through
a mountainous region
made up of relatively soft
rock with plenty of rainfall,
the sides or the banks of
the river are easily eroded
and widened by increase
in volume of the river
water from time to time,
resulting in a V-shaped
valley.
 Waterfall
A waterfall is a steep descent of
a river over a rocky ledge.

When a river flows from hard

rock to soft rock, the softer rock
is easily eroded forming a ledge
over which the river falls. As the
water falls over the ledge, it
creates a depression known as a
plunge
The river in pool.
the upper course is not very useful for
navigation and transportation because of features
like rapids and cascades. However, the numerous
waterfalls can be harnessed to produce
hydroelectricity.
 Rapids
Rapids are areas of broken,
fast-flowing water in a
stream or a river that has a
slight gradient.

The water tumbles over or

around rocks and boulders as
it flows swiftly through a
narrow part of the river. A
series of rapids, big and
small, are known as
cascades.
 Cataract
The term cataract is used
for a series of rapids in a
large river. It is often
applied to waterfalls of
large volume.
The major work of the
river as an agent of
gradation is to erode.
Transportation also takes
place.
The Middle Course
 Introduction to Middle Course
In the middle course, the river enters the plain.
As the gradient decreases, the flow of the river slows down
and so does its energy. The volume of water increases
considerably. As the slope of the course flattens, the river cuts
less into its river bed. Instead it widens its banks and its river
bed, giving rise to U-
shaped valleys.
The main work of the river here is to transport sediment.
Deposition also takes place.
The river in the middle course develops some typical
landforms.
Landforms In The Middle
Course
 Alluvial Fan
The river drops its load of
sand and gravel as the
speed of the river decreases
suddenly.

The coarse material is

dropped near the base of
the slope while the finer
material is carried further..
Fun Fact -The Great Plain of India, being alluvial, is one
of the world's most extensive and fertile areas and
is, therefore, very densely populated.
 Flood Plain
In the middle course, the gradient
becomes almost flat. Hence the
downward erosion is reduced.
More of the river's energy is
directed from side to side.

As the river cuts away at one

bank, and then at the other, the
valley widens. In this manner, a
flat valley covered with alluvium
brought by the river, is created.
This is a flood plain, also called an
alluvial plain.
 Meander
As the gradient is almost flat,
the river flows in a leisurely
manner forming sweeping loops
and bends.

Where such meanders occur,

the river can be described as a
meandering river.("meander"
which means to wander.)
 Ox - Bow Lake
An ox-bow lake is produced
when a meander forms almost
a complete circle and the
meandering river cuts across
the narrow neck of land.
When silt is deposited at the
entrance to this backwater, an
ox-bow lake is created.
The river is very useful in this stage. It is used for navigation and transportation. It supplies water for
irrigation.
Large dams built on the river can harness the energy of flowing water to produce hydroelectricity.
 Braided River
When a river carries an
enormous amount of load, it
is unable to carry it all the
way to the mouth, and the
channel becomes clogged.

This causes the river to

divide into many
intertwining channels
forming islands in the river
channel. Such a river is
known as a braided river.
The Lower Course
Introduction to Lower Course
In this stage the river flows considerably
slowly. This is because the gradient is
almost flat. The river also flows sluggishly
due to the heavy load it is carrying.
The main work of the river here is that of
deposition. The river in this course
develops typical landforms.
Landforms In The Lower Course
 Delta
A delta is a triangular piece of land
that develops at the mouth of river
by the deposition of sediment.(The
word "delta" is derived from the
Greek letter which is written as a
small triangle.)

The river has less energy to cut

into the land and it can no longer
carry the heavy load of sediment.
When the sediment is deposited in
the river channel where the river
meets the sea, a new land is
formed. This is a delta.
All Rivers do not form Deltas. This maybe be for several
reasons:

If the mountain course of river is very short, the river may not
have enough load to form a delta.

If the lower course of the river is very swift, the sediment is

washed into the sea.

If the coast at the mouth of a river is washed by a strong ocean

current, the sediment is washed away.

If the sea at the mouth of the river is very deep, a delta may not
develop.

If the coast at the mouth of a river is rocky, a delta cannot

develop.
 Importance of Deltas
Deltas have always been important to people. Some of the
earliest civilisations, such as those of Egypt and
Mesopotamia arose on or near deltas.

1. Alluvium deposited by rivers makes the delta very fertile

for growing crops.

2. The network of distributaries provide routes for

transportation and trade.

3. Abundant plants provide a sanctuary for a variety of

birds and wildlife.
 Estuary
Many rivers do not form deltas,
especially along rocky coasts.
Instead they have a narrow,
gradually widening bay at the mouth,
cutting deep inland. Such a funnel-
shaped opening at the mouth of a
river is known as an estuary.

Most estuaries have a mixture of

fresh water and salt water. Water
levels in estuaries rise and fall with
the tides.

Areas around estuaries are ideal

homes for birds and wildlife.
 Distributary
When sediments
build up along the
river's main
channel, the
channel gets
blocked and the
river is forced to
divide into
branches called
 Differences Between
Tributary and Distributary
It is formed when a the river
When a smaller stream joins
is forced to break up into
a larger one, the smaller
branches due to the
stream is known as the
deposition of sediment in its
tributary of the larger one.
channel.
It can be found in any It can only be found in the
course of the river. lower course.
It is useful for transportation It provides a net for good
and irrigation. transportation.
Eg. Yamuna is a tributary of Eg. Padma is a delta of
Ganga. Ganga.
 Differences Between
Estuary and Delta
It is a triangular piece of
land that develops at the
It is a funnel-shaped mouth of a river by the
opening at the mouth of deposition of sediment.
the river.
Made out of fertile soil,
Provides very good sites hence very good for
for harbours. cultivation.

Eg. Kolkata at the mouth Eg. Deltas of the Ganga -

of Hooghly Brahmaputra
The Three Stages Of River
Development
 The development of a river valley
shows that it passes through
different stages of a life-cycle: the
youthful stage, the mature stage
and the old stage. The words
'youthful', 'mature' and 'old' do not
refer to the age in terms of years
but to the stage
of development.
 Youthful Stage
In this stage, rivers have just
begun their work of erosion,
and is a powerful agent of
erosion due to the steep
gradient. The river valley is
narrow V-shaped valley, with
steep sides, because the
downcutting action of the
river is dominant.
 Mature Stage
A mature valley is wider and has
a little gradient. As the river
meanders, the work of widening
becomes faster than that of
deepening. The river valley
becomes U-shaped.When the
river floods, it spreads a fertile
layer of silt. Successive floods
lead to the formation of fertile
alluvial plains, also known as
flood plains.
 Old Stage

In this stage, the valleys

becomes broad and shallow.
The river deposits sediment
and gives rise to deltas.
Check out this cool video on
river features!
Work Of Winds
 Wind is the invisible air
moving from a region of high
pressure to a region of low
pressure. Wind erosion
occurs by two processes:
Deflation and Abrasion.
 Wind as an agent of change is
most widespread in deserts. The
dryness and the lack of vegetation
makes it easier for wind to work.
The soil is piled in dunes, they are
liable to change. Areas of dunes
which shift in this way are called
sand seas.
Winds remove huge quantities of
sediments. Fine dust particles
are carried in suspension high in
the air, while sand particles,
being heavier are carried lower.
Sand is rarely lifted more than a
metre above the ground. Coarse
particles are left behind.
Types Of Deserts
 Sandy Deserts
The Sandy Deserts,
known as Erg in
the Sahara, are
covered with sand
and characterised
by extensive sand
dunes.
 Stony Deserts
The Stony Deserts
known as Reg, are
covered with
boulders, small
stones and gravel.
The fine sand has
been blown away.
Found in Algeria,
Libya and Egypt.
 Rocky Deserts
The Rocky Deserts are
known as Hamada in the
Sahara. These are
characterised by a
surface of bare rock. All
stones and sand have
been removed by the
wind. Such deserts also
cover large areas in Saudi
Arabia.t.
Can you guess what types
of deserts these are? :-)
Types Of Sand Dunes
 Common Types Of Sand Dunes

Barchan Dunes Seif Dunes

This is the most common Seif dunes, also called

type of sand dune. It has longitudinal dunes, are
a crescent shape with long ridges of sand that
the horns of the crescent generally form to the
extending in the prevailing wind.In the
direction in which the deserts of North Africa,
Arabia and Australia,
wind blows. These are
these dunes may extend
common in the deserts
for distances of more
of Rajasthan.
than 100 kilometres.
 Wind Erosion
In humid places, moisture binds the particles together and the
vegetation anchors the soil. Hence, wind erosion is less
significant.

In some parts of the world the surface of the Earth is covered

with deposits of wind blown soil which is known as loess. The
yellow soil (loess) of north China has been brought by winds
from the deserts of Mongolia. The soil is usually yellow and is
composed of fine dust. When loess combines with water, it
forms a very fertile loamy soil.

Wind erosion occurs by two processes - Deflation and

Abrasion.
Mongolian loess in China at the banks of The Yellow River
 Deflation and Abrasion
Deflation - When wind picks up
and blows away particles of sand
and dust is called deflation.
Deflation causes the removal of
fine material leaving a surface of
coarse material behind.
Abrasion - When wind carries sand
particles and drives them with
force against objects in its path,
the friction with the sand particles
causes erosion.
 Mushroom Rock
Mushroom rock is a landform
caused by wind erosion. The
rock has a narrow trunk and a
broad umbrella-shaped top.
Sand particles are carried along
by the wind close to the ground
and so the rock is eroded at its
base. As winds blow from
different directions, landforms
of irregular shape develop.

Fun Fact - In some desert areas, sand blasting can

cause the bases of fences and telegraph poles are cut
Work Of Waves

What is the role

of rivers in
Geomorphology…
Waves are caused by the friction of the wind
on the surface of the sea. Erosion by waves,
known as marine erosion also occurs when
water is thrown against a cliff, causing the air
in cracks to become suddenly compressed.
With outgoing waves, the compressed air
rushes out. This action causes the loosening
of rocks. The acids in the sea water also eat
away the rocks and cause them to break.
 The sight of waves breaking
along the coastline gives us
some idea of the power of the
sea. However, most of the
erosion is carried out by the
stones and pebbles which they
carry along. These are the
"tools of erosion".
Fun Fact - Waves also collect and deposit tonnes of
human garbage from shore to shore, daily.
Factors Affect Costal
Features
 Factors Affecting Change Along The Coast
Force of the Waves -

Winds blow across the ocean surface and transfer some of its
energy to the waves. Strong winds raise huge waves which
dash against the coast with great force.

Nature of Coastal Rocks -

The coast may be made of both soft and more resistant

rocks. The waves erode the softer rock more easily than the
harder rocks. They are further aided by pieces of rocks and
sand which act as cutting tools.
 The work of waves consists of erosion,
transportation and deposition.
When waves break, large quantities of water dash
against the shore with great force and this causes
erosion.
When waves recede, sand and other particles are
transported from one place to another.
Waves deposit material along the shore.
The erosional action of sea waves leads to
formation of cliffs, caves, inlets and sea arches.
These shoreline features are found along steep
rocky coastlines where strong waves attack.
Fun Fact - During a severe storm, erosion can be much more rapid and the giant
waves can cut some areas of coastline back by over ten metres in a single night.
Costal Features
 Cliff
A cliff has a steep slope
facing the sea. Waves
break at the foot of the
cliff. In course of time,
the cliff is eroded and it
recedes inland. A
relatively flat, bench like
surface called a wave-
cut platform is left
behind by the receding
cliff
 Cave and Inlet
A cave may develop at
the base of cliffs which
have been subjected to
the action of waves over
a long period of time.
An inlet is formed when
the roof of the cave
collapses.
 Sea Coves and Headlands
Sea coves and Headlands
- Sometimes the coast is
made of softer rock
separated by harder
rock. The waves cut the
softer rock to form sea
coves and the harder
rocks remain as narrow
projections or headlands.
 Sea Arch and Sea Stack
Sea Arch - Waves may act on
a headland from both sides
forming sea caves. When two
caves on opposite sides
meet, a sea arch results.
Sea Stack - Continued erosion
of the headland may cause
the arch to fall in, leaving
behind an isolated column
known as a sea stack.
Work Of Glaciers
A glacier is a large accumulation of ice that
is slowly moving downhill under its own
weight. Glaciers usually form in
mountainous areas, and are found in those
parts of the world where regional
temperatures are low. These include the
polar regions, where glaciers flow out from
larger ice caps and ice sheets, and high
mountain regions, where glaciers tend to
be relatively smaller.
Formation of Glaciers
 Formation of Glaciers
There is a simple starting point to
the formation of any large mass
of ice: snowfall during the winter
survives through the summer
months, so that the snowfall from
the following winter lands on top
of it. This process, repeated many
times, causes the weight of the
snow layers to slowly squeeze the
air out of the snowpack, and turns
the snow to ice over a period of
around 40 years.
 Formation of Glaciers
Old glacier ice will eventually
become a blue colour as it
contains very little air. This is
likely to happen in hollows on
the shaded side of mountains.
As the hollow fills, the ice mass
begins to ‘flow’ slowly downhill.
Periods of lower than usual
temperatures are called glacial
periods, or ice ages, and occur
periodically; warmer periods are
called interglacials.
Movement of Glaciers
How to Glaciers Move?
Although ice is solid, the weight of
a thick layer of it will cause the
bottom layers to melt. This melting
water reduces the friction between
the ice and the rock it sits on, and
the ice will begin to slide (basal
sliding). At the same time, the ice
begins to deform under the weight
and ‘flows’ in what is called a
plastic state. This movement
(called internal deformation) is very
slow, perhaps a few centimetres or
less a day.
How to Glaciers Move?
Finally, the weight of the ice
mass itself will force the rock in
front of it to break up and allow
the ice to move over it more
easily. Ice moves from a zone
where it is forming
(accumulation) to one where it
is melting (ablation). If there is
more ice formed than is
melting, the glacier advances.
Like a river, the fastest flow of a
glacier is away from the valley
floor and sides.
Types of Glaciers
 Alpine -
A relatively small glacier that
Types of Glaciers
forms in high elevations near the
tops of mountains.
Cirque -
A bowl-shaped depression
carved out of a mountain by an
alpine glacier.
Valley -
An alpine glacier flowing
downward through a preexisting
stream valley.
 Continental -
Types of Glaciers
A glacier that forms over large areas
of continents close to the poles.
Ice Sheets -
A chunk of glacier ice that covers
the land surrounding it and is
greater than 50,000 kilometres
wide.
Ice caps -
A glacier that covers less than
50,000 square kilometres and
usually feed a series of glaciers
around its edges.
Glacial Landforms
 Landforms Sculpted By Glaciers

Corries: A corrie, also called a cirque or cwm, is a round hollow

found in the side of a mountain, caused by the erosion of a glacier.

Arêtes: An arête is a thin, almost knife-like, ridge of rock which is

typically formed when two glaciers erode parallel U-shaped valleys.

Pyramidal Peaks: A pyramidal peak is formed where three or more

corries and arêtes meet.

Hanging Valleys: A valley carved out by a small tributary glacier

that joins with a valley carved out by a much larger glacier.
Click here for more fun detailed
explanations about Glaciers!
Thank You!