1 Fluid Mechanics

Chapter One (Part1)

Introduction to Fluid
Mechanics
Prepared by
Dr. Mohammed Abd El Aziz Hassan
 Course Objectives

This course on fluid mechanics has been created specifically for undergraduate
engineering students..

• To present the basic principles and equations of fluid mechanics.

• To give the students a lot of different real-life engineering cases that will help
them understand how to use fluid mechanics principles correctly in engineering
situations.

• To get a good understanding of fluid mechanics by focusing on the physics and

then reinforcing that understanding with photographs and figures.

• Allows for creative thinking and the development of a deeper understanding and
acceptable feel for fluid physics.

• Communicates directly with tomorrow’s engineers in a simple yet precise manner

2
 Course Content (Theoretical)

FLUID PROPERTIES

• Density of fluids

• Specific gravity of fluids

• Viscosity
PRESSURE AND FLUID STATICS
• Pressure measurement methods and devices

• Absolute pressure
• Pressure gauge
• Torricelli Law
• Hydrostatic pressure
• Archimedes law

3
 Course Content (Theoretical)

FLUID DYNAMICS

• Fluid flow

• Continuity equation

• Bernoulli equation

• Applications of the Bernoulli equation

FLOW AND DROP PRESSURE IN PIPES, DUCTS AND JOINTS

• Pressure drop laws

• Friction coefficient

• Moody Scheme

4
 Course Content (Laboratory)

Fluid properties

• Perform laboratory experiments on viscosity

• Write reports and draw conclusions

Fluid statics

• Perform experiments on pressure measurement of fluids

• Perform experiments on the means of measuring pressure
• Perform experiments on liquid pressure gauges in a pipe network

Fluid dynamics

• Perform flow measurement experiments

• Perform experiments to measure continuity
• Perform experiments on Bernoulli's equation

5
Introduction to

Fluid Mechanics

6
 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
• Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and
moving bodies under the influence of forces.
• Statics is the branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest , while the branch
that deals with bodies in motion under the action of forces is called dynamics.

• The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the
behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the
interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.
• Fluid mechanics itself is also divided into several categories. The study of the
motion of fluids that can be approximated as incompressible (such as liquids,
especially water, and gases at low speeds) is usually referred to as hydrodynamics.
• A subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics, which deals with liquid flows in
pipes and open channels.

• Gas dynamics deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density
changes, such as the flow of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
• The category aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over
bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low speeds. 7
 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Fluid
Mechanics

Fluid Statics Fluid Dynamics

Aerostatics Hydrostatics Aerodynamics Hydrodynamics

Gases

Hydraulic

8
 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

What Is a Fluid?

• According to physics that a substance exists in three primary phases:

solid, liquid, and gas. (At very high temperatures, it also exists as plasma.)
A substance in the liquid or gas phases is referred to as a fluid.

• Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made based on the substance’s ability to
resist an applied shear (or tangential) stress that tends to change its shape.

• A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming, whereas a fluid deforms
continuously under the influence of a shear stress, no matter how small.

• In solids, stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids, stress is proportional to

strain rate. When a constant shear force is applied, a solid eventually stops
deforming at some fixed strain angle, whereas a fluid never stops deforming and
approaches a constant rate of strain.

9
 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
• Consider a rectangular rubber block tightly placed between two plates. As the
upper plate is pulled with a force F while the lower plate is held fixed, the rubber
block deforms, as shown in Figure .
• The angle of deformation α (called the shear strain or angular displacement)
increases in proportion to the applied force F.
• Assuming there is no slip between the rubber and the plates, the upper surface of
the rubber is displaced by an amount equal to the displacement of the upper plate
while the lower surface remains stationary.
• The force that develops at the plate–rubber
interface due to friction is expressed as
𝑭 = 𝝉𝑨
where 𝝉 is the shear stress and A is the contact area between Figure 1–2 The shear stress
shown is that on the rubber
the upper plate and the rubber.
an equal but opposite shear
• When the force is removed, the rubber returns to its stress acts on the upper plate.

original position. This phenomenon would also be

observed with other solids such as a steel block provided
that the applied force does not exceed the elastic range.
10
 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

• If this experiment were repeated with a fluid (with two large parallel plates
placed in a large body of water, for example), the fluid layer in contact with the
upper plate would move with the plate continuously at the velocity of the plate
no matter how small the force F.
• The fluid velocity would decrease with depth because of friction between fluid
layers, reaching zero at the lower plate.

11
 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics
It is important to develop a good understanding of the basic principles of fluid
mechanics, since fluid mechanics is widely used both in everyday activities and in
the design of modern engineering systems.
• The piping systems for water, natural gas, and sewage for an individual house and
the entire city are designed primarily based on fluid mechanics.
• The same is also true for the piping and ducting network of heating and air-
conditioning systems. Fluid mechanics plays a major role in the design of all these
components.
• There are several applications of fluid mechanics in an automobile. All
components associated with the transportation of the fuel from the fuel tank to the
cylinders—the fuel line, fuel pump, and fuel injectors. The purging of combustion
gases in exhaust pipes are analyzed using fluid mechanics.
• Fluid mechanics is also used in the design of the hydraulic brakes, the power
steering, the automatic transmission, the lubrication systems, the cooling system of
the engine block including the radiator and the water pump, and even the tires.
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 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

• Importance of Dimensions and Units

o Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions. The magnitudes

assigned to the dimensions are called units.

o Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary, while others such as velocity V, energy E, and volume V
are expressed in terms of the primary dimensions and are called secondary
dimensions, or derived dimensions.

o Several unit systems have been developed over the years. Two sets of units are
still in common use today: the English system, which is also known as the
United States Customary System (USCS), and the metric SI, which is also
known as the International System.

o The SI is a simple and logical system based on a decimal relationship between

the various units, and it is being used for scientific and engineering work in
most of the industrialized nations, including England.

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 Fluid Properties

• Fluid Properties
Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list can be extended to include
less familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal
expansion coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity and elevation.
Properties are either intensive or extensive. Intensive
properties are those that are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature, pressure, and density.

Total mass, total volume V, and total momentum are some

examples of extensive properties. An easy way to determine
whether a property is intensive or extensive is to divide the system
into two equal parts with an imaginary partition, as shown in
Figure 1.1. Each part will have the same value of intensive
properties as the original system, but half the value of the
extensive properties. Figure 1.1 A criterion to
differentiate intensive and
extensive properties
14
 Fluid Properties
• Density
➢ The density of a fluid, designated by the Greek symbol 𝝆 (rho), is defined as its
mass per unit volume. Density is typically used to characterize the mass of a fluid
system. In SI the units are kg/m3.
➢ The value of density can vary widely between different fluids, but for liquids,
variations in pressure and temperature generally have only a small effect on the
value of the small change in the density of water with large variations in
temperature is illustrated in Figure 1.2. The density of water at 60 °F is 999 kg/m3.
Unlike liquids, the density of a gas is strongly influenced by both pressure and
temperature.

Figure 1.2 Density of water as a

function of temperature
15
 Fluid Properties

• Temperature Scale
The temperature scale used in SI units is
the Celsius scale. On the Celsius scale,
ice point and steam point are assigned
the numerical values of 0 and 100 °C
respectively.
The English system uses the Fahrenheit scale,
which assigns 32 and 212 °F as the ice point
and steam point, respectively.

In thermodynamics is the absolute temperature scale

and is called the Kelvin scale. The temperature unit
on this scale is Kelvin designated as K.
The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale by,

In the English system, the absolute temperature

scale is the Rankine scale, and it is related to
Farhenheit scale by, 16
 Fluid Properties

• Specific Weight
The specific weight of a fluid, designated by the Greek symbol 𝜸 (gamma), is
defined as its weight per unit volume. Thus, specific weight is related to density
through the equation

where g is the local acceleration of gravity.

Just as density is used to characterize the mass of a fluid system, the specific weight
is used to characterize the weight of the system.
• Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of a fluid, designated as SG, is defined as the ratio of the
density of the fluid to the density of water at some specified temperature. Usually,
the specified temperature is taken as 4°C (39.2 °F), and at this temperature the
density of water is 1000 kg/m3. In equation form, specific gravity is expressed as

and since it is the ratio of densities, the value of SG does not depend on the system of
units used.
17
 Fluid Properties

• Example 2.1 (Density, Specific Gravity, and Mass of Air in a Room )

Determine the density, specific gravity, and mass of the air in a room whose
dimensions are 4 m × 5 m × 6 m at 100 kPa and 25°C (Figure 1-2 )

Assumptions: At specified conditions, air can be treated as an ideal gas.

Properties: The gas constant of air is R = 0.287 kPa⋅m3/kg⋅K.
Analysis: The density of the air is determined from the ideal-gas
relation 𝑃 = 𝜌 𝑅𝑇

𝑃 100
𝝆 = 𝑅𝑇 = 0.287×(273+25) = 1.169 kg/m3 Figure 1-2

Then the specific gravity of the air becomes

𝜌 1.169
𝑆𝐺 = = = 1.169 × 10−3
𝜌𝑤 1000

Finally, mass of the air

𝑚 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝝆𝞶 = 1.169 × 120 = 140.28 Kg
18
 Fluid Properties

• Example 2.2 (Density, Specific Gravity, and Mass of Air in a Room )

A fluid that occupies a volume of 24 L weighs 225 N at a location where the
gravitational acceleration is 9.80 m/s2. Determine the mass of this fluid and its
density.
The weight of an object can be calculated using the formula:
Weight = mass * gravitational acceleration
Rearranging the formula, we can solve for mass:
225
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 = = 22.9 ≅ 23 kg
9.80
To find the density of the fluid, we can use the formula: Density = mass / volume
Given that the volume of the fluid is 24 L, and the mass is 23 kg, we can calculate
the density as follows: density = 23 kg / 24 L

Simplifying this, we find that the density of the fluid is approximately 0.96 kg/L.
Therefore, the mass of the fluid is 23 kg, and its density is 0.96 kg/L.

19
 Fluid Properties
• Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to the rate of deformation.
Viscosity is due to the internal frictional force that develops between different layers
of fluids as they are forced to move relative to each other.

It appears that there is a property that represents

the internal resistance of a fluid to motion or the
“fluidity,” and that property is the viscosity.

The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the

flow direction is called the drag force, and the
magnitude of this force depends, in part, on
viscosity.
Figure 1.3 A fluid moving relative to
a body exerts a drag force on the
body, partly because of friction
caused by viscosity.

20
 Fluid Properties

To obtain a relation for viscosity, consider a fluid layer between two very large
parallel plates separated by a distance ℓ as shown Figure 1.4.

• Now a constant parallel force F is applied to

the upper plate while the lower plate is held
fixed.
• It is observed that the upper plate moves
continuously under the influence of this force
at a constant speed V.
• The fluid in contact with the upper plate
sticks to the plate surface and moves with it at Figure 1.5 The behavior of a fluid in
laminar flow between two parallel
the same speed, and the shear stress 𝝉 acting plates when the upper plate moves with
on this fluid layer is a constant velocity.

𝐹
𝝉=
𝐴
where A is the contact area between the plate and the fluid. Note that the fluid layer
deforms continuously under the influence of shear stress.
21
 Fluid Properties
• The fluid in contact with the lower plate assumes the velocity of that plate,
which is zero (because of the no-slip condition).
• In steady laminar flow, the fluid velocity between the plates varies linearly
between 0 and V, and thus the velocity profile and the velocity gradient are

where y is the vertical distance

from the lower plate.
During a differential time interval dt, the sides of fluid particles along a vertical line
MN rotate through a differential angle 𝒅𝜷 while the upper plate moves a differential
distance 𝒅𝒂 = 𝑉 𝑑𝑡. The angular displacement or deformation (or shear strain) can be
expressed as

Rearranging, the rate of deformation under the

influence of shear stress

22
 Thus, we conclude that the rate of deformation of a fluid element is equivalent to the
velocity gradient du/dy. Further, it can be verified experimentally that for most fluids
the rate of deformation (and thus the velocity gradient) is directly proportional to the
shear stress

• Fluids for which the rate of deformation is linearly proportional to the shear stress
are called Newtonian fluids after Sir Isaac Newton, who expressed it first in 1687.
• Most common fluids such as water, air, gasoline, and oils are Newtonian fluids.
Blood and liquid plastics are examples of non-Newtonian fluids.
In one-dimensional shear flow of Newtonian fluids, shear stress can be expressed by
the linear relationship

where the constant of proportionality 𝝁 is called the coefficient of viscosity or the

dynamic (or absolute) viscosity of the fluid, whose unit is kg/m·s, or equivalently,
N·s/m2 (or Pa⋅s where Pa is the pressure unit pascal). 23
 Fluid Properties

A plot of shear stress versus the rate of deformation (velocity gradient) for a
Newtonian fluid is a straight line whose slope is the viscosity of the fluid, as
shown in Figure 1.6.
Note that viscosity is independent of the rate of deformation for Newtonian fluids.
Since the rate of deformation is proportional to the strain rate, Figure 1.6 reveals that
viscosity is a coefficient in a stress–strain relationship.

Figure 1.6 The rate of deformation

(velocity gradient) of a Newtonian
fluid is proportional to shear stress, and
the constant of proportionality is the
viscosity.

24
 Fluid Properties

The shear force acting on a Newtonian fluid layer (or, by Newton’s third law, the
force acting on the plate) is

where again A is the contact area between the plate and the fluid.

Then the force F required to move the upper plate in Figure 1.5 at a constant speed
of V while the lower plate remains stationary is

This relation can alternately be used to calculate 𝜇 when the force F is measured.
• kinematic viscosity 𝝊

In fluid mechanics and heat transfer, the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density
appears frequently. This ratio is given the name kinematic viscosity 𝝊 and is
expressed as 𝝊 = 𝝁Τ𝝆 .Two common units of kinematic viscosity are m2/s and stoke
(1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 0.0001 m2/s).
25
 Fluid Properties
In general, the viscosity of a fluid depends on both temperature and pressure,
although the dependence on pressure is rather weak.

• For liquids, both the dynamic and kinematic viscosities are practically
independent of pressure, and any small variation with pressure is usually
disregarded, except at extremely high pressures.
• For gases, this is also the case for dynamic viscosity (at low to moderate
pressures), but not for kinematic viscosity since the density of a gas is
proportional to its pressure (Figure 1.8).

• The viscosity of a fluid is directly related to the

pumping power needed to transport a fluid in a pipe or
to move a body (such as a car in air or a submarine in
the sea) through a fluid.

Figure 1.8 Dynamic viscosity, in

general, does not depend on pressure,
but kinematic viscosity does 26
 Fluid Properties

• Correlation between Viscosity and Temperature

The viscosity of liquids decreases with temperature, whereas the viscosity of gases
increases with temperature (Figure 1.).

The viscosity of gases is expressed as a function

of temperature by the Sutherland correlation
(from The U.S. Standard Atmosphere) as

𝑎𝑇 1Τ2
Gases 𝜇=
1+𝑏Τ𝑇

where T is absolute temperature and a and b are

experimentally determined constants.

Note that measuring viscosity at two different

temperatures is sufficient to determine these
constants. For air at atmospheric conditions,
the values of these constants are a = 1.458 × 10-6 Figure The viscosity of liquids
kg/(m⋅s⋅K1/2) and b = 110.4 K. decreases, and the viscosity of gases
increases with temperature.
27
 Fluid Properties
For liquids, the viscosity is approximated as

Liquids 𝜇 = 𝑎10𝑏/(𝑇−𝑐)

where again T is absolute temperature and a, b, and c are experimentally

determined constants. For water, using the values a = 2.414 × 10-5 N⋅s/m2, b =
247.8 K, and c = 140 K results in less than 2.5 percent error in viscosity in the
temperature range of 0°C to 370°C (Touloukian et al., 1975).

28
 Fluid Properties

The viscosities of some fluids at room temperature are listed in Table 1.1

29
 Fluid Properties

Consider a fluid layer of thickness ℓ within a small gap between two concentric
cylinders, such as the thin layer of oil in a journal bearing. The gap between the
cylinders can be modeled as two parallel flat plates separated by the fluid.

Noting that torque is T = FR (force times the moment arm, which is the radius R
of the inner cylinder in this case), the tangential velocity is V = 𝜔R (angular
velocity times the radius), and taking the wetted surface area of the inner cylinder
to be A = 2πRL by disregarding the shear stress acting on the two ends of the inner
cylinder, torque can be expressed as
2𝜋𝑅3 𝜔𝐿 4𝜋 2 𝑅3 𝑛𝐿
ሶ
T = FR = 𝜇 =𝜇
ℓ ℓ
where L is the length of the cylinder and 𝑛ሶ is the number of revolutions per unit time, which is
usually expressed in rpm (revolutions per minute). Note that the angular distance traveled during
one rotation is 2π rad, and thus the relation between the angular velocity in rad/min and the rpm
is 2𝜋𝑛ሶ
Above equation can be used to calculate the viscosity of a fluid by measuring
torque at a specified angular velocity. Therefore, two concentric cylinders can be
used as a viscometer, a device that measures viscosity.
30
 Fluid Properties
• Example 2.2 ( Determining the Viscosity of a Fluid)
The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer constructed of two 40-
cm-long concentric cylinders (Figure 1. ). The outer diameter of the inner cylinder is
12 cm, and the gap between the two cylinders is 0.15 cm. The inner cylinder is
rotated at 300 rpm, and the torque is measured to be 1.8 N.m. Determine the
viscosity of the fluid.
SOLUTION
Assume
1. The inner cylinder is completely submerged in
the fluid.
2. The viscous effects on the two ends of the inner
cylinder are negligible.
The profile can be approximated as being linear in this
case since ℓ/R = 0.025 << 1. Solving Equation for
viscosity and substituting the given values, the viscosity
of the fluid is determined to be
4𝜋 2 𝑅3 𝑛𝐿
ሶ
T=𝜇
ℓ 31
 Fluid Properties

L = 40cm 𝐷𝑖𝑛 = 12 𝑐𝑚, and ℓ = 0.15 𝑐𝑚 𝑛ሶ = 300 𝑟𝑝𝑚, and 𝑇 = 1.8 𝑁. 𝑚

4𝜋 2 𝑅3 𝑛𝐿
ሶ
T=𝜇
ℓ
0.15 ∗ 10−2 ∗ 1.8
𝜇= 3 = 0.1583 N·s/m2
12 300 1
4𝜋 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 10−2 ∗ 60 ( s ) ∗ 40 ∗ 10−2

32
 Fluid Properties
• Newtonian fluids
For non-Newtonian fluids, the relationship between shear stress and rate of
deformation is not linear, as shown in Figure 1.7. The slope of the curve on the
versus 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦 chart is referred to as the apparent viscosity of the fluid.
▪ Fluids for which the apparent viscosity increases with the rate of deformation are
referred to as dilatant or shear thickening fluids.
▪ Fluids that exhibit the opposite behavior (the fluid becoming less viscous as it is
sheared harder, such as some paints) are referred to as pseudoplastic or shear-
thinning fluids.

▪ Some materials such as toothpaste can

resist a finite shear stress and thus behave
as a solid but deform continuously when
the shear stress exceeds the yield stress and
behave as a fluid. Such materials are
referred to as Bingham plastics
Figure 1.7 Variation of shear stress with the
rate of deformation for Newtonian and
non-Newtonian. 33
 Fluid Properties
• Applications of Viscosity
❶ Plate moving with uniform velocity
a. Against horizonal Plane

Resistance (Frication Force) 𝑭 = 𝝉 𝑨

𝑽
𝑭=𝝁 𝑨
𝒚
b. Between two plates

𝑭𝒕 = 𝝉𝟏 𝑨 + 𝝉𝟏 𝑨

𝑽 𝑽
𝝉𝟏 = 𝝁 𝝉𝟐 = 𝝁
𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐

𝑽 𝑽
𝑭𝒕 = 𝝁 +𝝁
𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐

34
 Fluid Properties
c. Against an inclined plate

𝑽
W sin 𝜃 = 𝝁 𝑨
𝒚

❷ Cylinder moving with uniform velocity

a. Inner Cylinder moving horizontally

𝑽
𝑭=𝝁 𝑨
𝒚
𝑽
𝑨 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟏 𝑳 𝑭=𝝁 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟏 𝑳
𝑟2 − 𝑟1

𝒚 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1

35
 Fluid Properties

b. Inner Cylinder moving vertically under gravity

𝑽
𝑾=𝝁 𝑨
𝒚 𝑽
𝑾=𝝁 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟏 𝑳
𝒚 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 𝑟2 − 𝑟1

𝑨 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟏 𝑳

c. Outer moving and the inner fixed

𝑽
𝑾=𝝁 𝑨
𝒚
𝒚 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 𝑽
𝑾=𝝁 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝑳
𝑟2 − 𝑟1

𝑨 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝑳

36
 Fluid Properties

❸ Cylinder moving with uniform velocity

a. Inner Cylinder rotating

Resistance (Frication Force) 𝑭 = 𝝉 𝑨

𝑽
𝑭=𝝁 𝑨
𝒚

2𝜋 𝑛
𝑽 = 𝑤. 𝑟1 𝒘= 𝑨 = 2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿
60

𝑤. 𝑟1 2𝜋 𝑛. 𝑟1
𝑭=𝝁 2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿 = 𝝁 2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 60 (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )

4𝜋 2 𝑛ሶ 𝑟12 𝑛
𝑭=𝜇 𝐿 𝒏ሶ =
(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ) 60

4𝜋 2 𝑛ሶ 𝑟13
𝑻 = 𝑭. 𝒓𝟏 = 𝜇 𝐿
(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ) 37
 Fluid Properties

b. What is the Force on Disc and also Torque required? Assume 𝝎 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕.

𝑑𝑣 𝑤. 𝑟
𝑭= 𝜏𝐴 𝝉=𝜇 𝒗=𝜔𝑟 𝝉=𝜇 𝒘
𝑑𝑦 ℎ

d𝑭 = 𝜏 𝑑𝐴 𝒅𝑨 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑹
𝑤. 𝑟
𝒅𝑭 = 𝜇 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
ℎ 𝝁
𝑤 𝑅 2 𝒉
𝑭 = 2𝜋𝜇 න 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
ℎ 0

𝑅
𝑤 𝑟3 2 𝑤 3
𝑭 = 2𝜋𝜇 𝑭 = 𝜋𝜇 𝑅
ℎ 3 3 ℎ
0 𝒅𝒓

𝑤. 𝑟 1 𝑤 4
𝒅𝑻 = 𝑑𝐹. 𝑟 = 𝜇 2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑻 = 𝜋𝜇 𝑅
ℎ 2 ℎ
38