Principles of Machine Design

Republic of Iraq
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Northern Technical University
Principles of Machine Parts

Dr. Emad Toma Karash
2023
I
Preface
Mechanical engineering is the basis of scientific and technological progress, and the main
production and technological processes are carried out by machines or automatic lines. In this
regard, mechanical engineering plays a leading role among other industries.
The use of machine parts has been known since ancient times. Simple machine parts - metal
rivets, primitive gears, bolts, cranks were known before Archimedes; Rope and belt drive
transmissions, charging propellers, and hinged connections were used.
Leonardo da Vinci, considered the first researcher in the field of machine parts, invented gears
with cross-axles, articulated chains and rolling bearings.
This book includes comprehensive information on the parts of machinery and equipment. This
book consists of sixteen chapters, each chapter contains solved questions and unsolved
questions. This book benefits students of engineering colleges and institutes, as well as
everyone who works in the field of designing and operating various machines and equipment.
The book is for the benefit of Mosul Technical Institute - Northern Technical University -
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research - Republic of Iraq.
We hope that this book will be an important reference for students and those working in the
field of machinery and equipment.
Emadbane2007@ntu.edu.iq

II
CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
REVIEW OF STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
No. Subject Page
1 Strength of Materials 15
1-1 Introduction 15
1-2 Types of loading 15
1-3 Hooke's Law 17
1-3-1 Engineering and True Stress 17
1-3-1-1 Engineering Stress 17
1-3-1-2 True Stress 17
1-4 Poisson's ratio 18
1-5 Solve examples 19
1-6 Chapter Questions 25
CHAPTER TWO
RIVETED JOINTS
No. Subject Page
Riveted Joints 30
2
2-1 Introduction 30
2-2 Types of rivet heads 30
2-3 Types of riveted joints 30
2-3-1 Riveted Lap Joint 31
2-3-2 Riveted Butt Joint 31
2-4 Important Terminologies 32
2-5 Leak Proof Joints 32
2-6 Design of rivet joints 32
2-6-1 Strength of riveted joint 32
2-6-1-1 Shearing stress failure in rivets 33

III
2-6-1-2 Tension stress failure in plate 34
2-6-1-3 Bearing stress failure between plate and rivet 34
2-6-1-4 Shearing stress failure in plate 35
2-7 Efficiency of Joint 35
2-8 Solve Examples 36
CHAPTER THREE
WELDED JOINTS
No. Subject Page
3 Welded Joints 47
3-1 Introduction 47
3-2 Symbol of welding 47
3-3 Types of welding joint 48
3-3-1 Butt Joint welding 49
3-3-1-1 Types of Butts Joints 49
3-3-1-2 Advantages & Disadvantages of Butt-Welding Joint 50
3-3-1-3 Applications of Butt-Welding Joint 50
3-3-2 Corner Joint welding 50
3-3-2-1 Types of Corner Joints 51
3-3-2-2 Welding styles 51
3-3-2-3 Advantages & Disadvantages of Corner Welding Joint 51
3-3-2- 4 Applications of Corner Welding Joint 52
3-3-3 Edge Joint Welding 52
3-3-3-2 Advantages & Disadvantages of Edge Welding Joint 53
3-3-3-3 Applications of Edge Welding Joint 53
3-3-4 Lap Joint Welding 54
3-3-4-2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Lap Welding Joint 55
3-3-4-3 Applications of Edge Welding Joint 55
3-3-5 Tee Joint Welding 55

IV
3-3-5-2 Advantages & Disadvantages of Tee Welding Joint 56
3-3-5-3 Applications of Tee Welding Joint 57
3-4 Design of welded joints 57
3-4-1 Design of a Butt Joint 57
3-4-2 Design of a Fillet Joint 58
3-4-2-1 Transverse Fillet Weld 58
3-4-2-2 Parallel Fillet Weld 59
3-4-3 Axially loaded unsymmetrical welded joints 59
CHAPTER FOUR
SCREWED JOINTS
No. Subject Page
4 Screwed Joints 73
4-1 Introduction 73
4-2 Fasteners type 73
4-3 Screwed Joints 74
4-4 Types of threads used in power screws 75
4-5 Applications of power screws 76
4-6 Parts of power screws 76
4-7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Screwed Joints 76
4-8 Important Terms Used in Screw Threads 77
4-9 ISO metric screw threads 78
4-10 Bolted Joint, Design Procedure 80
4-12 Power Screws and Ball Screws 84
4-13 Tooth profiles 85
4-14 Torque 86
4-15 Power Screw Efficiency 87
4-15-1 Power Screw Stress Analysis 87
4-17 Chapter Equations 93

V
CHAPTER FIVE
KEYED JOINTS
No. Subject Page
5 Keys Joints 99
5-1 Introduction 99
5-2 Function of shaft key 99
5-3 Types of shaft key 100
5-3-1 Taper sunk keys 100
5-3-2 Hollow and flat saddle keys 103
5-3-3 Tangent keys 104
5-3-4 Round key 105
5-3-5 Splines 105
5-3-6 Kennedy keys 106
5- 4 Selection type of the key 106
5-5 Design of sunk key 107
5-5-1 Strength in the sunk key 107
5-6 Effect of Keyways 110
5-8 Chapter Equations 115
CHAPTER SIX
FRICTION CLUTCHES
No. Subject Page
6 Frictional Clutches 120
6-1 Introduction 120
6-2 Types of clutches according to the method of operation 120
6-3 Main Part of a Clutch 120
6-3-1 Driving member 120
6-3-2 Driven member 121
6-3-3 Operating member 121
6-4 The most common types of clutches 121
6-4-1 Single Plate Clutch 122
6-4-2 Single clutch advantages 122
6-4-3 Design and operation of a single-plate clutch 122

VI
6-4-4 Working Single Plate Clutch 123
6-4-5 Multi plate Clutch 124
6-4-6 Cone Clutch 124
6-4-6-1 Advantage Cone Clutch 125
6-4-6-2 Limitations Cone Clutch 125
6-4-7 Centrifugal Clutch 125
6-4-7-1 Semi-Centrifugal Clutch 126
6-4-7-2 Working of Semi Centrifugal Clutch 126
6-4-7-3 Advantages Semi-Centrifugal Clutch 126
6-4-7-4 Disadvantages Semi-Centrifugal Clutch 127
4-6-8 Diaphragm Clutch 127
4-6-8-1 Advantages Diaphragm Clutch 127
4-6-8-2 Disadvantages Diaphragm Clutch 128
6-4-9 Dog and spline clutch 128
6-4-10 Electromagnetic Clutch 128
6-4-11 Vacuum clutch 129
6-4-11-1 Construction and working of a Vacuum clutch 129
6-4-12 Hydraulic clutch 130
6-5 Design disc clutch 130
6-6 Design Multi Clutch 134
6-7 Design of a Cone Clutch 135
6-8 Design of a Centrifugal Clutch 140
CHAPTER SEVEN
TYPES OF SPRINGS
No. Subject Page
7 Types of springs 152
7-2 The various applications of springs 152
7-3 Types of springs 152
7-3-1 On the basis of shape 153
7-3-1-1 Helical Springs or Coil Springs 153
7-3-1-2 Conical and Volute Springs 153
VII
7-3-1-3 Torsion Springs 154
7-3-1-4 Laminated or Leaf Springs 154
7-3-1-5 Disc or Belleville Springs 154
7-3-2 On the basis of how the load force is applied springs 155
7-3-2-1 Tension or Extension Spring 155
7-3-2-2 Compression Spring 155
7-3-2-3 Torsion Spring 156
7-3-2-4 Constant Spring 156
7-3-2-5 Variable Spring 156
7-4 Design of the springs 157
7-4-1 Design of Helical spring 157
7-4-2 Design Leaf spring 164
CHAPTER EIGHT
TYPES OF BEITS
No. Subject Page
8 Types of Belts 172
8-2 Types of Belts 172
8-3 Material used for Belts 173
8-4 Flat belts 173
8-4-1 Types of flat Belts 173
8-5 Power transmitted by belts 175
8-6 Calculation of the belt dimension and tensions load 176
8-6-1 Velocity ratio of a belts drive 176
8-6-2 Slip of the Belts 178
8-6-3 Cases where slip occurs in belt 179
8-6-4 Creep in the Belt 179
8-7 Designing a flat belt drive 181
8-8 V-Belt belts 184
8-8-1 Types of V-Belts 185
8-8-2 Cross section of V-Belt 187
8-8-3 Standard V-belt sections 188
8-8-4 SP Belts - European Standard DIN 7753 188
VIII
8-9 V-belt Pulleys 189
8-10 Compare between Flat belt and V-Belt 189
8-11 Design V-belt 190

IX
Chapter 1
Review of Strength of
Materials

01
1- Strength of Materials
1-1. Introduction
Strength of materials, also known as Mechanics of materials, is a subject which deals

with the behavior of solid subject to stresses and strains.
Stress & Strain
When a force is applied to a structural member, that member will develop both stress and
strain as a result of the force.
The applied force will cause the structural member to deform by some length, in
proportion to its stiffness.
1. Stress
Stress is the force carried by the member per unit area, and typical units are [
] for US Customary units and [ ] for SI units:
Where, ( ) is the applied force and ( ) is the cross-sectional area over which the force
acts.
2. Strain
Strain is the ratio of the deformation to the original length of the part:
Where ( ) is the deformed length, ( ) is the original unreformed length ( ) is the

deformation, and ( ) change in length.
1-2. Types of loading
There are different types of loading which result in different types of stress.

00
1. Axial Force
Type of stress is called an Axial Stress (general
case)
A. Tensile Stress ( ): If force is tensile as
figure (1-1). Figure 1-1: Tensile stress
B. Compressive Stress ( ): If force is

compressive as figure (1-2).
Figure 1-2: Compressive stress
2. Shear stress ( )
Type of stress is called a Transverse Shear Stress as
figure (1-3).
Figure 1-3: Shear stress
3. Bending moment stress ( )

Type of stress is called a Bending Stress as figure
(1-4).
Figure 1-4: Bending stress

Where: ( ) is the bending moment, ( ) is the
distance between the centroid axis and the outer surface, and ( ) is the centroid moment
of inertia of the cross section about the appropriate axis.
4. Torsional stress
Type of stress is called a Torsional Stress as figure (1-
5). (Engineer’s theory of Torsion (E.T.T.)). Figure 1-5: Torsional Stress

01
Where: ( ) is the shear stress, ( ) is the radius, ( ) is the torsion torque, ( ) is the polar
moment of inertia of the cross section, ( ) is modulus of rigidity, ( ) is the torsion angle,
and ( ) is a length of shaft.
For solid circular section
For hollow circular section
For solid rectangular section
1-3. Hooke's Law

Stress is proportional to strain in the elastic
region of the material's stress-strain curve
(below the proportionality limit, where the
curve is linear), figure (1-6).
1-3-1. Engineering and True Stress

Figure 1-6: Hooke's Law
1-3-1-1. Engineering Stress (ES)
ES: is equivalent to the applied uniaxial

tensile or compressive force at time, a
fraction of the specimen's original cross-
sectional area.
1-3-1-2. True Stress (TS)

TS: is equivalent to the applied uniaxial
tensile or compressive force at time, divided
by the specimen's cross-sectional area at the
moment. Figure 1-7: Engineering and True
Stress
02
Normal stress and strain are related by:
Where: ( ) is the elastic modulus of the material, ( ) is the normal stress, and ( ) is the
normal strain.
Shear stress and strain are related by:
Where: ( ) is the shear modulus of the material, ( ) is the shear stress, and ( ) is the
shear strain. The elastic modulus and the shear modulus are related by:
Where: ( ) is Poisson's ratio.
1-4. Poisson's ratio
Poisson's ratio is the proportion of lateral (transverse) contraction strain to longitudinal

extension strain in the direction of stretching force.
The value of Poisson’s ratio varies from 0.25 to 0.33. For rubber its value varies from
0.45 to 0.5. Mathematically:
Figure 1-8: Poisson's ratio

03
1-5. Solve examples
Example 1
A force of (100 KN) is acting on a circular rod with diameter (50 mm). The stress in the
rod can be calculated as:
Solution:
F
t 
A
F  1001000 100000N
A  .r 2
d 50 25
r   25 mm   0.025 m
2 2 1000
A  3.14 (0.025) 2  0.0019625m
100000( N ) 50955414.013
t  2
 50955414.013 N / m 2   50.955 MPa
0.0019625(m ) 1000000
Example 2
A compressive load of (40 KN) is acting on short square (9 * 9 cm) post of Douglas fir.
The dressed size of the post is (7 * 7 cm) and the compressive stress can be calculated as:
Solution:
F
c 
A
F  401000 40000 N
49
A  a . b  7  7  49 cm 2   0.0049m 2
10000

04
40000( N ) 8163265.306
t  2
 8163265.306 N / m 2   8.163 MPa
0.0049(m ) 10000
Example 3
A metal shaft diameter (12 mm), and long (1.5 m). A tensile force of (1000 N) is applied
to it and it stretches (0.11 mm). Assume the material is elastic. Determine the stress and
strain in the shaft?
Solution:
A  .r2
F 1
 
A 1

 
Lo
Example 4
A steel tensile test specimen has an across sectional area of (120 mm2), and gauge length
(50 mm), the gradient of elastic section is (433 KN/mm). Determine the
modulus of elasticity?
Solution:
Gradient ratio (F/δ) = (433 KN/mm2) = 433000 N/mm
 F L 50
    433000  180416.67 N / mm 2
  A 120
 180416.67 MPa  180.42 GPa
Example 5
A long of the steel column is (4 m), and diameter (50 cm). It carries a
load of (100 MN). If modulus of elasticity is (210 GPa), calculate the

05
compressive stress and strain and how much the column is compressed?
Solution:
A   . r 2  3.14  (0.25) 2  0.1963mm
F 100  106
   509.4  106 N / m 2
A 0.1963
  509.4  106
E      0.00243
  210  109

      .L  0.00243 4000  9.7 mm
L
Example 6
Calculate the force needed to a plate of metal (5 mm) thick and (0.8 m) wide given that
the ultimate shear stress (50 MPa), as shown in the
figure?
Solution:
The area to be cut is a rectangle
t  5 mm ; w  0.8 m  0.8  1000  800 mm ;

  50 N / mm 2
A  w.t  5  800  4000 mm 2

F
   F   . A  50  4000  200000N  200 KN
A
Example 7
Calculate the force needed to shear a Screw (12 mm)
diameter given that the ultimate shear stress is (90
MPa), as shown in the figure?
Solution:

06
The area to be is the circular area
 d2 3.14  (12) 2
A   113.04 mm 2
4 4
F

A
F   . A  90  113.04  10173.6 N  10.17 KN
Example 8
A pin is used to attach a clevis to a rope. The force in the rope will be a maximum of (60
KN). The maximum permitted shear stress in a pin is (40 MPa). Calculate the diameter of
suitable pin?
Solution
F
The pin is in double shear so the shear stress is (   )
2A
F 3.14  (12) 2
A   750.106 m 2  750 mm 2
2 2  40.10 6
 .d 2 4A
A  d2 
4 
4A 4  750
d   30.9 mm
 
Example 9
A simply supported beam is subject a point load of (200 N) at the mid - spam of the
beam as shown in the figure. The beam has a circular (50 mm) diameter . Calculate the
maximum stress due to bending?

07
Solution:
The max imum tensileand compressive stressesdue to bending are :
M .C
 Max 
I
1  The max imum bending moment occurs at the mid  span of the beam.
M  100  2000  200000 N . mm
2  For the soild circule sec tion.
 d4
3.14  254
I   18920.898 mm 4
64 64
3  The centroid of the soild circule sec tion is at int er sec tion of its two axes of symmetry.
d 50
C    25 mm
2 2
200000 25
  max .   264.26 N / mm  264.3 MPa
18920.898
Example 10
A diameter solid steel shaft (ABCDE) is (50 mm) see in figure. If have torques (T1 = 200
N. m, T2 = 500 N. m and T3 = 300 N. m), distance between gears (B & C) is (L1 = 200
mm) and distance between gears (C & D) is (L2 = 300 mm), modulus of rigid is (G = 90
GPa). Determine the maximum shear stress (  max . ) in each part and twisting angle (  BD
)?
Solution
Given: {d= 50 mm, T1 = 200 N. m, T2 = 500 N .m, T3
= 300 N. m, L1 = 300 mm, L2 = 200 mm, G = 90
GPa}.
 .d 4 3.14  504
IP    613281.25 mm 4 ; r  25 mm
32 32
TBC   T1   200 N .m
TCD  T2  T1  500  200  300 N .m

08
 T G T .r
     
r I L I
TBC . r 200.103  25
 BC    8.15 MPa
I 613281.25
TCD . r 300.103  25
 CD    12.23 MPa
I 613281.25
BD  BC  CD
 T G T. L
     
r I L I .G
TBC . L1 200.103  300

 BC    0.00109  0.0624
I .G 613281.25  90.103
TCD . L2 300.103  200

CD    0.00109  0.0624
I .G 613281.25 90.103
Example 11
A steel wire having cross sectional area (2
mm2), see in figure. Is stretched by (200 N).
Find the lateral strain produced in the wire. If
modulus elasticity for steel is (210 GPA) and
Poisson’s ratio is (0.233)?
Solution
Given: {A= 2 mm2, F = 200 N, µ = 0.233, G = 210 GPa}.

 F F 200
E   L    0.00048 4.8  104
 longitudinal A.  L 6
A. E 2.10  210.109

    Lateral  . L  0.233 0.00048  0.000112  1.12 104
lateral
 longitudinal

11
1-6 Chapter Questions
1. Young's modulus is the proportion ratio of:

a. Volumetric stress to volumetric strain.
b. Lateral stress to lateral strain.
c. Longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain.
d. The shearing stress to strain.
2. The tensile strength of a material is estimated by dividing the maximum load during the test by
the:
a. Area unit at the time of fracture.
b. Area of the original cross-section.
c. Average area after fracture.
d. Minimum area before fracture.
3. Comparing the torque resistance of a solid shaft with another hollow shaft, having the same
cross section area, the torque is:
a. Equal torque.
b. Fewer torques.
c. Higher torque.
d. Be less or more torque.
4. The stress is in the elastic limit when a tensile test for steel is:
a. No proportional to strain
b. Zero
c. Proportional to strain
d. Manimum
5. The external force affecting the body distorts the shape of the body so that the body size
decreases and the length is called:
a. Bending stress
b. Tensile stress
c. Compressive stress
d. Shear stress
6. The point at which a bar with a tapering portion produces the maximum stress is at:
a. Lesser end
b. Middle of a bar
c. Greater end
d. Anywhere of a bar
10
7. When comparing the ultimate compressive stress and ultimate tensile stress of mild steel is:
a. Same.
b. More.
c. Less.
d. Unpredictable.
8. When shear force at a point is zero, then bending moment is --------------- at that point.
a. Zero
b. Minimum
c. Maximum
d. Infinity
9. When a body experiences two equal and opposing forces, the body tends to shorten itself as a
result:
a. A compressive strain and compressive stress are created.

b. Tensile strain and compressive stress are generated.
c. The production of tensile stress and strain.
d. Compressive strain and tensile stress are generated.
10. Modulus of rigidity represents the ratio of

a. Tinsel stress to transverse strain
b. Shear stress vs shear strain
c. Volumetric stress vs strain
d. Lateral stress vs lateral strain
11. When using the torsion equation ( ), the term ( ) is called:

a. Modulus of Shear.
b. Modulus of rigidity.
c. Section modulus.
d. Modulus of elasticity.
12. Strain is defined the ratio between:

a. Change in length to half of the original length
b. Change in length to original length
c. Change in length to a quarter of the original length
d. Change in length to original length weakness
13. Within the elastic limit, the lateral strain to linear strain ratio is referred as:
a. Modulus of rigidity
b. Young's modulus
c. Bulk modulus
d. Poisson's ratio
14. The elastic range appears in the below-mentioned figure:

11
a. After point A.
b. After point D.
c. Located between A and D.
d. Located between points D and E
15. Hook's law is still valid

a. Yield point
b. Elastic limit
c. Breaking point
d. Limit of proportion
16. The correct answer to which of the following statements?

a. In mm, the strain is expressed.
b. The pressure per unit area is the stress.
c. Within the elastic limit, stress and strain are inversely proportional.
d. To the breaking point, Hook's law is still valid.
17. The stress that corresponds to point "D" in the following diagram
is:
a. Elastic limit
b. Ultimate stress
c. Breaking stress
d. Yield point stress
18. A body experiences a simple shear stress of (200 Mpa) and a direct tensile stress of (300 Mpa)
in the same plane. What will be the maximum shear stress?
a. 150 MPa
b. 200 MPa
c. 300 MPa
d. 350 MPa
19. For steel, the Poisson's ratio is between

a. 0.12 - 0.17
b. 0.18 - 0.24
c. 0.25 - 0.33
d. 0.34 - 0.44
20. Materials with consistent elastic characteristics in all directions are referred to as:
a. Anisotropic materials
b. Orthotropic materials
c. Isotropic materials
d. Uniform materials

12
21. For a compound shaft, the safe twisting moment is equal to the
a. Maximum value determined.
b. Extreme value.
c. Mean value.
d. Minimum value determined.
e.
22. The bending formula is:

a.
b.
c.
d.
23. Which materials have a Poisson's ratio greater than one?

a. Brass
b. Nickel
c. Steel
d. Aluminum
24. What material is the most elastic of the following?

a. Rubber
b. Brass
c. Steel
d. Plastic
25. The Young's modulus unit is:

a.
b.
c.
d.
26. The strain unit is

a. Newton
b. millimeter
c. No unit
d. Newton per millimeter
27. An internal pressure is applied to a thin, spherical shell with dimensions of diameter (d) and
thickness (t) (P). The material of the shell has a tension of:
a.
b.
c.
d.

13
Chapter 2
Riveted Joints

14
2 - Riveted Joints
2-1. Introduction
Riveted joints: It is one of the techniques used to construct a joint between two or more
metal pieces or to unite the two ends of a metal piece. Buildings, bridges, boilers, tanks,
ships, aircraft hulls, car brakes, home appliances, windows, doors, metal frames, and
more frequently use riveting as a rapid jointing procedure.
2-2. Types of rivet heads
There are many types of rivet heats, figure (2.1).

a) Snap head.
b) Pan head.
c) Pan head with tapered neck.
d) Round counter sunk head 60o.
e) Flat counter sunk head 60o.
f) Flat head.
Figure 2-1: Types of Riveted Joint
2-3. Riveted joint types
The following criteria are used to classification riveted joints:

1. Depending on purpose,
2. Depending on how the connecting plates are positioned, and
15
3. Depending on arrangement of rivets.
Types of Riveted Joints according to arrangement of rivets:
2-3-1. Riveted Lap Joint
There are many types of riveted lap joint, figure 2.2.

a. Single.
b. Double (Chain).
c. Double (Zig Zag).
Figure 2-2: Riveted Lap Joint
2-3-2. Riveted Butt Joint (Figure 2.3).
a. Single rivet single strap.

b. Single rivet double strap.
c. Double rivet double strap (Chain).
d. Double rivet double Strap (Zig Zag).
Figure 2-3: Riveted Butt Joint

16
2-4. Important Terminologies
1. Pitch (p): Distance between centers of one rivet to the center of the adjacent rivet in
the same row
2. Back pitch (pt): or Transverse pitch is the distance between two consecutive rows of
rivets in the same plate
3. Diagonal Pitch (pd): Diagonal pitch is the distance between center of one rivet to the
center of the adjacent rivet located in the adjacent row
4. Margin or marginal pitch (m): Distance between the centers of the rivet hole to the
nearest edge of the plat
2-5. Leak Proof Joints
A hammer and a caulking tool are used to upset the plate's edge so that it is firmly forced
on the plate's surface to aid in leak proofing, figure 2.4.
Figure 2-4: Caulking and Fullering of Riveted Joint
2-6. Design of rivet joints
The design parameters in a riveted joint are (d, P and m). Diameter of the hole (d):
When thickness of the plate (t) is more than (8 mm), Unwin’s formula is used,
2-6-1. Strength of riveted joint

17
All potential failure paths in the joint are taken into consideration when evaluating the
strength of a riveted joint.
There are four types of stresses occur at riveted joints. Therefore, the failure is possible
in four locations as follows:
1- Shearing stress failure in rivets.
2- Tension stress failure in plate.
3- Bearing stress failure between plate and rivet.
4- Shearing stress failure in plate.
2-6-1-1. Shearing stress failure in

rivets:
a. All rivets in the same diameter.
Where:
b. The rivets with different diameters.

18
  
F1   rivet  d12 F2   rivet  2
d 21 F3   rivet  d 32
4 4 4
2-6-1-2. Tension stress failure in plate
Tearing of the plate across a row of

rivets.
Due to the tensile stresses in the main
plates, the main plate or cover plates may
tear off across a row of rivets. In such
cases, we consider only one pitch length of
the plate, since every rivet is responsible
for that much length of the plate only.
Where:
Note: Always:
2-6-1-3. Bearing stress failure between

plate and rivet.

21
2-6-1-4 Shearing stress failure in plate
An edge of the plate tearing may cause a joint to fail. By maintaining the margin,
( ), where ( ) is the diameter of the rivet hole, this can be prevented.
2-7. Efficiency of Joint
Maximum force which a joint can transmit without causing it to fail.
1. With the rivet, the lowest value for the subsequent stresses is chosen:

20
2. Without the rivet, the normal stress is:

21
2-8. Solve examples
Example 1
For the lap joint shown in the Figure, calculate the safe axial tensile force (P), if:
Assume the diameter of hole = 23 mm.

Solution
Shear force in the rivet (F rivet = P/4).
Privet
F 4P
 rivet   n

A d 2
 nd2
( )
4
4P
125*106 
 nd2
125.106 ( n d 2 ) 125106  3.14 4  (0.02) 2
Privet    157000N 157 KN
4 4
Ptensil
t 
( p  n.d h )  t
Ptensil
160*106 
( p  n.d h )  t
Ptensil 160.106 ( p  n .d h )  t 160.106 (0.250  4  0.022)  0.009 233280N  233.3 KN

22
Pbearing
b  4
d t
Pbearing
375*10  6 4
d t
P bearing  4  375 .106  d  t  4  375.106  0.02 0.009  270000N  270 KN
The safe force which does not cause failure neither in shear nor in tensile nor in bearing
is
.
Example 2
In the Figure shown, assume that a 25 mm diameter rivet joins the plates that are each
150 mm wide. The allowable stresses are 150
MPa for bearing in the plate material and 75
MPa for shearing of rivet. Determine (a) the
minimum thickness of each plate, and (b) the
largest average tensile stress in the plates.
(Assume dh=28 mm).
Solution
a) The minimum thickness of each plate
1. From shearing of rivet
P
F
 rivet   n , n 1
A d2
( )
4
Privet
 rivet 
d2
( )
4
d2
Privet  rivet . (
)
4
0.0252
 75.106  3.14  ( )  36797 N
4

23
2. From bearing of plate (Crushing force)
Pbearing
b   Pbearing   bearing  d  t
d t
Pbearing 36797
t   0.0098m  9.8 mm
 bearing  d 150.106  0.025
b) largest average tensile stress in the plate (Tearing force)
P 36797
t    30767000Pa  30.08 MPa
( w  n.d h )  t (0.15  0.028) * 0.0098
Example 3
In plates (28 mm) thick, The use of (25 mm)

diameter rivets spaced (100 mm) pitch allows for
the construction of a double riveted double cover
butt joint. The permitted stress levels are:
Tearing stress (tension stress) in plate (150 Mpa),
shearing stress in rivet (125 Mpa) and crushing
stress (bearing stress) (170 Mpa).
Find the efficiency of joint, taking the strength of
the rivet in double shear as twice as that of single
shear?
Solution
Given : t  20 mm ; d  25 mm ; p  100mm ; t  150 MPa
 r 125MPa ; b 180 MPa ; d h  d  3  25  3  28 mm.
1. Tearing resistance of the plate
P
t 
( p  n.d h )  t

24
PT   t  ( p  ndh )  t  150  (100  1 28)  28
PT  150  62  28  260400N  260.4 KN
2. Shearing resistance of the rivets
PC / n
r 
d4

4
2 r  n    d 2 2  125 2  3.14  (25) 2
PS  
4 4
981.25
PS   245.313 N  245.3 KN
4
3. Crushing resistance of the rivets
PC / n
b 
d t
PC   p  n  d  t  170 2  25  28
PC  238000N  238 KN
 Stengthof the jo int  Least of ( PT , PS , PC )  238 KN
Efficiency of the rivet joint
That the unriveted or solid plate's strength:

Psoild   t  p  t  150 (100  1 28)  28
Psoild  150100 28  420000N  420 KN
Least of ( PT , PS , PC ) 238
    100%  56.67 %
Psoild 420

25
Example 4
Between two (30 mm) thick plates, a double riveted lap joint is created. The diameter and
pitch of the rivets are (50 and 150) millimeters, respectively. Find the minimal force per
pitch that will cause the joint to fail, if the ultimate stresses are (600 Mpa) in tension,
(480 Mpa) in shear in the rivet, and (960 Mpa) in crushing (bearing). Find out the actual
stresses created in the plates and the rivets if the above joint is subjected to a load with a
factor of safety of (4).
Solution
Given :
t  30 mm ; d  50 mm ; p 150 mm ; w  200 mm ;
 t  600 MPa ; r  480 MPa ; b  960 MPa ; d h  d  3  50  3  53 mm.
P
t 
( p  n.d h )  t
PT   t  ( p  ndh )  t  600  (150  1  53)  30

PT  600  97  90  5238000N  5238 KN

PC / n
r 
d4

4
 r  n   d 2 480 2  3.14  (50) 2
PS  
4 4
7536000
PS  1884000 N 1884 KN
4
PC / n
b 
d t

26
PC   p  n  d  t  960 2  50  30
PC  2880000N  2880KN
 Stengthof the jo int  Least of ( PT , PS , PC ) 1884 KN
The minimal force per pitch required to tear the joint, as seen from above, is (1884 KN).
Example 5
a single riveted lap junction made of plates that are (6 mm) thick and (20 mm) in
diameter with a pitch of (50 mm). Determine the efficiency of the following:
Assume
Permissible tensile stress in plate = 120 MPa
Permissible shearing stress in rivets = 90 MPa
Permissible crushing stress in rivets = 180 MPa
Solution
Given : t  6 mm ; d  20mm ; P  50 mm ;  t  120 MPa
 r  90 MPa ; b 180 MPa ; d h  d  3  20  3  23mm.
PT
t 
( p  n.d h )  t
PT   t  ( p  ndh )  t  120  (50  1  23)  6
PT  120  27  6  19440 N  19.44 KN
PC / n
r 
d4

4

27
 r  n   d 2 90 1 2  3.14  (20) 2
PS  
4 4
226080
PS   56520 N  56.52 KN
4
PC / n
b 
d t
PC   p  n  d  t  1801 20  6
PC  21600N  21.6 KN
 Stengthof the jo int  Least of ( PT , PS , PC ) 19.44 KN
Efficiency of the joint
We know that the strength of the unriveted or solid plate

Psoild   t  p  t  120 50  6
Psoild  36000N  36 KN
Least of ( PT , PS , PC ) 19.44
   100%  54 %
Psoild 36

28
2-9. Chapter Questions
1. Typically, rivets are constructed of

a. A hard Conformable material
b. A conformable material
c. A ductile material
d. A brittle material
2. The distance between a plate's edge and the centerline of the closest row of rivets is referred to
as:
a. Transverse pitch
b. Diagonal pitch
c. Margin
d. Pitch
3. The rivet in a single riveted lap joint is subjected to

a. A compressive stress
b. A double shear
c. A tensile stress
d. A single shear
4. A boiler and pressure vessel's rivet head is

a. Half countersunk.
b. Snap head.
c. Flat head.
d. Countersunk head.
5. The goal of caulking and fullering involves creating the riveted junction
a. Without any remaining strains
b. Strong
c. Leak proof
d. Permanent
6. The distance between a rivet's center and an adjacent rivet's center in the same row is referred
to as:
a. A transverse pitch
b. A diagonal pitch
c. A Pitch
d. A Margin
7. A lap joint is constantly subjected to

a. A bending moment
b. A torsional moment
c. A compressive force
d. A tensile force

31
8. The joint efficiency with the lowest value is assumed when:
a. Double riveted butt joint
b. Single riveted lap joint
c. Single riveted butt joint
d. Single riveted lap joint
9. The link between the diameter of the rivet (d) and the thickness of the cylinder wall (t) is given
by Unwin's formula:
a. √
b. √
c. √
d. √
10. Which of the following isn’t a main part of rivet?

a. Head
b. Shank
c. Point
d. Thread
11. A rivet is specified as a (50 mm) rivet. What does it mean?

a. Hole plate diameter is (50 mm).
b. Shank diameter is (50 mm).
c. Head diameter is (50 mm).
d. Both head and shank diameter are (50 mm).
12. Riveted joints is suitable for a

a. High temperature services
b. Medium temperature services
c. Low temperature services
d. None of these
13. Riveted joints is used for joining of

a. Structure
b. Pipe
c. Pressure vessel
d. Tank
14. In riveted joints main plate fails due to

a. Shearing
b. Compressing
c. crushing
d. Tearing

30
15. When thickness of plate is 25 mm, then diameter of rivet is used in joints is
a. 20 mm
b. 32 mm
c. 24 mm
d. 30 mm
16. Failure in rivet occurs by which mode?

a. Shear
b. Compression
c. Tensile
d. Each of the mentioned
17. A strap is used in a lap joint which is riveted to each of the two plates.
a. TRUE
b. FALSE
c. Can be true or false
d. Cannot say
18. Transverse pitch is the distance between two consecutive rows of rivets in the same plate
a. Back pitch
b. Pitch
c. Transverse pitch
d. Diagonal pitch

31
Chapter 3
Welded Joints

32
3. Welded Joints
3-1. Introduction
Welding joint is a manufacturing process in which two materials typically metals or

thermoplastics are linked by melting their ends together under heat. External pressure
may also be used to help the melting process, and after the materials have cooled and
hardened, the weld joint is permanent, figure (3-1).
Figure 3-1: Parts joint welding
3-2. Symbol of welding

Figure (3-2) it shows all the symbols used in welding
Figure 3-2: Symbol of welding

33
 Reference Line: It is placed near the joint it describes.
 Arrow: It points to the location or joint or spot that is to be welded.
 Weld Symbol: Distinguishes sides of the joint by using arrow and spaces above
and below the reference line. The side where arrow points are known as arrow side
whiles the opposite side is known as other side.
 Tail: It indicates the welding or cutting process along with welding specification,
procedures, or supplementary information related to the weld.
 L: It indicates length of weld.
 P (Pitch symbol): It is the distance between two consecutive welds, measured
from the center of both welds.
 F (Finish symbol): It indicates the need for finishing processes like grinding,
brushing, or machining.
 Contour: It indicates the shape of the finished weld bead.
 A (Groove angle): It mentions the angle of the opening between the two welded
parts.
 R (Root Opening): It denotes the distance between the root edges of two metals
that need to be joint.
 E (Groove Weld Size): It indicates the size of the groove weld.
 S (Depth): It indicates the size or penetration (strength) of certain type of welds.
 N: It indicates the number of spots, seams, studs, plugs, slots, or projection welds
3-3. Types of welding joint
There are five types of welding joints which are given below, (figure 3-3).
1. Edge Joint,
2. Butt Joint,
3. Corner Joint,
4. Lap Joint,
5. Tee Joint.

34
Figure 3-3: Types of welding joint
3-3-1. Butt Joint welding
Butt joints are a form of junction used to solder thin metal sheets where two metal
components are linked in the same plane, figure (3-4).
Figure 3-4: Butt joint welding
Any butt-welded joint is weak behind it for the reasons listed below.
1. Cracking,
2. Slag entrapment,
3. Excessive porosity,
3-3-1-1. Various welding butt joint types
1. Single welded,
2. Double welded,
3. Open welded,
4. Closed welded.

35
3-3-1-2. Advantages and disadvantages of Butt-welding joint
Table (3-1) shown Butt-Welding joint advantages and disadvantages.
Table 3-1: Butt-Welding joint advantages and disadvantages

NO. Advantages Disadvantages
1 Universally recognized technique.
Chances of porosity in butt welds.
2 Easiest welding method.
3 Most common method. It's necessary to prepare the edges of
thick metal components while
4 Very affordable (cheap method).
working with them.
3-3-1-3. Applications of Butt-Welding Joint
1. Pipes,
2. Valves,
3. Flanges,
4. Fittings.
3-3-2. Corner Joint welding
One of the most common ways to join metal sheets is using a corner junction, which is
made by positioning two portions' corners at a right angle to one another. This method is
utilized on the sheet's outside edge., figure (3-5).
Figure 3-5: Corner joint welding

36
3-3-2-1. Corner joints welding types
1. Flush welded corner joint,

2. Full open welded corner joint,
3. Half open welded corner joint.
3-3-2-2. Styles of welding corner joints
Corner Joints are made using several welding techniques.
1. Spot weld,
2. Bevel Grooved weld,
3. Corner Flange weld,
4. Edge weld,
5. Flare V groove weld,
6. Butt weld,
7. Square groove weld,
8. Fillet weld,
9. J- Groove weld,
10. U-groove weld,
11. V-groove weld.
3-3-2-3. Advantages and disadvantages of Corner - welding joint
Table (3-2) shown Corner -Welding joint advantages and disadvantages.
Table 3-2: Corner - welding joint advantages & disadvantages
1 It is possible to make strong

welds.
2 A variety of welds, including
There is a possibility of increased Wear
thinner and thicker ones, are
and Tear in a corner joint.
feasible.
3 The most often used method of
joining metal sheets.

37
3-3-2-4. Applications of Corner Welding Joint
1. When joining pieces of sheet metal together to form various shapes, corner joints
welding is utilized.
2. A near corner joint may be used to solder thin metal sheets where strength is not
required.
3. Welding is done on one side of heavier metal sheets to create a half corner
junction.
4. This method can be used to build boxes, box frames, and other related types of
fabrication.
3-3-3. Edge Joint Welding
Edge joints are the kind of joints created by joining the edges of two separate
components by welding, figure (3-6).
Figure 3-6: Edge joint welding
3-3-3-1. Welding edge joint styles
Edge Joints are made using several welding techniques.

1. V-Groove edge joint welded,
2. J- Groove edge joint welded,
3. U- Groove edge joint welded,
4. Bevel Groove edge joint welded,
5. Edge-flange edge joint welded,
6. Corner flange edge joint welded,

38
7. Square-groove weld/butt edge joint welded.
3-3-3-2. Advantages and disadvantages of edge welding joint
Table (3-3) shown edge -welding joint advantages and disadvantages.
Table 3-3: Edge -welding joint advantages and disadvantages.

Useful for sheets that are no At the thickness of the connection, the weld
1
thicker than 3 mm. does not penetrate entirely.
This type weld joint doesn't Applications involving stress and pressure
2
need to be prepared. cannot employ this type of welding joint.
The sheets can be joined Edge welds are less typical than other kinds of
3 together without filler weld joints.
material.
Due to build up amassing on the edges, these
4
joints are frequently replaced with new joints.
Extremely uncommon joint method
5
3-3-3-3. Applications of Edge Welding Joint
1. This welding joint is typically employed when sheet edges are close together and
nearly parallel at the welding spot.
2. These joints are most frequently employed for metal components with flanging up
edges or when a weld is required to connect two nearby sections.
3. Edge welds are most frequently utilized for materials whose sheets are no thicker
than 3 mm.
4. Automotive gas tanks & assembly housing also use flanged joints with edge
welding.
5. The world of aerospace repair frequently uses this welded junction.

41
3-3-4. Lap Joint Welding
The type of joint known as a lap joint is When elements are arranged in overlapping
places, two work pieces are positioned next to one another, forming one above the other,
figure (3-7).
Lap joint could mean:
1. One-sided,
2. Double Sided.
Figure 3-7: Lap joint welding
3-3-4-1. Styles of lap joint welding
Types of welding used to create lap joints

1. Fillet lap joint welding,
2. Bevel-groove lap joint welding,
3. Slot lap joint welding,
4. Plug lap joint welding,
5. Spot lap joint welding,

40
6. Flare bevel groove lap joint welding,
7. J-groove lap joint welding.
3-3-4-2. Advantages & Disadvantages of Lap Welding Joint
Table (3-4) shown lap -welding joint advantages and disadvantages.
Figure 3-4: Lap -welding joint advantages and disadvantages

A satisfactory lap weld can be produced with little
1
difficulty.
Because the second sheet is present on the opposite One sided lap
2 side of the joint, there is no chance of blowing welding is
through the weld. unsupportable on
Lap joints may be fabricated more quickly and sheets carrying heavy
3
easily. loads.
A double-sided weld results in stronger welded
4
joints.
3-3-4-3. Applications of lap welding joint
1. Gas tungsten arc welding, gas metal arc welding, and resistance spot welding are
the most prevalent applications for lap weld joints. Lap welding rarely employs
high intensity welding techniques like electron or laser beam welding.
2. Wood and plastic can both use lap joints.
3. Lap welds are frequently employed in procedures involving automation. They are
employed in:
A. Temporary framing,
B. Tabling,
C. Frame assembly in cabinet making.
3-3-5. Tee Joint Welding

41
Two parts coming together at a right angle to form a joint is known as a tee junction, or
(90 degrees), and one part is positioned above the other in the middle, as seen in the
figure (3.8).
Figure 3-8: Tee joint welding
3-3-5-1. Styles of Tee welding joint
Used welding techniques to make Tee Joints

1. Fillet Tee welding joint,
2. Flare-bevel Tee welding joint,
3. Plug Tee welding joint,
4. J-groove weld,
5. Slot Tee welding joint,
6. Bevel-groove Tee welding joint,
7. Melt-through Tee welding joint.
3-3-5-2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Tee Welding Joint
Table (3-5) shown Tee -welding joint advantages and disadvantages.
Figure 3-5: Tee -welding joint advantages and disadvantages

For a plain Tee

To ensure effective penetration on the weld roof,
1 welding joint, there is
extra caution is required.
no preparation

42
necessary.
In Tee welded joints, corrosion fatigue is
2
commonplace.
Tee welded joints may have increased cracking,

3 moisture entrapment, excessive porosity, or
corrosion because of the geometry they create.
3-3-5-3. Applications of Tee Welding Joint
1. Tee welded connectors are used to join metal pieces to bases of various types.
2. Machine and structural applications have used tee welded joints,
3. When attaching thin plates, a single beveled junction that can be welded from one
side is typically employed,
4. To weld hefty plates from both sides, a double beveled junction is required.
3-4. Design of welded joints
3-4-1. Design of a Butt Joint
The butt joints can be used in either compression or tension. Average tensile stress in a
butt welded joint subjected to tensile load [P, (N/mm2)], figure (3-9), is given by,
Whereas, ( ) is throat area (mm2), ( ) is throat thickness(mm) and ( ) is length of the

weld(mm). ( ) must be ≤ [ ] for the joint to be safe.
Also, Average Compressive Stress in a butt welded joint subjected to compressive load,
(P) is given by the following formula,
Which must be ≤ [ ]

43
a. b.
Figure 3-9: Butt Joint, a. Single V-Butt Joint, b. Double V-Butt Joint
The throat area of a double V-butt joint is equal to ( ), where ( ) are the top
and bottom throat thicknesses.
Codes for unfired pressure vessels, for example, propose reducing the strength of the butt
welded joint by a quantity known as the joint's efficiency. where a reduction in strength
is desired, the following modification and rewriting of the equation:
3-4-2. Design of a Fillet Joint
3-4-2-1. Transverse Fillet Weld
Tensile strength is the goal while designing transverse fillet welds. The fillet section is
assumed to be a right-angled triangle for the sake of strength calculations, with the
hypotenuse making equal angles with the two sides as illustrated in figure (3-10).
Figure 3-10: Shown transverse single & double fillet weld

44
Size or leg of the weld (s) is defined as the length of each side (AB = BC), and throat
thickness (t) is defined as the distance between the hypotenuse and the intersection of
two legs (BD). At the throat, a minimum area is reached, if (L) is the weld's length.
Throat area,
When a single transverse fillet weld is subjected to a tensile load (P), the tensile stress
( ) is calculated as follows:
Also, the formula below provides that for a double transverse fillet weld:
3-4-2-2. Parallel Fillet Weld
For shear strength, parallel fillet welds are used. Consider about a parallel fillet weld as
shown in figure 3-11.
Figure 3-11: Parallel Fillet Weld
Throat Area ( ), where ( ) are size and length of the weld. For a
parallel fillet weld subjected to tensile load ( ), shear stress ( ) is given by the
following:
3-4-3. Axially loaded unsymmetrical welded joints

45
In some applications, welding unsymmetrical pieces like an angle or a (T) to the beams
or steel plates is necessary. Figure (3-12) shows two parallel fillet welds being used to
join an angle section to a vertical beam (1 & 2). The external force pressing on the joint
passes via (G), which represents the angle section's center of gravity (G). Assume that
the opposing forces (P1 & P2) are configured in the welds (1 & 2), respectively. in the
equation (6).
Since the moment of forces about the center of gravity is equal to zero,
Substituting expressions equations (7 & 8) in the expressions (9),
Assuming total length of welds as (l),
Figure 3-12: Axially loaded unsymmetrical welded joints

46
3-5. Solve Examples
Example 1
Figure (3-13) of a gas tank has an inner diameter of (5 meters). As depicted in the figure,
it is encased by hemispherical shells using a butt - welded junction. The hemispherical
cover and the cylindrical shell both have a thickness of (16 mm). If the acceptable tensile
stress in the weld is (73 N/mm2), determine the maximum internal pressure to which the
tank may be exposed. Assume that the welded junction is 66% efficient.
Figure 3-13: A gas tank

Solution:
1- Tensil force in plate (F):
2- Allowable internal pressure (P):

47
Example 2
A steel plate as in figure (3-14), have (85 mm) wide (18 mm) thick, is welded to another
steel plate by means of double parallel fillet welds as shown in figure. The plates are
subjected to a static tensile force of (133 KN). Determine the required length of the welds
if the permissible shear stress in the weld is (83 N/mm2).
Figure 3-14: A steel plate

Solution:
Example 3
Two steel plates as in figure (3-15), (215mm) wide and (16 mm) thick, are jointed
together by means of double transverse fillet welds as shown in figure. The maximum
tensile stress for the plates and the welding material should not exceed (133 N/mm2).
Find the required length of the weld, if the strength of weld is equal to the strength of the
plates.

48
Figure 3-15: A two steel plates
Solution
Example 4
A steel plate as in figure (3-16), (66 mm) wide and (14 mm) thick, is joined with another
steel plate by means of single transverse and double parallel fillet welds, as shown in
figure. The joint is subjected to a maximum tensile force (83 KN). The permissible
tensile and shear stresses in the weld material are (88 & 62 N/mm2) respectively.
Determine the required length of each parallel fillet weld.

51
Solution

50
Example 5
To create an angle in the side welds while welding an ISA angle (180 * 66 * 14) to a
steel plate, as shown in figure (3-16). The angle section's center of gravity, which is (73
mm) from the short side, is subject to a static load of (233 KN). The maximum load that
can be applied to a weld length in a millimeter is (733 N). How much length of a (14
mm) fillet weld is needed?
Figure 3-17: A steel plate with side welds angle
Solution

51
1. The purpose of the transverse fillet welds is
e. Bending strength
f. Shear strength
g. Tensile strength
h. Compressive strength
2. Arc welding is also known as

a. pressure welding
b. Plastic welding
c. non-pressure welding
d. None of these
3. It mentions the angle of the opening between the two welded parts.
a. Groove angle
b. Root Opening
c. Pitch symbol
d. Weld Symbol
4. It denotes the distance between the root edges of two metals that need to be joint.
a. Groove angle
b. Root Opening
c. Pitch symbol
d. Weld Symbol
5. It is the distance between two consecutive welds, measured from the center of both welds.
a. Groove angle
b. Root Opening
c. Pitch symbol
d. Weld Symbol
6. Distinguishes sides of the joint by using arrow and spaces above and below the reference line.
a. Groove angle
b. Root Opening
c. Pitch symbol
d. Weld Symbol
7. Welding joint design is based on -------- strength.
a. Tension
b. Shearing
c. Compressive
d. Bending
8. Which joint is designed for shear strength?

a. Parallel fillet welding joint
b. Transverse fillet welding joint

52
c. Both A and B
d. None
9. Welding is removed by ----------.

a. Polishing
b. Grinding
c. Cutting
d. None of these
10. Which of the following welding joint based on shear strength?

a. Butt Welded joints
b. Transverse fillet Welded joint
c. Parallel fillet Welded joint
d. All of these
11. Which of the following welding joint based on tensile strength?

a. Butt Welded joints
b. Transverse fillet Welded joint
c. Parallel fillet Welded joint
d. Both A and B
12. Which of the following types is not fillet weld?

a. Butt joint
b. T - joint
c. Lap joint
d. Corner joint
13. Welded joint made by overlapping the plate is called -------.

a. Butt welded joint
b. Fillet welded joint
c. Fillet butt welded joint
d. None
13. The term for a welded junction created by positioning the plate edge to edge is ------.
a. Butt welded joint
b. Fillet welded joint
c. Fillet butt welded joint
d. None
14. The advantage of a welded joint over a riveted joint is ----------.

a. Introduce residual stresses
b. Requires highly skilled labor and supervision
c. Easy process
d. Lighter in weighed

53
15. Parallel fillet welds are under ----------.
a. Shear stress
b. Bending stress
d. Tensile stress
16. Butt welds are under ----------.

a. Shear stress
b. Tensile and compressive stress
d. Bending stress
17. Corner welding joint types are:

a. Flush Corner Joint and Half Open Corner Joint.
b. Half Open Corner Joint and Full Open Corner Joint.
c. Full Open Corner Joint and Flush Corner Joint.
d. Full Open Corner Joint, Flush Corner Joint, and Half Open Corner Joint.
18. Why are butt welded joints longitudinal joints?

a. high strength requirements
b. low strength requirements
c. low as well as high strength requirements
d. none
19. Lap welded joints used in circumferential joints because of?

a. High strength requirements.
b. Low strength requirements.
c. Low as well as high strength requirements.
d. None.
20. Longitudinal welded joint fails by

a. Hoop stress.
b. Radial stress.
c. Hoop Longitudinal stress.
d. Tensile stress.
21. Circumferential welded joint fails by

a. Longitudinal stress.
b. Tensile stress.
c. Radial stress.
d. Hoop stress.
22. In which case, molten metal is used to do welding?

54
a. Groove type
b. spot type
c. Plug type
d. None
23. Joint which does not fall under lap joint category?
a. Transverse fillet
b. Parallel fillet
c. Circular fillet
d. None
24. Choose which is not a lap joint?

a. Single V
b. Double V
c. Single U
d. Single S
25. Area under tension in a single transverse fillet lap weld is

a.
b.
c.
d.
26. The advantage of a welded joint over a riveted joint is:

a. Introduce residual stresses
b. Requires highly skilled labor and supervision
c. Lighter in weight
d. Heavy in weight
27. Welded joint used in the longitudinal joint of a cylindrical pressure vessel is;
a. Butt joint
b. Lap joint
c. corner joint
d. Tee joint
28. Efficiency of a welded joint with respect to a riveted joint is:

a. Smaller
b. Equal
c. Greater
d. Weakens
29. Which of the following welded joints is the stronger?

a. Butt joint
b. Lap joint

55
c. Corner joint
d. Edge joint
30. The strength of a welded joint with respect to a riveted joint is

a. Greater
b. Smaller
c. Equal
d. None
31. Welded joints are

a. Hinged joint
b. Rigid joint
c. Freely supported joint
d. None
32. Lap welded joints are

a. Rectangular
b. Square
c. Triangular
d. None
33. Welding requires

a. Non-skilled worker
b. Skilled worker
c. Any worker
d. None
34. Figure illustrates how to join two plates that are each (75 mm) wide and (15 mm) thick using a
single transverse weld and a double parallel fillet weld. If (75 Mpa & 60 Mpa) are the maximum
tensile and shear stresses, respectively, as in figure (3-18).
If the joint is being loaded statically, the length of each parallel fillet weld should be determined.

56
35. According to the illustration, a steel plate with fillet welds has an ISA (200*100*10) angle welded
on it. (150 KN) of static force is applied to the angle, and (70 N/mm2) of shear stress is permitted for
the weld as in figure (3-19). Calculate the length of the top and bottom welds?
Answer: [ l1 = 108.81 mm, l2 = 194.28 mm].
Figure 3-19: A steel plate with side welds angle
36. A circumferential fillet weld is used to join a circular shaft as in figure (3-20), with a support that
has a (50 mm) diameter, as indicated in the image. it experiences a (2500 N/mm) torsional moment,
if the permitted shear stress in the weld is restricted to (140 N/mm2). Determine the size of the
weld?
37. Answer: [ t = 4.55 mm, h = 6.43 mm].
Figure 3-20: A steel bar

57
Chapter 4
Screwed Joints

58
4. Screwed Joints
4-1. Introduction
Typically, fasteners like screws, bolts, nuts, washers, and cotter joints are used to make
non-permanent couplings, and some permanent joints through the process which includes
welding, riveting, soldering, brazing etc.
4-2. Fasteners type
1. bolts and nuts (threaded)
2. set screws (threaded)

61
3. washers
4. keys
5. Pins and rings
Pins Rings

60
4-3. Screwed Joints
A continuous helical groove is cut onto a cylindrical surface to create a screw thread, or a
screw thread is a ridge with a helix-shaped, consistently sized part.
External thread: External threads are on the outside of a member and chamfer on the
end of the screw thread makes it easier to engage the nut.
1. Internal Thread: Internal threads are on the inside of a member and an internal
thread is cut using a tap.
A single helical groove on the cylinder is cut to create a single thread (also known as a
single-start screw), then a second thread is cut to create a double thread (also known as a
double-start screw) in the area between the first thread's grooves. It is also possible to
establish triple and quadruple (or multiple-start) threads. Figurers can use either their
right or left hand to cut the helical grooves (4-1 & 4-2).
Figure 4-1:Types of start
Figure 4- 2 : The helical grooves right and left hand
A bolt and a nut are the two components that make up a screwed joint. When connecting
or disconnecting machine parts quickly and safely without endangering the machine or
the fastening, screwed joints are frequently employed.

61
4-4. Types of threads used in power screws
Threads come in a variety of styles, figure 4-3.
1. Shape V threads
2. Whitworth threads
3. Buttress thread
4. Square threads
5. ACME threads
6. Worm’s threads
Figure 4-3: Types of threads
4-5. Applications of power screws
1. It is used to raise the load, for example, screw jack.

2. It is used to obtain a precise motion, for example, lead screw of lathe.
3. It is used to load a specimen, for example, on a universal testing machine.
4. It is used to clamp a work piece, for example, vice.
4-6. Parts of power screws
A power screw has following three parts.

1. It consists a Screw,

62
2. It consists a Nut,
3. It consists a part which holds either nut or bolt in place.
4-7. Advantages and disadvantages of screwed joints
The advantages and disadvantages of screwed joints are as follows.

1. Advantages
a. Screwed joints are extremely reliable in operation,
b. Screwed joints are easy to assemble and disassemble,
c. A wide variety of screwed joints can be adapted to various operating
conditions,
d. Screws are relatively inexpensive to produce due to standardization and
highly efficient manufacturing processes.
2. Disadvantages
The fundamental drawback of screwed joints is the stress concentration in the threaded
parts, which are weak spots under varying load circumstances.
The strength of screwed joints should be considered inferior to that of riveted or welded
ones.
4-8. Important screw thread terminology
The following screw thread terms, as shown in figure (4-4), are relevant to the subject:
Figure 4-4: Terms used in screw threads

63
1. Major Diameter- The diameter of the thread that would touch the crests is its largest.
2. Minor Diameter - It is the smallest diameter of the thread which would touch the
roots.
3. Pitch Diameter - It is a middle diameter between the major and minor diameter of
screw threads.
4. Root - Root of the deepest part of the grove that corresponds with the minor diameter.
5. Flank Angle -This is the angle made by the intersection of the two thread flanks.
6. Pitch - Pitch of a thread is the distance between 2 crests.
Mathematically,
7. Angle - The thread angle of a screw is the angle between the threads.
8. Crest - Crest of the thread is the top part of the grove that corresponds with the major
diameter.
9. Flank - The flank is the angle at which the helix is raised to form a crest.
10. Slope. It is half the pitch of the thread.
4-9. ISO metric screw threads
Vee threads are commonly used as fastening threads. They provide the following
advantage:
1. Vee threads produce more friction, which reduces the possibility of loosening,
2. Vee threads are stronger because they have a thicker thread at the core diameter,
3. ISO metric screw threads with vee threads are easier to manufacture.
A threaded equilateral triangle in Figure 4-5 has a thread angle of (60o). The pitch of this
triangle is equal to its base. Tables (4-1 & 4-2) show the dimensions of the standard
profile

64
Figure 4-5: Profile of the external and internal threads
A coarse screw thread is identified by the letter "M" and the nominal diameter in
millimeters (mm), for instance (M12).
The letter "M," the nominal diameter and pitch in millimeters (mm), and the sign "x" are
used to identify fine scribe screw threads, as in the following example: (M 12 x 1.5).

65
Table 4-1: The fundamental dimension for ISO metric screw threads (Coarse series)

66
Table 4-2: The fundamental dimension for ISO metric screw threads (Fine series).
4-10. Bolted Joint, Design Procedure
1. Initial stresses due to screwing up forces (Tensile).
2. Maximum tensile stress due to external forces.

Figure 4-6 shown dimension of set screw.

67
Figure 4-6: Dimension set screw
Where:
 t  Maximum tensile stress,
P  External force,
d  Outer diameter of the bolt,
d 1  Inner diameter of the bolt,
n  Safty factor,
S ty  Yield strength in tension,
S sy  Yield strengthin shear.

68
3. Shear stress
4. Combined tension and shear stress

71
4-11. Solve Examples
Example 1:
As depicted in the illustration, an eye bolt is to be used to
lift a load of (P = 10 KN). The motor's frame is fastened
down to receive the eye bolt. The eye bolt has coarse
threads. It is composed of plain carbon steel 30C8, which
has a safety factor of 3 (F.S = 3), and a strength of (250
N/mm2). Find out the bolt's size?
Solution
Given data:
P = 15 KN = 15000 N, Ssy = 250 Mpa , F.S = 3
Ssy 250
Sty    500 MPa
0.5 0.5
S ty 500
t   166.67 MPa
F .S 3
P P 4P
t   
A  2  . d12
d1
4
4p 4  15000
d1    114.65  11.9 mm
 . t 3.14  166.67
d1 11.9
d   14.88  15 mm
0 .8 0.8
According to Table (4-1) The typical size of the bolt is (M16).

70
Example 2:
Two bolts are used to secure two plates, as
shown in Figure. The bolts are made of plain
carbon steel 30C8 ( ) with a
safety factor of 3 (F.S = 3). Determine the bolt
size if (P = 10 kN).
Solution
Given data:
S sy 200
t    66.67 MPa
F .S 3

Shear area of two bolts  2 A  2 ( ).d 2 ( mm 2 )
4
P P 2P
t   
2A 2  d 2  . d12
1
4
2p 2  10000
d1    95.54  9.77  10 mm
 . t 3.14  66.67
d1 9.77
d    21.21  13 mm
0.8 0.8
From Table (4-1), the standard size of the bolt is M16.

71
4-12. Power Screws and Ball Screws
Objectives
a. Recognize and understand advantages and disadvantages of different types of
power screws.
b. Determine the power necessary for driving power screws at different speeds and
torques.
c. Understand principles of operation of ball screws and how they differ from
friction-type power screws.
d. Understand and calculate torque and efficiencies of power screws and ball
screws.
e. Understand and envision how power screws and ball screws can be used in
different designs.
A screw and nut to transmit power or motion the axial movement of the nut is used to
drive a load, figure 4-6.
Power screw used to change angular motion into linear motion, usually transmits power.
Examples include vises, presses, jacks, lead screw on lathe.
Figure 4-7: Power screw.

72
4-13. Tooth profiles
a. Square thread – Most efficient for transferring torque to linear motion.

b. Acme thread – Easier to make – Good when well lubricated – Efficiency
slightly lower than square.
c. Buttress thread – More efficient than Acme – Closer to square than Acme –
Used when force is transmitted in only direction.
Force required to push a box up or down an inclined figure 4-8.
Figure 4-8: Force exerted, a- Up the plane, b- Down the plane.
P  Force required to move load,

f  Cofficient of friction ,
N  Normal force,
fN  Friction force,
DP   d m  Pitch diameter,
L  Lead angleof the thread,
  Lead angle,
d m  Meand diameter,
  Helixangle
1. For raising the load

73
∑
2. For lowering the load
Eliminate and solve for to raise and lower the load.
Where:
Divide numerator and denominator by and use relation:
*( ) +
*( ) +
4-14. Torque
The torque is the product of the force P and the mean radius.
1. Raising Torque (TR)

74
( ) ( )
2. Lowering Torque (TL)
( ) ( )
Where:
4-15. Power Screw Efficiency
If in Equation (19), then obtain:
Which, is the torque required to raise the load .

The efficiency is therefore:
4-15-1. Power Screw Stress Analysis
The following stresses should be checked on both nut and screw:

1. Shearing stress in screw body.
2. Axial stress in screw body.
3. Thread bearing stress.

75
Where:
nm = Number of engaged threads
4. Thread bending stress.
Were,
5. Transverse shear stress at the center of the thread

root.

76
4-16. Solve Examples
Example 3
A square thread power screw has a major diameter of (40 mm) and a pitch of (6 mm) with
double threads and it is to be used in an application similar to that of the figure.
Applicable data are thread and collar coefficient of friction equal to (0.13), collar
diameter of (40 mm), and a load of (15 KN) per screw. Determine:
1. Thread depth, thread width, mean or pitch diameter, minor diameter, and lead.
2. Torque required to rotate the screw “against” the load.
3. Torque required to rotate the screw “with” the load.
4. Overall efficiency.
Solution:
1. From the square thread figure above, it can be seen the thread depth and width are
the same and equal to half the pitch, or 3 mm. Also
P 6
dm  d   40   37 mm  0.037 m
2 2
d r  d  P  40  6  34 mm  0.034 m
L  nt P  2  6 12 mm  0.03 m
2. For a square thread, the torque required to raise
the load is:
Fd m L  fd m F f c dc
TR  [ ]
2 d m  f L 2
Where:
f = fc = 0.13, dc = 40 mm = 0.04 mm

77
15000 0.037 0.03  0.13  3.14  0.037 15000 0.13  0.04
TR  [ ]
2 3.14  0.037  0.13  0.03 2
0.0451
TR  277.5 [ ]  39
0.1162  0.0039
TR  277.5 [0.5842]  39  201.114 N .m
3. For a square thread, the torque required to lower the load is:
Fd m fd m  L F f c dc
TL  [ ]
2 d m  f L 2
14000 0.037 0.13  3.14  0.037  0.03 14000 0.13  0.04
TL  [ ]
2 3.14  0.037  0.15  0.03 2
0.0145
TL  277.5 [ ]  39
0.1162  0.0045
0.0145
TL  277.5 [ ]  39
0.1207
TL 14100[0.06718]  72.337 N .m
4. Overall efficiency is:

T0 FL
Efficiency( )  
TR 2 TR
14000 0.03
Efficiency( )   100%
2  3.14  201.114
Efficiency( )  33.25 %
Example 4:
A double-threaded power screw with ISO metric trapezoidal threads is used to lift a
weight of (300 KN) with a pitch of (12 mm). The screw threads' friction coefficient is
(0.15). Find the following while ignoring collar friction:

78
1. Thread depth, thread width, mean or pitch diameter, minor diameter, and lead,
2. Torque to raise the load,
3. Torque lowers the load,
4. Efficiency of the screw.
Solution:
Given
1. From the trapezoidal thread figure above, it can be seen the thread depth and width
are the same and equal to half the pitch, or .
Also
P 12
dm  d   100   94 mm  0.094 m
2 2
d r  d  P 100  12  88 mm  0.088m
L  nt P  2  12  24 mm  0.024 m
2. For a trapezoidal thread, the torque required to raise the load is:
Fd m L  fd m
TR  [ ]
2 d m  fl
300000 0.094 0.024  0.15  3.14  0.094

TR  [ ]
2 3.14  0.094  0.15  0.024
0.0683
TR  14100 [ ]
0.2983  0.0036
TR 14100[0.2318]  3268.38 N .m
3. For a trapezoidal thread, the torque required to lower the load is:
81
Fd m fd m  L
TL  [ ]
2 d m  fl
300000 0.094 0.15  3.14  0.094  0.024

TL  [ ]
2 3.14  0.094  0.15  0.024
0.02028
TL  14100 [ ]
0.2983  0.0036
0.02028
TL  14100 [ ]
0.3019
TL 14100[0.06718]  947.24 N .m
4. Overall efficiency is:
T0 FL
Efficiency( )  
TR 2 TR
300000 0.024
Efficiency( )   100%
2  3.14  3268.38
Efficiency( )  35.08 %

80
1. The bolt shank is put under the following stress when a nut is tightened by putting a washer
below it:
a. Torsional shear stress.
a. Compressive stress.
b. Direct shear stress.
c. Tensile stress.
2. The axial force applied to the bolt as a result relies on:

a. Initial tension, Stiffness of bolt and parts held by bolt, and External applied load.
b. Stiffness of bolt and parts held by bolt.
c. Initial tension.
d. External applied load.
3. Setscrews are
a. Almost identical to tap bolts, but with a wider range of head shapes.
b. Typically used with a nut and slotted for a screwdriver.
c. Similar to studs.
d. is a screw that is used to secure an object.
4. The washer's inner diameter is:

a. Less than the size of a nut.
b. Regardless of the nut's size.
c. More than the size of a nut.
d. Equal than the size of a nut.
5. The designation M 36 × 2 means

a. Metric fine threads of 36 mm outside diameter and 2 mm pitch
b. Metric coarse threads of 36 mm outside diameter and 2 mm pitch
c. Metric threads of 36 mm pitch diameter and 2 mm pitch
d. Metric threads of 36 mm core diameter and 2 mm pitch
6. The designation M 20 means

a. Metric coarse threads of 20 mm outside diameter
b. Metric fine threads of 20 mm outside diameter
c. Metric threads of 20 mm core diameter
d. Metric threads of 20 mm pitch diameter
7. The largest diameter of external or internal screw thread is called

a. Major diameter
b. Minor diameter
c. Pitch diameter
d. None of the above

81
8. The formula of a shearing stress in screw body is:
a.
b.
c.
d.
9. A screw is specified by ----------- diameter.

a. Mean
b. Major
c. Minor
d. Pitch
10. Most efficient for transferring torque to linear motion.

a. Square thread
b. Acme thread
c. Buttress thread
a. Worm thread
11. Easier to make – Good when well lubricated – Efficiency slightly

a. Square thread
b. Acme thread
c. Buttress thread
b. Worm thread
12. More efficient than Acme – Closer to square than Acme – Used when force is transmitted in
only direction.
a. Square thread
b. Acme thread
c. Buttress thread
d. Worm thread
13. The following factors determine square threaded power's maximum efficiency:
a. Screw Pitch.
b. Lead angle of screw
c. Nominal diameter of screw
d. Friction angle
14. Which of the screw threads from the list below is the strongest thread?
a. ACME screw threads.
b. Square screw threads.
c. V-threads screw.
d. Buttress screw threads.

82
15. There are multiple threads utilized for:
a. High load carrying capacity.
b. High efficiency.
c. Low efficiency for self-locking.
d. High mechanical advantage.
16. Which of the following screw threads is utilized for power transmission both ways?
a. Trapezoidal threads and square thread
b. Buttress threads
c. Trapezoidal threads
d. square thread
17. Initial stresses due to screwing up forces (Tensile).
a.
b.
c.
d.
18. It is used to raise the load, for example,
a. Vice
b. Screw jack
c. Universal testing machine
d. Lead screw of lathe vice
19. In a single start thread

a. Lead and pitch are equal
b. Lead is double the pitch
c. Pitch is double the lead
d. Lead is half the pitch
20. What type of thread are suitable for lead screw of machine tools
a. V-Shape thread
b. Whitworth screw thread
c. Acme threads
d. Square threads
21. What type of threads is suitable for small precision components and measuring gauge
a. V-Shape thread
c. Acme threads
d. Square threads
22. The pitch of three start thread is the lead divided by

a. One
b. Two
c. Three
d. Four

83
23. The distance through which a screw thread advances axially in one turn is called
a. Lead of thread
b. Pitch of thread
c. Diameter of thread
d. Depth of thread
23. Which of these thread types is used on mechanical jacks?

a. Acme thread
b. Square thread
c. Buttress thread
d. Worm thread
24. A screw thread is formed on a cylindrical surface by cutting

a. Helical grooves
b. V- grooves
c. Square grooves
d. Half round grooves
25. Spring washers are used under nuts to prevent

a. Damage to the bolt
b. Damage to the nut
c. Damage to the job vibration
d. Slackness of nuts due to
26. Which one of the following thread forms on bolts and nuts is meant for general fastening
purposes
a. V-Shape thread
c. Acme threads
d. Square threads
27. Which of the following fastens permanently?

a. Screw fastening
b. Fastening with bolt and nut
c. Welding
d. Rivet joints
28. In a threaded assembly the contact between the male and female threads takes place on the
a. Pitches
b. Flanks
c. Crests
d. Roots
29. While threading on lathe, the carriage is moved by means of

a. Hand wheel

84
b. Lead screw
c. Feed rod
d. Gear train on a rack
30. Which one of the following are advantages the screwed joints.
a. Screwed joints are lightly reliable in operation.
b. Screwed joints are inconvenient to assemble and disassemble.
c. A wide range of screwed joints may be adapted to different operating conditions.
d. Screws are relatively expensive · to produce due to standardization and highly efficient
manufacturing processes.
31. Power screw used to change ---------- in to linear motion, usually transmits power. Examples include
vises, presses, jacks, lead screw on lathe.
a. angular motion
b. uniform motion
c. spiral motion
a. Liner motion
32. A square thread power screw has a major diameter of (32 mm)
and a pitch of (4 mm) with double threads and it is to be used in an
application similar to that of the figure. Applicable data are thread
and collar coefficient of friction equal to (μ = 0.08),
collar diameter of (40 mm), and a load of (6.4 KN) per screw.
Determine:
1. Thread depth, thread width, mean or pitch diameter, minor

diameter, and lead.
2. Torque required to rotate the screw “against” the load.
3. Torque required to rotate the screw “with” the load.
4. Overall efficiency.
Answer
33. A screw jack shown in figure with a (3 mm), double-thread. Acme

screw is used to raise a load of (1000 N). A plain thrust collar of mean
(5 mm) diameter is used. Coefficients of running friction are estimated
as (0.12 & 0.09) for f and fc respectively.
a. Determine the screw pitch, lead, thread depth, mean pitch
diameter, and helix angle.
b. Estimate the starting torque for raising and for lowering the load.
c. Estimate the efficiency of the jack when raising the load.
Assume that the starting friction is about one-third higher than running friction.

85
Chapter 5
Keyed Joint system

86
5- Keys Joint
5-1. Introduction
The key is a machine element that connects the transmission shaft to the machine's
rotating element, such as a pulley, gear, sprocket, or flywheel.
It is always inserted with the shaft's axis parallel. Temporary fasteners like the keys
experience a lot of crushing and shearing stress. The key is an opening or recess in the
pulley's hub and shaft that enables the key's insertion. A keyed joint made up of the shaft
and shaft hub is shown in Figure 5-1.
Figure 5-1: Keyed joint
5-2. Function of shaft key
1. The key transfers torque from the hub of the mating member to the shaft and vice
versa,
2. It is also employed to stop relative rotational motion between the joint machine
component, such as a gear or a pulley, and the shaft. Axial motion between two
elements is likewise avoided in this key,
3. Plain carbon steel keys, such as (48c8 or 50c8), are used,
4. Vertical or horizontal milling cutters are typically used to cut keyways. The
keyways cause stress concentration in the shaft, causing the part to fail. This is the
primary disadvantage of the key-ways joint,
5. The tensile strength of the key-way material should not be less than (600 N/mm2).

87
5-3. Types of shaft key
There are following types of shaft key used in machines figure 5-2.
1. Sunk keys,
2. Saddle keys,
3. Tangent keys,
4. Round keys,
5. Splines keys,
6. Kennedy keys.
Figure 5- 2: Types of Keys
The keys are made of drawn steel with a tensile strength of about (700 Mpa). They must
be stronger and harder than the machine parts to be connected so that they do not deform
when driven in.
5-3-1. Taper sunk keys
Figure (5-3) depicts long bodies with a rectangular cross-section, an inclined back
surface, and a plane or rounded front surface.
The inclination is (1:100), which means that the taper is (1 mm per 100 mm).

88
1. Round-ended sunk keys (Laid-in keys) - They are pressed (or inserted) into the
shaft's snugly fitting groove, after which the hub is forced onto the key's sunk hole. If
a key cannot be driven in or out, these keys are used.
2. Straight-ended sunk keys (Tapered driving keys) - In this instance, the shaft and hub
(or the relevant machine parts) are mounted as usual, and the sinking key is then
driven in. If there is enough room to drive them in and out from either side, they are
used.
3. Tapered driving keys - are the thicker ends of which have a nose. They are used
when driving in or out can only be done from one side.
4. Woodruff keys - Can also perform the same duties as taper-sunk keys because,
thanks to their rotatable positioning in the keyway, they can adjust to the taper in a
hub keyway.
Figure 5-3: Taper sunk keys
e-Taper sleeves
These are truncated cone-shaped bodies with internal and external tapers that serve as
direct connections between machine parts. In general, they are employed with machine
spindles where tools with taper shanks are applied. Cotters are inserted into the taper
sleeves through lateral oblong holes in order to disengage the connection. The clamping
sleeve is a unique variety of taper sleeve that serves as an intermediary in the joints of
machine parts. On shafts, clamping sleeves are installed, allowing anti-friction bearings,

011
toothed gears, and other components to be mounted. As a result of a taper between 1 in
10 and 1 in 20, they have homogeneous circumferential tension, which ensures precise
true running. Figure (5-4) shows the taper sleeves and clamping sleeves.
Figure 5-4: Taper sleeves and clamping sleeves
f- Cotters
Cotter joint is a type of mechanical joint which is used to join two axial rods or bars. It
is also known as spigot and socket joint. This joint doesn’t allow any angular movements
of rods which it connects figure 5-6. This joint is applicable for tensile loads as well as
compressive loads. It is a detachable joint. It consists of mainly three parts:
1. Spigot
2. Socket
3. Cotter.
Spigot is the male part of the joint and socket is the female part of the joint. Typically,
wrought iron or mild steel are used to create the cotter. For connecting spinning shafts
with torque, it is not appropriate.
Figure 5-6: Cotter joint parts
There are three types of cotter joints figures 5-6, 5-7, 5-8.

010
i. Socket and Spigot joints
Figure 5-6: Socket and Spigot joints parts
ii. Sleeve and Cotter joints
Figure 5-7: Sleeve cotter joint parts
iii. Gib and Cotter joints
Figure 5-8: Gib and Cotter joints parts
5-3-2. Hollow and flat saddle keys
These have lengthy bodies with a rectangular cross-section, a modest taper, and an
inclined back surface. They only serve to convey weak rotary forces. No keyway needs
to be created for these, figure (5-9).

011
 Hollow keys have a concave bottom in the longitudinal direction. These keys have
edges that touch the shaft and mimic cutting edges,
 The shaft must be flattened in the area where the flat key will be applied in order
to ensure a proper fit between the flat key and the shaft.
a. b.
Figure 5-9: a- Hollow and b- flat saddle keys
5-3-3. Tangent keys
As shown in figure (5-10), the tangent keys, also known as tangential keys, are fitted as a
pair at right angles, with each key withstanding torsion only in one direction. In huge,
heavy-duty shafts, they are utilized.
 High torque is transmitted via them,
 Both a single key and a pair at right angles can be used with them,
 Torque can only be sent in one direction by a single tangent key.

012
Figure 5-10: Tangent keys
5-3-4. Round key
The round key is derived from the key and adding it is what makes the algorithm a block
cipher rather than just a permutation figure (5-11).
 The round cross section of the round keys allows them to fit into holes drilled
partially in the shaft and partially in the hub,
 After the assembly, a slot is drilled to allow for appropriate shaft alignment,
 These are employed in transmissions with little torque.
Figure 5-11: Round key
5-3-5. Splines

013
Splines are used commonly in high power transmission systems for coupling two rotating
components such as a shaft and its gear figure (5-12). They provide higher load carrying
capacity over keyed shafts, and hence, represent better durability performance.
 Splines are a collection of keys that are manufactured as a single unit with the
shaft,
 There are keyways available in the hub,
 These are employed in high-torque transmission, such as that seen in auto
transmissions,
 Splines are also capable of axial movement.
Figure 5-12: Spline joint parts
5-3-6. Kennedy keys
Kennedy key is square taper key fitted into a key way of square section and driven from
opposite ends of the hub and used in pairs 90° apart. Kennedy keys transmit torque in
two directions but Tangent keys pairs of taper keys set that can withstand torque only in
one direction figure (5-13).

014
Figure 13: Kennedy key parts
5-4. Selection type of the key
They take into account the following considerations while choosing the type of key for a
particular application:
1. Transmission power,
2. Fit tightness,
3. Connection stability,
4. Cost.
5-5. Design of sunk key
The sunk keys are divided equally between the keyways of the shaft and the hub, boss, or
gear, respectively. The various kinds of sinking keys include:
Rectangular sunk key, figure (5-14) depicts a rectangular buried key. This key's standard
dimensions are:
Where:

015
Only the top side of the key has a taper (1 in 100).
5-5-1. Strength in the sunk key
Figure 5-14: Rectangular Sunk Key
1- Consider shearing of the key
The following describes the tangential shearing force at the shaft's circumference:
Torque transmitted by shaft is:
Were,
T  Torquetransmitted by the shaft,

F  Tangential force acting at the circumference of the shaft,
d  Diameterof shaft,
L  Lengthof key,
w  Width of key,
t  Thicknessof key,
 &  c  Shearand crushing stresses for the materialof key, and
 1  Shear stressin shaft.

016
2. Consider crushing of the key
The shaft's diameter is being crushed tangentially by a force that is:
Torque transmitted by shaft is:
If the key is equally effective at shearing and crushing, then:
Substituting in the two equations (5-4 & 5-6) we get the following:
For typical critical materials, the permitted crushing stress is twice as high as the
permissible shearing stress. The shearing strength of the key must be equal to the
torsional shear strength of the shaft in order to determine the length of the key needed to
transmit the shaft's full power.
Torsional shear strength of the shaft is:
Were,
 1  Shearsstress for the shaft material

017
From the two equations (5-4 & 5-8) being equal, we get the following:
d
Taking ( w) 
4
  1  d 2 3.14   1  d 
 L   1.5 7 d  1
8
d
 2  
4
We know that the metal of key is the same as the metal of the shaft, and therefore:
  1
5-6. Effect of Keyways
A little thought will reveal that the shaft's keyway cut affects the shaft's ability to support
loads. This is brought on by a buildup of stress close to the keyway's corners and a
reduction in the shaft's cross-sectional area. In other words, the shaft's torsional strength
is decreased. The following relationship regarding the keyway's weakening effect. Is
based on H. F. Moore's experimental findings.
( ) ( )
Were,

018
Factor for reducing shaft strength. It represents the strength of the shaft with the
keyway divided by the strength of the same shaft without the keyway.
It is usually assumed that the strength of the keyed shaft is 75% of the solid shaft, which
is somewhat higher than the value obtained by the above relation. In case the keyway is
too long and the key is of sliding type, then the angle of twist is increased in the ratio
( ) as given by the following relation:
( ) ( )
Were,
= Reduction factor for angular twist.

001
5- 7. Solve examples
Example 1
Design a rectangular key for a (50 mm) diameter shaft. The key material's shearing and
crushing stresses are .
Solution
Given:
The rectangular key is designed for a shaft of (50 mm) diameter ,
d
Width of key, w  12.5 mm
4
2w d
and thicknessof key, t    8.3 mm
3 6
The length of key is obtained by considering the key in shearing and crushing.
Let: L = Length of key.
Considering the shaft's torsional shearing strength (or transmitted torque),
 
T   d3   63  50  1545468.75
3
N .mm
16 16
Additionally, we are aware that the key's shearing strength (or torque communicated),
d 50
T  L  w   L  17  63 13387.5 L
2 2
T 1545468.75
L   115.44 mm
13387.5 13387.5
Now considering crushing of the key, we know that shearing strength (or torque
transmitted) of the key,
t d 8.3 50
T  L   c   L   105  5446.875 L
2 2 2 2
T 1545468.75
L    283.73 mm
5446.875 5446.875
The length of the key is the bigger of the two values.
L = 283.73 say 284 mm.

000
Example 2
A steel shaft with a 30 mm diameter and a yield strength of (300 MPa). It is necessary to
utilize a parallel key with dimensions of (14 mm) width by (9 mm) thickness
manufactured of steel with a yield strength of (250 MPa). If the shaft is loaded to transfer
the maximum allowable torque, determine the length of key that is needed. Utilize the
idea of maximum shear stress and a factor of safety of (2).
Solution
Given:
Let: L = Length of key.
The maximum shear stress in the shaft, according to the maximum shear stress theory is:
y 300
1    75 N / mm2
2  F. S 2 2
And the key's maximum shear stress is:

y 250
   62.5 N / mm2
2  F. S 2 2
(Note: Yield strength for shaft and key materials is different). The maximum torque
transmitted by the shaft and key is:
 
T 1  d 3   75  30  397406.25 N / mm 2
3
16 16
Let's start by thinking about key failure caused by shearing. We are aware that the
maximum transmitted torque (T),

001
d 30
T  L  w    L  14  62.5  13125 L
2 2
T 397406.25
 L   29.68 mm
13125 13387.5
Now, determine the maximum torque (T) communicated by the shaft and key using the
following equation, given that the key failed due to crushing:
t d 9 250 30
T  L   ck   L     8437.5 L
2 2 2 2 2
 yk
Taking  ck 
F .S .
T 397406.25
 L   47.1 mm
8437.5 8437.5
Using the greater of the two values, we get:
L = 47.1 say 48 mm.
Example 3
A mild steel shaft with a (50 mm) diameter and an extension of (L = 85 mm) is attached
to a (33 kW) and (733 rpm) motor. Design the keyway in the motor shaft extension
bearing in mind the mild steel key's allowed shear and crushing loads of (65 MPa and
130 Mpa), respectively. Compare the key's shear strength to the shaft's normal strength.
Solution
Given:
The formula of a torque transmitted by the motor is:

60 P 60  33000
T   430131 N .mm
2  N 2  3.14  733
The equation of a torque in shearing is:
d
 T  L  w  
2
002
2T 2  430131
 w   3.11 mm
L    d 85  65  50
This width of keyway is too small. The width of keyway should be at least (d/4).
d 50
 w   12.5 mm
4 4
Since , therefore, a square of .
According to H.F. Moore, the shaft strength factor,
 w h
Ke 1  0.2  1.1 
d  d 
t
 h
2
 w  t  12.5 12.5
ke 1  0.2   1.1   1  0.2( )  1.1( )
 
d  2d  50 2  50
ke  1  0.05  0.1375  0.9125
The formula of a strength of the shaft with keyway is:

FNormal strengthof the shaft    d 3  k e
16
3.14
  65  (50) 3  0.9125  1455009.8 N
16
Also, the formula of a shear strength of the key is:
d
FShear srengtht of the key  L  w  
2
50
 85 12.5  65   1726562.5 N
2
FShear srengtht of the key 1726562.5
   1.187
FNormal strength of shaft 1455009.8

003
1. Using the Kennedy key?

a. Applications with heavy duty.
b. Applications with light duty.
c. Applications with high speed.
d. Equipment that is precise.
2. The key that only fits in the hub's keyway is known as,
a. Feather key
b. Kennedy key
c. Saddle key
d. Woodruff key
3. Splines are employed when,
a. The speed being transmitted is high.
b. High power must be transmitted.
c. The shaft and hub are moving relative to one another.
d. High torque must be imparted.
4. When the gear must slide on the shaft, the type of key used is:
a. Kennedy key.
b. Feather key.
c. Sunk key.
d. Woodruff key.
5. The keyway,
a. They are increases stress concentration, and reduces strength and rigidity of shaft.
b. It is increasing stress concentration.
c. Increase strength and rigidity of shaft
d. Increase rigidity of shaft
5. The key is referred to as a semi-circular disk of uniform thickness.

a. Saddle key
b. Sunk key
c. Woodruff key
d. Feather key
7. Splines are frequently used in:

a. Gearbox for machine tools.
b. Gear box for automobile.
c. Gearbox OF Hoist and crane.
d. Bicycle
8. In the case of a sunk key,

a. Both the shaft and the hub have keyways cut into them.
b. The keyway is only cut in the shaft.
c. The keyway is only cut in the hub.
d. The shaft and hub do not have keyways cut into them.
9. The compressive stress induced in a square key is:

a. Bigger than shear stress
004
b. Less than shear stress
c. Shear stress is applied twice.
d. Equal to shear stress
10. When designing a shaft, key, and hub, care is taken to ensure that
a. The key is the strong link.
b. The hub is the weakest link.
c. The key is the weakest link.
d. The shaft is the weakest link.
11. The function of key is:

a. To attach a transmission shaft to gears or other spinning machine parts.
b. To transfer torque from the shaft to the hub and the other way around.
c. To stop the connected element's shaft from rotating relative to it.
d. Each of the previous three actions.
12. Sunk key taper is standard to:

a. 1 in 10
b. 1 in 25
c. 1 in 50
d. 1 in 100
13. In terms of shaft diameter (D), the standard width for a square or flat key is:
a. d/2
b. d/4
c. d/8
d. d
14. Sunk key only fits in the keyway of the ------.

a. Hub
b. Sleeve
c. Neither the sleeve nor the hub
d. Both the sleeve and the hub
15. Taper is generally given on key?

a. Both sides
b. Only the top side
c. Whichever side
d. Only the bottom side
16. The shaft strength factor, according to H.F. Moore, as in the following equation:
a. ( ) ( )
b. ( ) ( )
c. ( ) ( )
d. ( ) ( )
17. The keyway width should be at least equal to —————.

a. d/4
b. d
c. d/2
d. d/3

005
18. Sunk key has a —————— drive, which is its main advantage.
a. Negative
b. Positive
c. Negative
d. The listed none
e. Neutral
19. Equation applied to find a torsional shearing strength (or torque transmitted) of the shaft is:
a.
b.
c.
d.
20. Permits for Woodruff Key ————- motion between the shaft and the hub.
a. Eccentric
b. Circular
c. Axial
d. Radial
21. Find the Kennedy key's length needed to transmit 1200 N-m, and the key's permitted shear is
40 N/mm2. The shaft's diameter and key's width can be assumed to be (40 mm) and (10 mm),
respectively.
a. 36 mm
b. 49 mm
c. 46 mm
d. 53 mm
22. Stub teeth on involute splines have a pressure angle of ——————-.

a. 90 º
b. 35 º
c. 45 º
d. 60 º
23. ——————- are employed if there isn't space for the key to be driven in or out.
a. Woodruff keys
b. Tapered driving keys
c. Taper sleeves
d. Round keys
24. ---------- is the male part of the joint and socket is the female part of the joint.
a. Spigot
b. Cotter
c. Spline
d. Socket
25. The bottom of --------- is concave in longitudinal direction.

006
a. Hollow keys
b. Taper keys
c. Round keys
d. Tangent keys
26. ----------- used for low torque transmission.

a. Round key
b. Tangent key
c. Spline
d. Woodruff key
27. A thickness of the rectangular sunk key is -------------.

a. d / 6
b. d / 2
c. d / 4
d. d / 8
28. If the key is sunk
a. Only the shaft has the keyway cut into it.
b. The keyway has only been cut in the hub.
c. Both the shaft and the hub have keyways cut into them.
d. Neither the shaft nor the hub has the keyway drilled.
29. Designing a shaft, key, and hub requires consideration of the following:
a. The shaft is the most fragile part.
b. The strongest element is the key.
c. The weakest element is the key.
d. The weakest part is the hub.
30. In a square key, the compressive stress is either:

a. equal to the shear stress.
b. Two times that shear stress.
c. double that shear stress.
d. half that shears stress.
31. When using a saddle key, power is transferred using,
a. Key's crushing resistance.
b. Key's sheer resistance.
c. Tensile strength.
d. friction strength.
32. Design the rectangular key to fit a 50 mm shaft. The main material has shearing and crushing
stresses of (42 MP and 70 Mpa), respectively.
33. A steel shaft with a diameter of (45 mm) and a yield strength of (400 Mpa) is used. A parallel key of
size (14 mm) width and (9 mm) thickness made of steel with yield strength of (340 Mpa) is to be used.
If the shaft is loaded to transfer the maximum allowable torque, determine the length of key that is
needed.

007
Chapter 6
Frictional Clutches

008
6. Frictional Clutches
6-1. Introduction
A clutch connects the two shafts of a device, so they can spin in unison or spin at
different speeds, depending on the situational needs. In a car, one shaft, the flywheel, is
connected to the engine while the other, the clutch plate, is connected to the transmission.
Using friction between a clutch plate and a flywheel, the clutch either keeps the wheels
spinning in sync with the engine, or it disconnects the wheels from the engine, so the car
can stop.
6-2. Types of clutches according to the method of operation
1. Mechanical clutches
2. Pneumatic clutches
3. Hydraulic clutches
4. Electromagnetic clutches.
6-3. Main Part of a Clutch
The main parts of a clutch are classified into three groups

1. Driving members
2. Driven members
3. Operating members.
6-3-1. Driving member
The driving member has a flywheel mounted on the crankshaft of the engine. The
flywheel is fixed to a cover which supports a pressure plate or driving disc, pressure
springs and releasing levers.
The whole assembly of the flywheel and the cover rotate all the times. The clutch
housing and the cover provided with an opening. From this opening, the heat is
evaporated generated by the friction during the clutch operation.

011
6-3-2. Driven member
The driven member has a disc or plate, called the clutch plate. It is free to slide alongside
on the splines of the clutch shaft. Driven member carries friction materials on both of its
surface. When a driven member is held between the flywheel and the pressure plate, it
helps to rotate the clutch shaft through the splines.
6-3-3. Operating member
The operating members have a foot pedal, linkage, release or throw-out bearing, release
leavers and the springs essential to ensure the proper operation of the clutch.
Functions of various components of transmission power, figure (6-1).
Figure 6-1: Automobile power transmission system.
6-4. The most typical clutches
The following are the various types of clutches:

1. Friction clutch
I. Single plate clutch
II. Multi plate clutch
a. Wet
b. Dry
III. Cone clutch

010
a. External
b. Internal
2. Centrifugal Clutch
3. Semi-centrifugal clutch
4. Conical spring clutch or Diaphragm clutch
a. Tapered finger type
b. Crown spring type
5. Positive clutch
a. Dog clutch
b. Spline Clutch
6. Hydraulic clutch
7. Electromagnetic clutch
8. Vacuum clutch
9. Overrunning clutch or freewheel unit
6-4-1. Single Plate Clutch
A single-plate clutch is the most common option for completing the transmission of
trucks, tractors, buses with a manual transmission. The technologies for the production of
auto parts and components are constantly evolving towards simplifying design features
and increasing the service life.
6-4-2. Single clutch advantages
1. Simple design and reliable operation,

2. Low price compared to other options,
3. Possibility of converting machines with a double-disc clutch with an additional
replacement of only the flywheel and a change in the drive control.
6-4-3. Design and operation of a single-plate clutch

011
This option consists of three elements that work as an assembly as a clutch in figure (6-
2):
1. Pressure disk (basket),
2. Driven disc,
3. Release bearing with clutch.
A disc clutch performs a number of important functions, the main purpose of which is:
1. At the smooth start of the vehicle,
2. Reliable transmission of torque from the gearbox to the internal combustion engine
(ICE),
3. Ensuring complete connection / disconnection of the motor and transmission when
changing speed modes in motion.
1. Flywheel, 2. Pressure plate assembly, 3. Diagram spring, 4. Release bearing and

hub, 5. Clutch Pedal, 6. Engine shaft (Driving member), 7. Clutch disk, 8. Clutch
shaft (Driven member), 9. Friction lining.
Figure 6-2: Single Plate Clutch
6-4-4. Working single-plate clutch
In a vehicle, use the clutch to disengage the gears by pressing the clutch to peddle. The
springs are then compressed, causing the pressure plate to move backwards. The clutch
plate is now free between the pressure plate and the flywheel. As a result, the clutch is
now disengaged and able to shift gears.

012
This causes the flywheel to rotate as long as the engine is running, while the clutch shaft
speed gradually decreases until it stops rotating. The clutch is said to be disengaged as
long as the clutch peddle is pressed; otherwise, the spring forces keep the clutch engaged.
When you let go of the clutch pedal, the pressure plate returns to its original position and
the clutch engages again.
6-4-5. Multi plate Clutch
The multi-plate clutch is a special type of clutch that can produce high torque. It mainly
transmits the power from one shaft to another shaft. One of them is the engine shaft and
another one is the transmission shaft. Friction takes place in the engine by the clutch
plates. This friction makes high torque, figure (6-3).
Moreover, it can be said that in the automobiles or in pieces of machinery, where high
torque is needed like in the gearbox of motorcycles, this multi-plate clutch can be used to
assure the precision level of that machine.
1. Flywheel, 2. Friction Disc, 3. Thrust Spring, 4. Clutch Pedal, 5. Engine shaft

(Driving member), 6. Clutch shaft (Driven member), 7. Friction lining,
8. Diaphragm Spring
Figure 6-3: Multi Plate Clutch

6-4-6. Cone Clutch
A cone clutch is depicted in this diagram. It is made up of cone-shaped friction surfaces.
Figure (6-4) shows how this clutch transmits torque by friction using two conical
surfaces. A female cone and a male cone make up the engine shaft. To slide on it, the

013
male cone is mounted on the splined clutch shaft. The conical portion has a friction
surface.
Figure 6-4: Cone Clutch
6-4-6-1. Advantage Cone Clutch

1. Simple construction
2. Less maintenance
3. Affordable
4. Automatic
6-4-6-2. Limitations Cone Clutch

1. Slipping
2. Power less
3. Low capacity
4. Overheating.
6-4-7. Centrifugal Clutch

A centrifugal clutch is depicted in figure (6-5). Centrifugal clutches use centrifugal force
rather than spring force to keep the clutches engaged. The clutch in these clutches
operates automatically based on the engine speed. As a result, there is no need for a
clutch pedal to operate the clutch.

014
Figure 6-5: Cone Clutch
6-4-7-1. Semi-Centrifugal Clutch

Semi Centrifugal Clutches used in high powered engines and racing car engines where
clutch disengagements require appreciable and tiresome driver’s effort. The power
transmitted with partly by clutch springs and remaining by the centrifugal action of an
extra weight provided in the system figure (6-6).
Figure 6-6: Semi-Centrifugal Clutch
6-4-7-2. Working of Semi Centrifugal Clutch

When the engine at low speed the spring keeps the clutch engaged to transmit power, the
weighted levers do not have any pressure on the pressure plate.
When engine at high speed the weights fly off and levers exert pressure on the pressure
plate which keeps the clutch firmly engaged to transmit high torque.
Thus, instead of having more stiff springs for keeping the clutch engaged firmly at high
speeds, they are less stiff because of centrifugal forces of weighted levers, so that the
driver may not get any strain in operating the clutch.
when the engine speed decreases, the weights fall and the weighted levers do not exert
any pressure on the pressure plate and only spring pressure is exerted on the pressure
plate to keep the clutch engaged.
6-4-7-3. Advantages Semi-Centrifugal Clutch

1. Clutch operation is very easy.

015
2. Less stiff clutch springs are used as they operate only at low engine speeds.
6-4-7-4. Disadvantages Semi-Centrifugal Clutch

1. Springs have transmitted the torque at lower engine speeds only.
2. Centrifugal forces work only at higher engine speed to transmit torque.
6-4-8. Diaphragm Clutch

The diaphragm coupling converts the torque reliably, safely and without wear or
maintenance figure (6-7). Equipped with one or two diaphragms, these couplings provide
a power range from 100 to 70,000 kW.
Diaphragm coupling consists of half couplings, which are made of aluminum alloy,
connected by steel diaphragms and a central ring. They are secured to the shaft by
tightening with a screw. They are used in units where compensation of shaft
misalignment and angle between shafts is required. They transmit high torque, provide a
backlash-free transmission, have a high rotational speed, similar to a cardan joint.
Figure 6-7: Diaphragm Clutch

6-4-8-1. Advantages Diaphragm Clutch
1. It is more compact by means of storing energy. Thus, compact design results in
smaller clutch housing.
2. Diaphragm spring is less affected by centrifugal forces.
3. In Diaphragm spring the load deflection curve is not linear, therefore in this case
the clutch facing wears the pressure by diaphragm spring gradually increases.

016
4. The diaphragm spring acts as both, the clamping spring as well as the release
lever. So many parts like struts, eye bolts, levers etc.
6-4-8-2. Disadvantages Diaphragm Clutch

1. To get more co-efficient of friction, the size and diameter of Diaphragm is
increased.
2. Compare to Diaphragm spring, Coil springs have tendency to distort in the
transverse direction at higher speeds.
6-4-9. Dog and spline clutch

A dog clutch is a type of clutch that is used to connect two shafts or to lock two shafts
together. The clutch has two parts: a dog clutch with external teeth and a sliding sleeve
with internal teeth, as shown in figure (6-8). Both shafts are designed in such a way that
one will always rotate at the same speed as the other and will never slip. When the two
shafts are connected, the clutch is said to be engaged. To disengage the clutch, move the
sliding sleeve back on the splined shaft until it is no longer in contact with the driving
shaft.
In manual transmission vehicles, the dog and splined clutch are commonly used to lock
different gears.
Figure 6-8: Dog and spline Clutch
6-4-10. Electromagnetic Clutch

017
These clutches are electrically operated, but the torque is transmitted mechanically. This
is why these clutches are referred to as electro-mechanical clutches. It evolved into an
electromagnetic clutch over the course of a year, as illustrated in figure (6-9).
Because there is no mechanical linkage to control the engagement of these clutches, they
operate quickly and smoothly. Electromagnetic clutches are best suited for remote
operation, which means you can operate the clutch from a distance.
Figure 6-8: Electromagnetic Clutch
The clutch's flywheel is made of winding. The battery provides the electricity. When
electricity passes through the winding, it creates an electromagnetic field, which attracts
the pressure plate and causes it to engage. When the power is turned off, the clutch
disengages.
The gear lever in this clutch system has a clutch release switch, which means that when
the driver operates the gear lever to change gears, the switch is activated, cutting off the
current supply to the winding, causing the clutch to disengage.
6-4-11. Vacuum clutch
The vacuum clutch mechanism is seen in figure (6-10). This kind of clutch is operated by
the engine manifold's built-in vacuum. A reservoir, non-return valve, vacuum cylinder
with piston, and solenoid valve make up the vacuum clutch.
6-4-11-1. Construction and working of a Vacuum clutch

018
The reservoir is connected to the inlet manifold via a non-return valve, as shown in the
figure. A solenoid-controlled valve connects a vacuum cylinder to a reservoir. The
solenoid is powered by the battery, and the circuit includes a switch located on the gear
lever. The switch is activated when the driver changes gear by holding the gear lever, as
shown in the figure (6-10).
Figure 6-10: Vacuum clutch

6-4-12. Hydraulic clutch
The hydraulic clutch operates in the same way as
the vacuum clutch. The main distinction between
these two is that the hydraulic clutch is activated
by oil pressure, whereas the vacuum clutch is
activated by vacuum, as illustrated in figure (6-
11). Figure 6-11: Hydraulic clutch
The illustration depicts the mechanism of a

hydraulic clutch. It is made up of fewer parts than other clutches. It has an accumulator, a
control valve, a cylinder with a piston, a pump, and a reservoir.
6-5 Design disc clutch
Take into account two friction surfaces that are kept in contact by an axial thrust (W), as
depicted in figure (6-12).

021
Figure 6-12: Forces on a disc clutch
Let
Consider the area of the contact surface or friction surface of an elementary ring with
radius (r) and thickness (dr), as illustrated in figure (6-12).
We know that area of the contact surface or friction surface.
Normal or axial force on the ring ( ),
and the frictional force on the ring acting tangentially at radius r,
Frictional torque acting on the ring,
Consider the following two cases:

1. When there is a uniform pressure, and
2. When there is a uniform axial wear.
020
1. Considering uniform pressure
When pressure is uniformly distributed across the entire area of the friction face, as
shown in figure (6-12), the pressure intensity:
Where
The frictional torque on the elementary ring of radius (r) and thickness (dr), as previously
established, is:
Integrating this equation within the limits from ( to ) for the total friction torque.
Total frictional torque acting on the friction surface or on the clutch,
∫ * + * +
* + * +
* +
2. Considering uniform axial wear
Normal wear is proportional to friction work, which is a key design tenet for machine
parts that are subject to sliding friction wear. Normal pressure (p) and sliding velocity
(V) are multiplied to get the frictional work. Therefore:
Or

021
The pressure distribution throughout the entire contact surface is homogeneous when the
friction surface is new. Where the sliding velocity is greatest, this pressure will
deteriorate most quickly, lowering the pressure between the friction surfaces. Until the
product (p.V.) is uniform across the entire surface, this process is repeated. After that, the
attire will be uniform, as seen in figure (6-13).
Figure 6-13: Uniform axial wear.

Let
.
Because the intensity of pressure varies inversely with distance, this means:
additionally, the ring's normal force,
Total acing force on the friction surface,
We know that the frictional torque acting on the ring,

022
Total frictional torque acting on the friction surface (or on the clutch),
∫ * + * +
In general, total frictional torque acting on the friction surfaces (or on the clutch) is given
by:
Where
1- For uniform pressure * +
2- For uniform wear
6-6 Design Multi Clutch
When a large torque is to be transmitted, a multiple disc clutch, as shown in figure (6-
14), may be used. To allow axial motion, the inside discs (usually made of steel) are
attached to the driven shaft (except for the last disc). The outside discs (usually made of
bronze) are fastened to the housing, which is keyed to the driving shaft. Numerous
applications, such as those involving machines and automobiles, utilize multiple disc
clutches.

023
Figure 6-14: Uniform axial wear
Let
and total frictional torque acting on the friction surfaces or on the clutch,
Where
1- For uniform pressure * +
2- For uniform wear
Where

024
6-7. A Cone Clutch Design
Consider a cone clutch's friction surfaces in pairs, as shown in figure (6-15). A little
thought will reveal that the frustrum of a cone is the region of contact between two
friction surfaces.
Figure 6-15: Friction surfaces as a frustrum of a cone
Let
Consider a small ring of radius r and thickness dr as shown in figure (6-15).

Let is the length of ring of the friction surface, such that,

025
We shall now consider the following two cases :
1. When there is a uniform pressure
We know that the normal force acting on the ring,
Additionally, the ring's axial force,
Total axial load applied to the clutch or the necessary axial spring force is:
∫ * + ( )
We know that frictional force on the ring acting tangentially at radius ,
Integrate this expression for the clutch's overall frictional torque while staying within the
range of ( ).
Total frictional torque,
∫ * +
* +
Substituting the value of from equation,

026
We get
* +
2. When there is a uniform wear
In figur (6-15), let be the normal intensity of pressure at a distance r from the axis of
the clutch.
Knowing that, in case of uniform wear, the intensity of pressure varies inversely with the
distance.
Knowing that the ring is being affected by the normal force,
and the axial force acting on the ring,
Total axial load transmitted to the clutch,
We are aware of the tangentially applied frictional force on the ring at radius ,
Integrating this expression within the limits from ) for the overall clutch
frictional torque.

027
Total frictional torque,
∫ * + * +
Substituting the value of C from equation,
We have
* + * +
Where
Considering the normal force occurring on the friction surface, ,

therefore the equation ,
May be written as
Figures (6-16) (a) and (b) show the forces acting on a friction surface during steady
clutch operation and after the clutch has been engaged.
Figure 6-16: Forces on a friction surface
From figure (6-16) (a), we find that
From equation,

028
Normal pressure acting on the friction surface,
Where
Now the equation ,
May be written as:
6-8 Design of a Centrifugal Clutch
In The weight of the shoe, shoe size, and spring dimensions must all be determined when
designing a centrifugal clutch. For the design of a centrifugal clutch, use the following
procedure.
1. Mass of the shoes
Think about a centrifugal clutch's individual shoe, as seen in figure (6-17).

031
Figure 6-17: Forces on a shoe of a centrifugal clucth
Let
That at running speed, each shoe is being affected by centrifugal force,
The inward force that the spring exerts on each shoe is determined by the following
equation, where the speed at which the engagement begins to occur is typically regarded
to be (3/4th) of the running speed:
( )
At running speed, the net outward radial force (i.e., centrifugal force) with which
the shoe presses against the rim is:
as well as the tangential frictional force acting on each shoe,
and total frictional torque transmitted,
The mass of the shoes may be calculated from this expression.
2. Size of the shoes

030
Let
In order to ensure reasonable life, it may be taken as ( ).

We know that
(Assuming: )
and
Because running causes the shoe's rim to be pressed against with such power:
( ),
therefore
From this expression, the width of shoe ( ) may be obtained.
3. Dimensions of the spring
As previously stated, the load on the spring is given by the following formula:
The dimensions of the spring can be obtained in the usual manner.

031
6 - 9. Solve examples
Example 1
Amulti - leaf friction clutch (n = 7), has outer diameter (douter = 200 mm), inner diameter
( dinner = 110 mm). The coefficient of the friction ( µ = 0.3), axial force ( F = 800 N) at
speed ( N = 2300 rpm). Find maximum power transmitted to work the clutch
distributions cases:
1. Uniform Pressure Theory
2. Uniform Wear Theory
Solution:
Given
1. Uniform Pressure Theory
* + * +
2. Uniform Wear Theory

032
Example 2
A multiple disc clutch has nine plates having eight pairs of active friction surfaces. If the
intensity of pressure is not to exceed , find the power transmitted at
The outer and inner diameter of friction surfaces are
respectively. Assume uniform wear and take coefficient of friction .
Solution:
Given
We know that for uniform wear, pressure is maximum at the inner radius ( ), therefore,
Assum Uniform Wear Theory
Example 3
A cone clutch built inside the flywheel is fitted to an engine producing ( ) at
( ). The cone has a ( ) face angle and a maximum mean diameter of
( ). ( ) is the coefficient of friction. The normal pressure on the clutch face

033
should not be greater than (0.3 N/mm2).Find the required face width and the axial spring
force to engage the clutch.
Solution:
Given
1. Face width
Let
Torque developed by the clutch , it is calculated as follows:
2. Axial spring force necessary to engage the clutch

Normal force acting on the contact surfaces , it is calculated as follows:
So that, axial spring force necessary to engage the clutch , it is calculated as follows:
Example 4
A centrifugal clutch is to be designed to transmit at . The shoes
are six in number. The speed at which the engagement begins is ( ) of the running
speed. The inside radius of the pulley rim is . The shoes are lined with Ferrodo
for which the coefficient of friction may be taken as . Determine:

034
1. mass of the shoes, and
2. size of the shoes. Solution.
Solution:
Given :
1. Mass of the shoes
Let
The angular running speed, it is calculated as follows:
Since the speed at which the engagement begins is of the running speed, therefore
angular speed at which engagement begins , it is calculated as follows:
Assuming that the centre of gravity of the shoe lies at a distance of

from the centre of the spider, i.e.
The centrifugal force acting on each shoe, it is calculated as follows:
and the inward force on each shoe exerted by the spring i.e. the centrifugal force at the
engagement speed, ,
The torque transmitted at the running speed , it is calculated as follows:
The torque transmitted (T ), it is calculated as follows:

035
2. Size of the shoes
Let
Assuming that the arc of contact of the shoes subtend an angle of

, at the centre of the spider, therefore
Area of contact of the shoes,
Assuming that the pressure (p) applied to the shoes is (0.1 N/mm2), the force with which
the shoe presses against the rim is:
The force with which the shoe presses against the rim, it is calculated as follows:
From equations (1) and (2), we find that

036
1. The type of clutch used in trucks is ------- clitch.

a. multi-plate clutch
b. centrifugal clutch
c. cone clutch
d. single plate clutch
2. The ———— operates automatically based on engine speed.

a. cone clutch
b. multi-plate clutch
c. single plate clutch
d. centrifugal clutch
3. The clutch's friction material should have

a. low coefficient friction
b. high endurance limit strength
c. high coefficient friction
d. surface hardness that is high
4. Cone clutches have become obsolete as a result of

a. difficult to disengage
b. easy to disengage
c. difficult construction
d. strict coaxiality requirement for two shafts
5. At the start of a centrifugal clutch engagement,

a. the spring force are greater or less than the centrifugal force on the shoe
b. the spring force is greater than the centrifugal force on the shoe.
c. the centrifugal force exerted by the shoe is slightly greater than the spring force.
d. the spring force is equal the centrifugal force on the shoe.
e. .
6. The net force acting on the drum when the centrifugal clutch is operating is equal to:
a. less the centrifugal force acting on the shoe from the spring.
b. the combined spring and centrifugal forces on the shoe.
c. the force of a spring.
d. a shoe's reaction to centrifugal force.
7. Oil is used in the case of multi-disk clutches.
a. To remove the heat.

b. To remove the heat, to lessen friction, and lubricate the surfaces in contact.
c. To lessen friction.

037
d. To lubricate the surfaces in contact.
8. The clutch's ability to transmit torque depends on:
a. Friction lining dimensions, axial force required to engage the clutch, and coefficient of
friction.
b. friction lining dimensions.
c. friction coefficient.
d. The axial force used to engage the clutch.
9. As opposed to friction moment under uniform pressure, the friction moment in a clutch with
uniform wear is:
a. more
b. more or less depending on speed
c. Less
d. equal
10. When a new clutch is compared to an old clutch, the friction radius will be:
a. more
b. depending on clutch size, more or less
c. Less
d. equal
11. In the case of a cone clutch, a relatively tiny axial force can transmit a specific torque if the
semi-cone angle is:
a. more
b. depending on clutch size, more or less
c. Less
d. equal
12. Are used in units where shaft misalignment and angle between shafts must be compensated for
a. Dog and spline clutch
b. Diaphragm Clutch
c. Electromagnetic Clutch
d. Vacuum clutch
13. This type of clutches uses the existing vacuum in the engine manifold to operate the clutch.
a. Dog and spline Clutch
b. Diaphragm clutch
c. Electromagnetic Clutch
d. Vacuum clutch
14. It is made up of fewer parts than other clutches. It has an accumulator, a control valve, a
cylinder with a piston, a pump, and a reservoir.
a. Electromagnetic clutch
b. Dog and spline Clutch
c. Diaphragm Clutch
d. Vacuum Hydraulic clutch

038
15. A multiple disc clutch has five plates having four pairs of active friction surfaces. If the intensity of
pressure is not to exceed ( ), find the power transmitted at ( ) The
outer and inner dimeter of friction surfaces are ) respectively. Assume
uniform wear and consider the coefficient of friction. ( ).
16. To transmit, a single plate clutch that is effective on both sides is required. at
. Determine the outer and inner diameters of frictional surface if the coefficient of friction
is , ratio of diameters is( and the maximum pressure is not to exceed
. Also, determine the axial thrust to be provided by springs. Assume the theory of uniform
wear.
17. Three discs on the driving shaft and two on the driven shaft comprise a multi-disc clutch. The
contact surface's inner diameter is ( ). The maximum pressure between the surface is
limited to ( ). Find the outer diameter for transmitting at
. Assume that the wear condition is uniform and that the coefficient of friction is
.
18. An engine developing is fitted with a cone clutch built inside the
flywheel. The cone has an angle of and an outside diameter of ( ). The
coefficient of friction is . The normal pressure on the clutch face is not to exceed
. Establish the clutch engagement face width and axial spring force requirements.
19. A centrifugal clutch is to transmit ( ). The shoes are four in number.

The speed at which the engagement begins is ( ) of the running speed. The inside dimeter of
the pulley rim is ( ) and the center of gravity of the shoe lies at ( ) starting
from the spider's middle. Ferro do is used to lining the shoes, and its coefficient of friction is (
). Determine:
1. Mass of the shoes, and
2. Size of the shoes, if angle subtended by the shoes at the center of the spider is (60º) and the pressure
exerted on the shoes is ( ).
20. The interior cylindrical surface of a rim keyed to the driven shaft is in touch with the four shoes of a
centrifugal clutch, which glide radially in a spider keyed to the driving shaft. Each shoe in the clutch is
pulled against a stop when the clutch is at rest by a spring, leaving a radial space of ( )
between the shoe and the rim. The spring's pull is then equal to ( ). The distance between the
clutch's axis and the shoe's mass center is ( ). Find the power transmitted by the clutch at a
given speed if the internal diameter of the rim is ( ), the mass of each shoe is ( ), each
spring is stiff at ( ), and the coefficient of friction between the shoe and the rim is
; find the power transmitted by the clutch at ( ).

041
Chapter 7
Types of springs

040
7. Types of springs
7-1. Introduction
A spring is characterized as an elastic body that can store mechanical energy, deforms
under load, and straightens out after the load is lifted. When a spring is loaded, it
deforms, then when the load is removed, it takes on its original shape.
7-2. The various applications of springs
Spring applications include the following:
1. To cushion, absorb, or control energy caused by shock and vibration, as in bicycle

or automobile springs, railway buffers, shock absorbers, aircraft landing gear, and
vibration dampers,
2. To exert force, such as in brakes, clutches, and spring-loaded valves,
3. To control motion by keeping two elements in contact, as in cams and followers,
4. Force measurement, as in spring balances and engine indicators,
5. Energy storage, as in toys and watches.
7-3. Types of springs

Figure (7-1) shows types of springs.
Figure 7-1: Types of springs

041
7-3-1. On the basis of shape
Following are the spring types according to shape:
7-3-1-1. Helical Springs (Coil Springs)
It is a spring made of coiled wire in the shape of a helix. It is designed to withstand

tensile and compressive loads, as illustrated in the figure (7-2).
Figure 7-2: Helical springs or Coil Springs
7-3-1-2. Conical and Volute Springs
The compression springs have conical shapes. Conical springs have a uniform pitch,
whereas volute springs have a paraboloid shape with constant pitch and lead angles.
When compressed, the coils of these springs slide past each other, causing the spring to
compress to a very short length, as illustrated in the figure (7-3).
Figure 7-3: Conical and Volute Springs

042
7-3-1-3. Torsion Springs
It is a torsion or twisting spring. When twisted, it stores mechanical energy, as illustrated

in the figure (7-4).
Figure 7-4: Torsion Springs
7-3-1-4. Laminated spring (Leaf Spring)
It is a type of spring that is commonly used in vehicle suspension, electrical switches,

and bows. It is made up of a series of flat plates (known as leaves) of varying lengths that
are held together with clamps and bolts, as illustrated in the figure (7-5).
Figure 7-5: Laminated or Leaf Springs
7-3-1-5. Disc or Belleville Springs

043
It is a spring in the shape of a disc. It is commonly used to tighten a bolt. Belleville
washers and conical compression washers are other names for it. as illustrated in the
figure (7-6).
Figure 7-6: Disc or Belleville Springs
7-3-2. Spring tension varies depending on how the load force is applied
Springs are divided into the following categories based on how the load force is applied:
7-3-2-1. Tension spring (Extension spring)
Tension or extension springs work by applying tension loads. When a tensile load is
applied to this spring, it stretches to a certain length, as illustrated in the figure (7-7).
Figure 7-7: Tension or Extension Spring
7-3-2-2. Compression Spring
Compression springs are intended to function when a compressive load is applied to

them. It shrinks when compressed, as illustrated in the (7-8).

044
Figure 7-8: Compression Spring
7-3-2-3. Torsion Spring
It is design to operate while being twisted. It can be twisted to store mechanical energy,
as illustrated in the (7-9).
Figure 7-9: Torsion Spring
7-3-2-4. Constant Spring
It is a particular kind of spring where the supported load stays constant throughout the
deflection cycle, as illustrated in the (7-10).
Figure 7-10: Constant Spring

045
7-3-2-5. Variable Spring
A variable spring is one that adjusts its coil's resistance to load during compression, as
illustrated in the (7-11).
Figure 11: Variable Spring
7-4. Design of the springs
7-4-1. Design of Helical spring

The helical spring's design has three goals in mind. They are listed as follows:
It should have the following qualities:
1. It should be strong enough to support the external load,

2. It should have the following qualities,
3. It should be strong enough to support the external load.
The main dimension of helical spring subjected to compressive force as shown in figure
(7-12). They are as follows:
Therefore

046
Figure 7-12: Dimension of helical spring
In the spring design, the following primary dimensions must be calculated:
1. Wire diameter (d),

2. Mean coil diameter (D),
3. Number of active coils (N),
4. The load stress equation is used to determine the first two, while the load
deflection equation is used to calculate the third.
The force necessary to cause unit delfection is what determines the spring's stiffness ( ).
therfore,
Where

047
The loaddeflection equation can be applied easily. The following shear stress (τ)
equation yields a useful load stress equation that incorporates the spring index as a
component.
{ }
Where :
1. To calculate wire diameter(d), we use the followng equation:
{ } √
2. To calculate mean wire diameter(D), we use the followng equation:
3. To calculate the number of active coils (N), we use the followng equation:
(N/mm2).
4. To calculate the total number of coils, we use the following relatioship:
5. To calculate the solid length of the spring, we use the equation:
6. Using the connection below, one may determine the spring's free length:

048
7. To calculate the pitch of coil (p), by using the equation:
8. To calculate the required spring rate (R), by using the equation:
9. To calculate the actual spring rate (Ra), by using the following relationship:
Example 1:
A compression spring constructed of circular wire and an oil-hardened and tempered

steel helical spring are exposed to axial forces that range from (4 KN) to (6 KN). The
deflection of the spring should be about during this range of force (33.204 mm). The
spring index is interpreted as (4). If the spring's ultimate tensile strength is (850.9
N/mm2) and its rigidity modulus is (81330 N/mm2), it has square and ground ends. The
spring wire's allowable shear stress should be calculated as (33%) of its maximum tensile
strength.
Design the spring and perform the following calculations.

4. Total number of coils ( )
5. Solid length of the spring (LS),
6. Free length of the spring (LF),
7. Pitch of coils (p),

051
8. Required spring rate (Rr),
9. Actual spring rate (Ra), and
10. Draw a neat sketch of the spring showing various dimensions.
Solution
Given
1. Wire diameter (d)
Also, from equation
{ } { }
2. Mean coil diameter (D)
3. Number of active coils (N)

050
4.Total number of coils ( )
The square and ground ends, the number of inactive Coils is two, therefore,
5. Solid length of the spring (LS)
6. Free length of the spring (LF) and pitch of coils (p)
The actual deflection of the spring under the maximum force is given by:
7. pitch of coils (p)
8. Required spring rate (Rr)
9. Actual spring rate (Ra)

051
10. Draw a neat sketch of the spring showing various dimensions

052
7-4-2. Design Leaf spring
Leaf springs are subdivided into longitudinal and transverse leaf springs. Longitudinal
leaf springs are used only on rigid axles, more commonly on commercial vehicles and
trailers. Figure (7-13).
Figure 7-13: Semi elliptic Leaf Spring
Were,

053
1- To calculate the width and thickness of the leaves (b):
The stress is equal in all leaves
2- To calculate initial nip (C)
Also, we know
3- To calculate initial pre- load (Pi)

Under the action of pre-load, we know

054
Example 2:
A semi-elliptic leaf spring used for automobile suspension consists of (4) extra full-
length leaves and (18) graduated length leaves, including the master leaf. The center-to-
center distance between two eyes of the spring (1.3 m). The spring can withstand a
maximum force of (66000 N). The proportion of each leaf's breadth to thickness is (7:1).
The leaf material has an elastic modulus of (330000 N/mm2). The leaves are pre-stressed
so that, when the force is greatest, all of the leaves experience stresses equal to and up to
(330 N/mm2). Find out the following:
1- The thickness and width of the leaves,
2- Initial nip, and
3- The first pre-load needed to bridge the gap (C) between extra full-length leaves and
graduated length leaves.
Solution
Given: [
1. The width and thickness of the leaves (b)
2. The initial nip(C)

055
3. The first pre-load necessary ( ) to cover the gap ( ) between additional full-
length leaves and graduated length leaves.
1. Springs are employed to:

a. force measurement, shock and vibration absorption, energy storage, and energy release.
b. energy storage and release.
c. force measurement.
d. absorb vibrations and shocks.
2. In automobiles, the following sort of spring is used to absorb shocks and vibrations:
a. A spiral spring
b. A helical extension springs.
c. A Bellville springs.
d. A multiple-leaf spring.
3. The kind of spring used in mechanical watches to store and release energy is:
a. A spiral spring.
b. A multi-leaf springs.
c. A helical extension springs.
d. A helical torsion springs.
4. Door hinge springs are of the following kind:

a. A spiral spring.
5. The kind of spring used in spring balance to measure weights is:

a. A spiral spring.
6. The valve mechanism uses the following sort kind of spring:

a. A spiral spring.
c. A helical compression springs.
7. The kind of springs utilized in automotive clutches are:

056
a. Spiral springs.
b. Multi-leaf springs.
c. Belleville springs and helical compression springs.
d. Helical torsion springs.
8. The sort of stress that is created in the spring wire when the helical compression spring is
subjected to an axial compressive force is:
b. tensile stress.
c. bending stress.
d. compressive stress.
9. The kind of stress created in the spring wire when the helical extension spring is subjected to
axial tensile force is:
b. Tensile stress.
c. Bending stress.
d. Compressive stress.
10. In spring wire, the maximum shear stress is produced at:

a. Central surface of the coil.
b. Outer surface of the coil.
c. Inner surface of the coil.
d. End coils.
11. The kind of stress that is created in the spring wire when the helical torsion spring is torqued
is:
b. Tensile stress.
c. Bending stress.
12. The multi-leaf spring leaves are subjected to:

b. Tensile stress.
c. Bending stress.
13. The spring works.

a. Within the viscoelastic range
b. Within the range of plastic
c. Beyond the limit of elastic
d. Within an elastic region
14. When a helical spring is cut in half, the stiffness of each half spring is as follows:

057
a. Half of the original spring.
b. Same as the original spring
c. Double of the original spring.
d. Quarter of the original spring.
15. The load shared by each spring when two concentric springs of the same material, similar
free length, and equal axial compression are used is proportional to:
a. Each spring's square of wire diameter.
b. Each spring's index is given.
c. Average coil diameter for each spring.
d. The diameter of each spring's wire.
16. The purpose of a multi-leaf spring in an automobile is to:

a. activate the mechanism
b. absorb shocks and vibrations
c. measure the force
d. store and release energy
17. The spring's stiffness is:

a. force necessary to cause a unit deflection.
b. deflection per axial force unit.
c. average coil diameter to wire diameter ratio.
d. force per unit of a spring's cross-sectional area.
18. What is the spring index?

a. It is the force necessary to cause a unit deflection.
b. It is a ratio between the wire diameter and the mean coil diameter.
c. It measures the proportion of wire diameter to mean coil diameter.
d. It measures the spring's force per unit of cross-sectional area.
19. The spring's ends that come into contact with the seat are as follows:
a. Transmit the most force possible.
b. Coils that are active.
c. Do not exert any force.
d. Coils that are not in use.
20. A helical compression spring made of unique cold-drawn steel wire that can withstand a maximum
force of (1250 N). The spring's deflection should be nearly equal to the maximum force (30 mm). The
spring index is interpreted as (6). If the stiffness modulus is (81370 N/mm 2) and the ultimate tensile
strength is (1090 N/mm2). The spring wire's allowable shear stress should be calculated as (50 %) of its
maximum tensile strength.
Design the spring and perform the following calculations.

058
4. Total number of coils ( )
5. Solid length of the spring (LS),
6. Free length of the spring (LF),
7. Pitch of coils (p),
8. Required spring rate (Rr),
9. Actual spring rate (Ra), and
10. Draw a neat sketch of the spring showing various dimensions.
21. A semi-elliptic leaf spring used for the suspension of the rear axle of a truck. It consists of (2) extra
full-length leaves and (10) graduated length leaves, including the master leaf. The center-to-center
distance between two eyes of the spring (1.2 m). The leaves are constructed of steel 55Si2Mo90 with a
modulus of elasticity of (207 GPa), the ultimate strength equal to (Syt = 1500 N/mm2), and a safety
factor of (2.5). The spring must be constructed to withstand a maximum force of (30000 N). To equalize
pressures across all leaves, the leaves are pre-stressed. Find out the following:
1. The cross section of leaves, and

2. The deflection at the end of the spring.
22. The dimensions of a compression coil spring constructed of alloy steel are as follows: mean coil
diameter ( ), wire diameter ( ), and number of active coils ( ). Calculate the
maximum shear stress that the spring material will withstand if it is subjected to an axial load of
( ), neglect the curvature effect.
23. Design a spring for a balance to measure over a scale of length . The
spring is to be enclosed in a casing of diameter. The approximate number of turns is
. The modulus of rigidity is . Also calculate the maximum shear stress induced.
24. A truck spring has number of leaves, two of which are full length leaves. The spring
supports are apart and the central band is wide. The central load is to be with a
permissible stress of . Determine the thickness and width of the steel spring leaves. The ratio
of the total depth to the width of the spring is . Also determine the deflection of the spring.

061
Chapter 8
Types of BEITS

060
8. Types of Belts
8-1. Introduction
A belt is a looped strip of flexible material, used to mechanically link two or more
rotating shafts. They may be used to move objects, to efficiently transmit mechanical
power, or to track relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys. In a two-pulley
system, the belt may either drive the pulleys in the same direction, or the belt may be
crossed so that the shafts move in opposite directions. A conveyor belt is built to
continually carry a load between two points.
8-2. Types of Belts
Figure (8-1) shows types of the belts.
1. Flat belts
2. V-belts
a. Standard V-belts
b. Narrow V-belts
c. Wide V-belts (variable speed belts)
d. Double V-belts (hex-belts)
e. Kraft bands
f. Poly V-belts (serpentine belts)
3. Round belts (Rope belt)
4. Timing belts (synchronous belts)
Flat belt V-belt Round belt Timing belt

Figure 8-1: Types of Belts
061
8-3. Material used for Belts
1. Leather belts
2. Cotton or fabric belts
3. Rubber belts
4. Balata belts
8-4. Flat belts
The simplest type of belt is the flat belt. It has a rectangular cross-section and was often
made of leather in the early days. Today, however, steel or high-strength synthetic
materials such as polyamide or aramids are used for tension cords. These force-
transmitting cords are embedded in a rubber core between a top cover and a bottom
cover. The bottom layer where the belt has contact with the pulley, can be coated with
special rubber to increase friction and wear resistance. The top layer on the opposite side
only has a protective function.
8-4-1. Types of flat Belts
The power transmission flat belt can be used in many forms of power transmission. It is
known as a two-pulley drive, consisting of a driving pulley, a driven pulley, and the belt.
Below are examples of pulley design variations.
1. Open belt driver
Figure (8-2) show open belt driver.
Figure 2; Open belt driver

062
2. Crossed or twist belts
Figure (8-3) show Crossed or twist belt.
Figure 8-3; Crossed or twist belt
3. Quarter turn belt drive
Figure (8-4) shows Quarter turn belt drive.
Angular drive Half cross drive

Figure 8-4: Quarter turn belt drive
4. Belt drive with idler pulleys
Figure (8-5) shows belt drive with idler pulleys.
Figure 8-5: Belt drive with idler pulleys

063
5. Compound belt drive
Figure (8-5) show Compound belt drive.
Figure 8-6: Compound belt drive
6. Stepped or cone pulley drive
Figure (8-7) show Stepped or cone pulley drive.
Figure 8-7: Stepped or cone pulley drive
7. Fast and loose pulley drive
Figure (8-8) show fast and loose pulley drive.
Figure 8-8: Fast and loose pulley drive

8-5. Power transmitted by belts
Belt power transmission depends on the following factors:

064
1. The force exerted on the pulleys by the belts when they are under tension,
2. The speed of the belt,
3. Contact arc between a belt and a pulley.
8-6 Calculation of the belt dimension and tensions load
8-6-1 Velocity ratio of a belts drive
1. The following equation can be used to determine the length of the belt that passes
over the driver once every minute:
2. The following equation can be used to determine the length of the belt that passes
over the follower once every minute:
3. Given that the length of the belt that goes over the driver in a minute is the same as
the length of the belt that passes over the follower in a minute, the following
conclusions follow:
4. When the belt's thickness (t) is taken into account, the velocity ratio is:
5. The belt's peripheral velocity at the driving pulley is:
6. The peripheral velocity of the belt on the driven pulley is:
6. When the is no slip, then

065
7. In case of a compound drive, example eight velocities. The speed ratio is given by the
following equation:
8. The general equation for calculating speed ratio can be written as follows:
9. If The length of the belt is determined by: If (D1 & D2) are the diameters of the
smaller and larger pulleys, respectively, and (C) is the center distance between the axes
of the pulleys. The length of the belt is determined by:
10. Angle of wrap on smaller ( ) and larger pulleys ( ) are given by,
11. The following equation gives the ratio of tension in the tight and slack sides:

066
Were,
8-6-2. Slip of the Belts
The motion of belts and pulleys assuming a firm frictional grip between the belts and the
pulleys. But sometimes, the frictional grip becomes in sufficient. This may cause some
forward motion of the driver without carrying the belt with it. This is called slip of the
belt and is generally expressed as a percentage.
The belt's velocity as it passes the driver per second is:
( )
And the belt's velocity per second as it passes the follower is:
( ) ( )
Substituting equation 10 into equation 11 we get:
( )( )
( )

067
( )
( ( ))
( ( ))
If the belt's thickness (t) is taken into account, then
( ( ))
8-6-3. Cases where slip occurs in belt
1. In some situation during power or rotary transmission the pulley may not carry the
belt with it which means the belt slips over the pulley.
2. This is mainly due to frictional grip between the pulley and belt.
3. This is also due to high power from the driver pulley that cannot be transmitted by
the belt.
8-6-4. Creep in the Belt
1. A piece of the belt stretches when the belt moves from the slack side to the tight
side, and it contracts again when the belt moves from the tight side to the slack
side. The surfaces of the belt and pulley move relative to one another as a result of
these variations in length. Creep is the name given to this relative motion,
2. Overall, creep slows down the driven pulley or follower's speed a little,
3. Both the tight and slack sides of the belt are under stress.
√
√

068
Example 1:
A flat belt runs on driver pulley diameter ( ) and power transmits ( ) at speed
( ) and diameter of driven ( ). Distance between pulleys
( ). Assuming angle of lap as ( ) and cofficent of friction as ( ).
Find the necessary width of belt if the maximum pull is not to exceed ( )
width of the belt and find length of the belt. Neglect centrifugal tension.
Solution
Given
Power transmitted by belt is:
Belt tension ratio is:
Velocity of belts is:
Put all values in equation (1)
But the maximum pull is not to exceed(180 N/cm) width of the belt.

071
To find length of the belt, we applied the following equation:
8-7. Designing a flat belt drive
Example 1: Car in the game city weighing ( ), as shown in figure. Wheel diameter
( ), Large pulley diameter ( ) and small pulley diameter ( .
Distance between two pulleys ( ) and
(μ)=0.35. Force (FT) is
( ). Find Total extra force on bearing ( ), and
what is load percentage from the belt drive?
Required torque on the drive axle.
Draw an (FBD) of the wheel that will show the
following:
1. The traction force at the drive wheels,
2. The gravity load from the axle,
3. The horizontal force from the axle,
4. The normal force at the road,
5. The torque that the belt drive will apply to the
axle.
Solution
Analysis for required torque
The equilibrium equation to find the value for the torque in terms of force (FT).

070
Find the numerical value of torque (T)?
Produce to find the following:

1. Use the rope around a bollard analysis to find the maximum ratio of the tensions
around each pulley?
2. Use moment equilibrium to find the different tensions on either side of each
pulley?
3. Solve to get the two tension?
4. Find the additional forcess on the bearing?
Rope around a bollard
The small pulley will slip first.

So, the angle wrap is smaller, so ( ) is also smaller.
FBD Showing the tension difference

Tension ratio
Draw a (FBD) of the large that will show
1. The two-belt tension,
2. The reaction from the shaft on the pulley that
balances the two tensions,

071
3. The torque from the shaft on the large pulley.
Now we´ll apply equilibrium to find the difference in the

tensions.
Substituting the second equation into the first equation is produced.
By substituting the third equation into the second equation to get a value of .
Total extra force on bearing ( )
[ ( )]
[ ( )]
[ ( )]
[ ( )]

072
[ ( )]
[ ( )]
√ ( ) √ √
Total mass of vehicle is (233kg), what is load percentage from the belt drive.
8-8. V-Belt belts
The V-belts are transmission belts used in auto-industry. These belts are used to transmit
the power from the engine to the ancillary components. They are considered as low-cost
and efficient means of transmitting power and V-Belt are called V-Belt belt because it
has a V shape cross section area. From giant rock crushers to tiny sewing machines, V-
belts have found their way into countless industrial applications. Today's V-belts are
marvels of modern technology, reflecting the latest advances in mechanical and chemical
engineering. Unlike flat belts, which rely solely on friction and can track and slip off
pulleys, V-belts have sidewalls that fit into corresponding sheave grooves, providing
additional surface area and greater stability.
Following are some environmental and application design criteria that will influence belt
selection:
1. Ambient temperature

073
2. Oil resistance
3. Ozone resistance
4. Static conductivity
5. Power capacity
6. Pulsation or shock loading
7. Small sheave diameters
8. Backside idlers
9. Misalignment tolerance
10. Serpentine or quarter turn layout
11. Minimal take-up
12. Clutching
13. High speeds
14. Energy efficiency
15. Dust and abrasives

074
8-8-1. Types of V-Belts
There are three types of V-Belts.
1. Classical V-belt (standard V-belt)

Classical V-belts are standardized in Germany according to DIN 2215 and have a height
to width ratio of (1:1.6). Tension cords made of steel, aramid, polyester or glass are
embedded in an elastomer core covered by a top layer. The tension cords run at the level
of the nominal width, figure (8-9).
Figure 8-9: Classical V-belt (standard V-belt)

2. Narrow belt
Narrow belts are optimum for load transfer and force distribution because of their
greater depth to width ratio. That’s their advantage over classical V belts. Narrow
belts are also suitable for drives with high belt speeds, again, for their powerfully
compact size. Narrow belts have the ability to transmit up to three times the
horsepower of classical V-belt in the same drive space. They can handle drives from 1
to 1000 horsepower, figure (8-10).

075
Figure 8-10: Narrow V-Belt
3. Fractional Horsepower Belt
Fractional Horsepower Belt light duty V-belts are used most often as single belt on drives
of 1 horsepower or less. Its design is for relatively light loads. The common applications
for this V-belt type are domestic washing machines, small fans, refrigerators, and garage
equipment. They are identified with a [3L, 4L or 5L] prefix. The numerical prefix
indicates the belt top width in one eighth of an inch followed by nominal outside length
in inches. For example, 3L300 part number indicates 3/8” top width with 30.0” outside
length, figure (8-11).
Figure 8-11: Fractional Horsepower V-Belt

8-8-2. Cross section of V-Belt
Figure (8-12) show the cross section of V-Belt.

1. Double layer rubberized belt wrap,
2. Polyester tensile carrier – cord,
3. A layer of neoprene that connects and protects the cord,
4. Special transverse reinforcing cord,

076
5. The "body" of the belt is made of neoprene rubber, which takes the compressive
load.
Figure 8-12: Cross section of V-Belt
8-8-3. Standard V-belt sections
The standard V-belt sections are [A, B, C, D and E]. The table below contains design
parameters for all the sections of V-belt. The kW rating given for a particular section
indicates that, belt section selection depends solely on the power transmission required,
irrespective of number of belts. If the required power transmission falls in the
overlapping zone, then one has to justify the selection from the economic view point
also, table (8-1).
Table 8-1: Standard V-belt sections
Hours power range Minimum pulley pitch Width Thickness

Section
(KW) (mm) (mm) (mm)
A 0.4 - 4 125 13 8
B 1.5 - 15 200 17 11
C 10 - 70 300 22 14
D 35 - 150 500 32 19
E 70 - 260 630 38 23
8-8-4. SP Belts - European Standard DIN 7753

077
European standards DIN 7753 and ISO 4184 are based on the metric system of measure
and have different cross section designations, figure (8-13).
Figure 8-13: SP Belts - European Standard DIN 7753
8-9. V-belt Pulleys
Groove angles and dimensions for pulleys shall confirm to figure (8-14).
Figure 8-14: Standard Groove Dimensions
8-10. Compare between Flat belt and V-Belt
Table (8-1) Show compare between Flat belt and V-Belt.
Table 8-2: Compare between Flat belt and V-Belt
NO. Flat Belt Drive V - Belt Drive

Flat belt has rectangular cross V- Belts are characterized by their
1.
section, trapezium shaped cross section,
Simple design, inexpensive cross Compared to flat belt pulleys, V-Belt
2.
section, and V-Groove pulley construction is
078
difficult and expensive,
Slip is negligible due to wedging action
3. The slip may occur,
between the belt and V-groove pulley
Significantly greater pretension
4. required to transmit a particular Require little pretension,
torque,
V-belt cannot use for long distance
Up to 15 meters, flat belts can be
5. because weight per unit length of the
utilized for extended lengths,
belt is greater than that of the flat belt,
Power transmission capacity is V-belt can transmit more power for the
6.
low, same coefficient of friction,
Efficiency is higher than V-belt
7. Efficiency is lower than flat belt,
drive,
Flat belt not used in the vertical
8. V- belt can run even the belt is vertical.
direction.
8-11. Design V-belts
The following equations to design and calculation of the V-belt, figure (8-15).
Figure 8-15: V- belt transmit
1. Belt cross section
Select standard V-belt cross section from European standards DIN 7753 and ISO 4184,
figure (8-16) based on motor power (kW)
2. Pulley diameters
Calculate the diameters of the smaller and larger pulley using the relation:

081
3. Designation of V - belt
Pitch diameter is allegedly used as the basis for the calculations for V-belt drives.
However, V-belts are identified with a nominal inside length (this is easily measurable
compared to pitch length). Consequently, the interior length can be calculated using the
relationship shown below.
Table 8-3: Show value of (X) in millimeter

Section A B C D E
X (mm) 36 43 56 79 93
4. V- belt Equation
Because of the presence of a wedge, V-belts have increased friction grip. As a result, the
equation for belt tension must be altered. The equation is altered as follows:
Where is the belt wedge angle
5. Center distance, should be such that,
6.

080
7. V - belt design factors
a. Calculate design power
b. Modification of rating
Power rating of a typical V-belt section requires modification, since, the ratings are
given for the conditions other than operating conditions. The factors are as follows,
c. Equivalent smaller pulley diameter
In a belt drive, both the pulleys are not identical, hence to consider severity of flexing,
equivalent smaller pulley diameter is calculated based on speed ratio. The power
rating of V-belt is then estimated based on the equivalent smaller pulley diameter
( ).
Where, is a factor dependent on the speed ratio.

d. Angle of wrap correction factor
The power rating of V-belts is based on angle of wrap, . Hence, Angle of
wrap correction factor ( ) is incorporated when is not equal to .
e. Belt length correction factor
There is an optimum belt length for which the power rating of a V-belt is given. Let,
the belt length is small then, in a given time it is stressed more than that for the
optimum belt length. Depending upon the amount of flexing in the belt in a given
time a belt length correction factor ( ) is used in modifying power rating.
Therefore, incorporating the correction factors,

081
f. Selection of V- belt
Depending on the amount of power to be transmitted, a suitable V-belt section and a

transmission ratio for the V-belt drive are selected a range of (1:15). A V-belt drive's
belt speed should be around , but should not exceed . From the
speed ratio, and chosen belt speed, pulley diameters are to be selected from the standard
sizes available. Depending on available space the center distance is selected, however, as
a guideline,
The belt pitch length can be calculated if (C):
g. Choice for belt section is (C).
&
Compare with standard sizes and choice highest and near record
standard
As a result, the second combination is preferable because it is very close to the given
speed ratio.
h. Number of belts

082
Example 3:
For the following information, design a V-belt drive: Drive: AC motor with a 1440 rpm
working speed and greater than (10 hours). A compressor that requires 20 kW of power
transmission and spins at (900 rpm) is the apparatus being driven.
Solution:
Since it is a V - belt drive, let us consider belt speed, v = 25 m/sec.
For the given service condition, the value (1.3) is chosen from the design data book.
As a result, C is the obvious choice for the belt section.
Therefore, since the second combination is so close to the specified speed ratio, it is
preferable to employ it.
As a result, the second combination is preferable because it is very close to the given
speed ratio.
As a result, the chosen pulley diameters are ( ) and ( ).
The center distance, C, should be chosen so that:

083
√ √
The nearest value of belt length for C-section is (from design data book)
Therefore, the belt designation is
Power rating (kW) of one C-section belt
Equivalent small pulley diameter is,
For the belt speed of , the given power rating For the
obtained belt length, the length correction factor .

Determination of angle of wrap:
For the angle of wrap of (smaller pulley) the angle of wrap factor,
is found to .for a C section belt.

084
Therefore, incorporating the correction factors,
Modified power rating of a belt:
For a C section belt with an angle of wrap of (3.00 radian) (smaller pulley), the angle of
wrap factor, (C VW), is found to be )8..0(. As a result of incorporating the correction
factors, Belt power rating modification:
Two numbers of belts are required for the transmission of .

1. The power transmitted by belt drive is determined by the following factors:
a. Belt velocity, arc of contact, and initial belt tension. b. Initial belt tension.
b. Belt velocity. d. Arc of contact.
2. Belts in agricultural machinery can be made of the following materials:
a. leather. b. cotton duck.
c. balata gum. d. rubber.
3. Belts in flour mills can be made of the following materials:
a. leather. b. rubber.
c. canvas or cotton duck. d. rubber balata gum.
4. When does the belt's speed increase?
a. When a maximum power is reached before the transmitted power starts to decline.
b. When the transmission's power rises.
c. When the amount of power delivered stays constant.
d. When the transmission's power drops.
5. The reasons behind the belt's creep are:
a. Effect of temperature on belt.
b. Stresses beyond elastic limit of belt material.
c. Unequal extensions in the belt due to tight and slack side tensions.
d. Material of belt.
6. In belt drive, the coefficient of friction is determined by:
a. Belt material
b. Belt and pulley materials
c. Belt and pulley materials

085
d. Velocity of a belt
7. Which of the following has a positive drive?
a. Drive belt, flat
b. Drive belts crossed
c. Belt timing
d. V-belt transmission
8. When using a V-belt drive, the belt comes into contact at:
a. The groove sides of the pully.
b. The bottom of the pulley's groove.
c. The bottom and sides of the pulley's groove.
d. The top of the pulley's groove.
9. In belts, the centrifugal tension:
a. Reduces the amount of power sent.
b. Tension is increased of the belt without affecting power transmission.
c. Expand the wrap angle.
d. Increases the amount of power sent.
10. The belt slips as a result of:
a. Loose belt, heavy load, and too small driving pulley.
b. A heavy load.
c. Driving pulley is too small.
d. Belt should be loose.
11. When using the same pulley diameters, center distance, belt speed, and belt and pulley
materials,
a. Power is transmitted more efficiently by crossed belt drive than by open belt drive.
b. Power is transmitted more efficiently by open belt drive than by crossed belt drive.
c. Power transmission is not dependent on open or crossed constructions.
d. The power transmitted by open and crossed belt drives is the same.
12. The belt drive's transmission power can be increased by:
a. Dressing the belt to increase the coefficient of friction, increasing the belt's initial
tension, and increasing wrap angle with an idler pulley.
b. Increasing the belt's initial tension.
c. Increasing the coefficient of friction by dressing the belt.
d. Increasing the wrap angle with an idler pulley.
13. When replacing V belts, a complete set of new belts is used rather than replacing a
single damaged belt because,
a. Only one belt can be used in conjunction with other used belts.
b. Belts, both new and old, will cause vibration.
c. Belts are sold in sets.
d. The new belt will carry more than its fair share, resulting in a short lifespan.
14. The goal of 'crowning' belt drive flat pulleys is to:
a. Increase the belt's speed.
b. improve the transfer of power capacity.
c. prevent against the belt surface being harmed by the joint.
d. prevent the belt fall off the pulley.
15. The pulleys' arms for flat belt drive have the following:
a. Main axis twice the minor axis, elliptical in cross-section, and major axis in plane

086
of rotation.
b. Cross-section that is elliptical.
c. Twice as much major as minor axis.
d. Major axis in the rotational plane.
16. Idler pulleys in belt drives have the following goals:
a. Increase the capacity of power transmission.
b. The belt's propensity to slip should be reduced.
c. The belt's wrap angle and tension should be increased, as should the capacity for
power transmission and the likelihood of belt slippage.
d. Belt tension and wrap angle should be increased.
17. When using a V- belt drive?
a. The belt should only make contact with the pulley's bottom groove; it should not touch
the sides.
b. The pulley's bottom groove should be touched by the belt.
c. The pulley's bottom groove should be touched by the belt.
d. The pulley's groove's sides shouldn't be touched by the belt.

087
088

Principles of Machine Design

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Principles of Machine Design

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Principles of Machine Design

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Republic of Iraq

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Principles of Machine Parts

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

Strength of materials, also known as Mechanics of materials, is a subject which deals

Stress & Strain

Where ( ) is the deformed length, ( ) is the original unreformed length ( ) is the

1-2. Types of loading

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

B. Compressive Stress ( ): If force is

Figure 1-2: Compressive stress

Figure 1-3: Shear stress

3. Bending moment stress ( )

Figure 1-4: Bending stress

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

For solid circular section

For hollow circular section

For solid rectangular section

1-3. Hooke's Law

1-3-1. Engineering and True Stress

ES: is equivalent to the applied uniaxial

1-3-1-2. True Stress (TS)

Where: ( ) is Poisson's ratio.

1-4. Poisson's ratio

Poisson's ratio is the proportion of lateral (transverse) contraction strain to longitudinal

Figure 1-8: Poisson's ratio

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

The area to be cut is a rectangle

t  5 mm ; w  0.8 m  0.8  1000  800 mm ;

A  w.t  5  800  4000 mm 2

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

TBC . L1 200.103  300

TCD . L2 300.103  200

Given: {A= 2 mm2, F = 200 N, µ = 0.233, G = 210 GPa}.

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

1. Young's modulus is the proportion ratio of:

a. A compressive strain and compressive stress are created.

10. Modulus of rigidity represents the ratio of

11. When using the torsion equation ( ), the term ( ) is called:

12. Strain is defined the ratio between:

14. The elastic range appears in the below-mentioned figure:

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

15. Hook's law is still valid

16. The correct answer to which of the following statements?

19. For steel, the Poisson's ratio is between

Dr. Emad Toma Karash

22. The bending formula is:

23. Which materials have a Poisson's ratio greater than one?

24. What material is the most elastic of the following?