UNIT ONE

CONCEPT FORMATION

Rechard Skemp describes a concept as the mental object which results when we abstract from a
number of examples something which they all have in common.

For example young children learn the concept of dog from repeated contact with many types of
dog.words and symbols are used to describe or label concepts.concepts are learned.virtually all
children from time of birth can learn concepts.the learning of language and the symbols that
name concepts often lags behind the formation of concept itself.children learn their early
mathematics by abstracting concepts from concrete experiences.

PRIMARY CONCEPT;;Primary concepts are built from sensory experiences e.g

seeing,feeling,smelling,tasting and hearing.for example the concept of Redness is formed from
seeing many red objects and recognizing their common property.similarly the concept of
threeness is formed from experiencing many different sets,each containing three objects.

SECONDARY CONCEPT;Secondary concepts are built up by combining primary

concepts.so,red,blue.green,…etc are all colours and one,two,three,…etc are all numbers.this
process of building concepts from simpler ones occurs with incressing complexity within
mathematics.according to Skemp,before we try to communicate a new concept,we have find out
what are its contributory concepts; and for each of these we have to find out its contributory
concepts,and so on,until we reach either primary concepts or experiences which we may assume
as given.many of our everyday experiences,are sensory e.g,hot,cold,sweet,round etc.however,in
mathematics,once the basics are established,the level of abstraction quickly increases so that
abstract concepts are built upon abstract concepts rather than on new sensory experiences.the
teacher needs to help learners develop ways to understand new concepts by using good
examoles.skemp gives two principles of learning mathematics that relate directly to the notion of
concepts as follows;

1.concept of higher order than those a person already has cannot be communicated to that person
by a definition. Only by arranging for the person to encounter a suitable collection of examples
can such a concept be communicated.

2.since in mathematics examples are almost invariably other concepts, the concepts used in the
examples must already be formed in the mind of the learner.

MATHEMATICAL SCHEMAS;This is an outline,diagram,plan or preliminary draft of a mental

image produced in response to a stimulus,that becomes a framework or basis for analyzing or
responding to other related stimuli.

What is the function of mathematical schemas? Answer this question and drop it in my email.

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 UNIT TWO

TEACHING OPERATIONS ON WHOLE NUMBERS

NUMBER WORK
Counting of numbers
Counting is done in two stages. They are Rote counting and Enumeration.
1.Rote counting.
In rote counting, children learn how to count numbers orally. oral counting is done, through the
use of Rhymes, such as; one-two buckle your shoes, three-four shut the door, five-six lay them
straight,seven-eight,pick them up, nine-ten a good fat hen.
2.Enumeration counting
Enumeration is counting objects into a definite group. Enumeration is done by
a) Counting sets with the number of things so that the number of elements in each set is
defined

Counting of objects
b) Matching number of objects with number names

0 1 2 3 4
c) Ordering of sets in order of magnitude and in the natural order of sequence

1 2 3 4 5
d) Pick and count
With the activities of pick and count, teacher puts some cards on the table; children then
pick a card and then count up to the number of the cards.
e) The game of dominoes.

2
Guide the pupils to play the game of dominoes.
Writing of numbers
Writing of numbers is developed in children through repeated association with numbers and
assisting children to practice through the activities of drawing or writing numbers
i. In the air
ii. In the sand
iii. On the slate/board
iv. Using my first copy book.
Conservation of number
Children are assumed to have understood the cardinal concept of numbers when they can
i. Recite the number name
ii. Constantly match objects with number names
iii. Realize that they will always get the same number if they count the same set
iv. Realize that the order of a set does not change the magnitude of the set.
To test that a child has conserved number, we take two sets of objects, which contain the same
number of objects, say ten bottles tops each.

Group A Group B
We ask children to count the number of bottle tops in each group. The objects are then re-
arranged in different order as below

Group A

Group B
We then ask which of the two arrangements contains more objects. If they are able to say
that they contain the same number of objects, then it shows that they have conserved
number.

3
 Introduction of zero
The concept of zero is introduced to children when they can appreciate the existence of counting
numbers. The teacher packs objects in a container and discloses the number of objects in the
container. Then the teacher start reducing the objects one after the other until all the objects
exorsted.then the teacher would now find out from the children the number of objects that are left
in the container, the children would then say nothing. Then the teacher would then say that, that
nothing is call zero.
Cardinal number
A cardinal number is a number that will tell how many objects are in a group not in what order the
numbers appear.e.g

Ordinal number
Ordinal number shows the order in which objects are arranged or grouped e.g 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Nominal number
These numbers are used for identification purposes e.g a house number, a jersey number, a car
number.
Basic operations on whole numbers
The basic operations on whole numbers are
i. Addition ii.subtraction iii.multiplication iv.division.
Before children are introduced to the operations on whole numbers, there are some important ideas
which they are expected to understand. Some of these ideas are
a).identification of set of objects b) matching sets of objects with the numbers. c) Ordering
sets of objects d) ordering numbers e) counting of numbers f) writing down numerals.
Addition of whole numbers.
Addition is the process of putting two or more numbers together. The numbers we add are known
as the addends and the result after the addition is called the sum. If 2+5=7,then 2 and 5 are the
addes nd is the sum.to develop the concept of addition and the skill of addition in children,we may
use the activities involving.

4
 1) Counters or array of dots.e.g.4+2
Here we take 4 counters and 2 counters and put them together and count.
put
together
4 + 2 = 6
2) The union of disjoint sets for 4+2
We make two disjoint sets one containing 4 elements and the other two elements and find the union
of the two sets.
3.using cuisinaire rods for 4+ 2

∪ Purple join Red

Purple Red
Dark green

4. Using number line for 4+ 2

We draw a number line with whole numbers starting from zero we move four places to 4 and then
move another two places, we will land on 6.

0 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5. Using number track for 4+2
We draw a number track on the floor. On the number track we count on. We start from 4 and walk
two places, we get to 6.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Subtraction of whole numbers

5
Subtraction can be taken as the reverse of addition. When we subtract, we are finding the
difference between numbers. Subtraction may occur in three situations which are
1).Take away 2).comparison 3).missing addend
1. Take away; this can be taken as having a set and taking some elements from it.
e.g 6-4 can be illustrated as
Take away

Left over

2. Comparison; two sets are compared by matching and then find the left over.

left

6 _ 4 = 2
a. Missing addend
In missing addend, we look for a number to be added to make up our result.eg.4+ =6

To be added

To help a child to develop skill of subtraction we may use activities involving( i) the
separation of sets.(ii) the number line.(iii) matching of sets.

6
Let us consider how to model 5-2 with above activities.
1. Separation of sets
Separating into and

2. The use of number line

5
0 1 2 3 4 5

3. Matching of sets

Multiplication of whole numbers

When we multiply two or more numbers, we call the result the product. We may introduce
multiplication as; a) repeated addition. b) Set of sets.
a) Introducing multiplication as repeated addition For example if we want to evaluate 3× 4.in
repeated addition it is seen as adding 4 three times ie.3X4=4+4+4=3groups of 4,this can be
model using various materials like (i) sets (ii) number line (iii) Cuisenaire rods (iv)
multibase blocks

1. Using sets to teach 3× 𝟒

U U
4 + 4 + 4 = 12

7
2. Using number line to illustrate repeated addition

4 + 4 + 4

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
We have moved on the number line 4 places 3 times.it brought us to the position of 12
3. Using cuisinaire rods to illustrate repeated addition
We take a rod of length 4 units ie the purple rod.we take 3 purple rods,join them and find a rod
which will be of the same length as the 3 purple rods.this will be orange and red rods.

Purple Purple Purple

Orange Red

Division of whole numbers

Division is the inverse of multiplication. When we divide a number by another number, the result
is called the quotient. The statement 12÷ 3 means 12 divided by 3.this statement could be written
12 1 1
in different forms. This could be i) 3 𝑖𝑖. 3 𝑜𝑓 12 𝑖𝑖𝑖. 12 × 3.

Division may occur in three situations as; i) sharing (partitioning) ii) grouping (repeated
subtraction) iii) inverse of multiplication.

Let us interpret 12÷ 3 using the three situations of division.

1. Cut 12 things into 3 equal parts. How big is each part or partition
Suppose 3 pupils were given 12 pens to share equally sharing
2. How many groups of 3 are in 12 or grouping
How many times can you subtract 3 from 12 repeated subtraction
3. What number multiplied by 3 that will give 12 inverse of multiplication

We now consider the activities which we could use to illustrate the situations of division.

8
1. Sharing
In sharing, we know the number of sets, and our aim is to find how many are in each set.
Consider 6÷ 2.this means we are sharing 6 bottle tops among 2 children.this can be done in a “one
for you and one for me bases” until all the bottle tops are finished.

3 bottle tops for one person

3 bottle tops for another person
6 bottle tops in total

2. Grouping or repeated subtraction

6÷ 2. this is asking how many groups of 2 are in 6.here we know how many in each set and
therefore we look for how many sets to be formed. We put the 6 bottle tops in a group of 2 and
find how many groups will be there.

Put in to a group of 2
6 bottle tops

Form three groups

In repeated subtraction, we find how many times 2 can be subtracted from 6.
6-2=4 one we subtract two until we are left with 0 or less than 2
4-2=2 twice
2-2=0 three times
3. Inverse of multiplication

9
 In such situation 6÷ 2 is written in the form of 2× =6.the question now is what must be
multiply by 2 to 6.

3 + 3

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
This can be seen as how many groups of 2 will make 6 and our answer is 3.
Application of properties of operations
What do you understand by the term operations as used in mathematics? they are the four basic
arithmetic signs that help us in computing numbers. They are Addition (+).subtraction(-
),multiplication (x). And division (÷)
The basic properties of operations are commutative, associative and distributive.
Commutative property of addition.
This property is seen as a general rule of addition where the order of addition does not alter the
result. Therefore no matter the position of the number the result will be the same.e.g 3+5=5+3.this
implies that a+b=b+a.
Commutative property of multiplication.
In general the property for multiplication states that AXB=BXA.this means that in multiplication
irrespective of the order of arrangement of the numbers involved, the result will be the same.e.g
3× 5 = 5 × 3
Associative property of addition.
We hope you are familiar with the communicative property; we now introduce the associative
property of addition as a situation where irrespective of the order of operation (addition) of three
quantities, the same result will be obtained. In general the associative property could be written as
(A+B) + C= A + ( B+ C)
For example ( 2 + 4) + 3= 2+ ( 4 + 3)= 6 + 3 = 2 +7 = 9
Associative property of multiplication

In general the associative property of multiplication can be written as ( A× 𝐵) × 𝐶 = 𝐴( 𝐵 × 𝐶).

This means that in finding the product of three numbers, you can decide to multiply the first two
numbers before multiplying the result by the third number or you may also decide to find the
product of the last two numbers and multiply the result by the first number and the final in each
case will be the same. For example, if you group two (2) sets of four (4) pencils three (3) times or

10
four (4) sets three (3) pencils two (2) times. In all circumstances, the same total of 24 pencils will
be available.

(2× 4) × 3 = 2 × (4 × 3)

8× 3 = 2 × 12
24= 24

Distributive property of multiplication over addition.

This concept can be explained as multiplying a number by the sum of two other numbers gives
the same results as multiplying each of the addends respectively by the multiplicand and adding
the results of the two products.e.g
3(3+2)= (3x3) + (3x2)
3x5 = 9 + 6
15 = 15
Distributive property of multiplication over subtraction.
This concept can be explained as multiplying a number by the difference of two other numbers
gives the same results as multiplying each of the numbers respectively by the multiplicand and
finding the difference in the results of the two products
For instance,if we consider a girl who had six eggs for breakfast,lunch and supper.how many
apples would she be taken in all,if she decided to reserve two out of six apples? This can be
calculated in two ways.
a) Subtract two from six snd multiply by three or
b) Multiply three by six ,multiply three by two and find the difference between the
two products.it can be seen that in each case,answer is 12 apples.

3(6-2)= 3( 3× 6) − (3 × 2)

3× 4 = 18 − 6
12==12

This can be generally written as A(B-C)==(A× 𝐵) − (𝐴 × 𝐶)

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 UNIT THREE
INVESTIGATION WITH NUMBERS.
Natural and whole numbers.

The set of natural numbers (N) is given by:N={1,2,3,4,5 … … . . } and the set of whole numbers(W)
is given by:W={0,1,2,3,4, … … … }.
The intersection of N and W=N and the union of N and W=W.The smallest natural number is 1
and there is no largest natural number. The smallest whole number is 0 and there is no largest
whole number.
Factors.
If one number divides a second number exactly then the first number is a factor of the second
one.e.g if 3 divides 12 into 4.we say 3 and 4 are factors of 12.let us find other factors of 12. Any
two numbers that multiply to get 12 those two numbers are factors of 12.
12
a b
1 12
2 6
3 4
4 3
The figures above shows that any number that satisfy the condition of axb=12 is a factor of 12
therefore the factors of 12 are {1,2,3,4,6,12}.the set consist of 6 numbers.
Another way factors can be explained using concrete material to children is to take pebbles, arrange
000000
them several different ways to form a rectangle.e.g 000000000000 1 × 12 2×6
000000
0
0
0
00 0
000 00 0
0000
000 4x3 00
0000 3 × 4 6 × 2 0 12x1 now factors of 12 can be written from the
000 00 0
0000 00
000 0
00 0
0
0
0
arrangement as 12= {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12}.note that when a number is repeated in a set, it is counted
once.
Proper factors

12
We are already familiar with factors of numbers. Let us list factors of some numbers e.g 4,6,7,8,10
and 12.

4={1,2,4} 6={1,2,3,6} 8={1,2,4,8} 10={1,2,5,12} 12={1,2,3,4,6,12}

Now let us observe from all the set of factors above. Do you realize that, in all cases the number
itself and 1 form part of the set of factors?
Have you also taken notice that, apart from the number itself, there are other numbers forming the
set of factors. The set of factors of a number apart from the number itself are known as proper
factors. From above, the proper factors are:

4={1,2} 6=={1,2,3} 8=={1,2,4} 10={1,2,5} 12={1,2,3,4,6}

Perfect ,deficient and abundant numbers
Let us complete the table below

Number Factors Proper factors Sum of proper factors

6 1,2,3,6 1,2,3 1+2+3=6
8 1,2,4,8 1,2,4 1+2+4=7
9 1,3,9 1,3 1+3=4
10 1,2,5,10 1,2,5 1+2+5=8
12 1,2,3,4,6,12 1,2,3,4,6 1+2+3+4+6=16
18 1,2,3,6,9,18 1,2,3,6,9 1+2+3+6+9=21
24 1,2,3,4,6,8,12,24 1,2,3,4,6,8,12 1+2+3+4+6+8+12=36

We can tell from the table above, the numbers whose sums of factors are less than the numbers
themselves are known as deficient number.
It could also be seen that the sum of proper factors of 6 is the same as 6.numbers that are the same
as the sum of its proper factors let children understand that this is called a proper perfect number.
Numbers whose sum of proper factors is greater than the numbers themselves are 16,18 and
24.they are known as abundant numbers.
In conclusion we can say that:
a) Proper factors are factors of a numbers apart from the number itself
b) Deficient numbers are numbers whose sum of proper factors is less than the number itself
c) Abundant numbers are numbers whose sum of proper factors is greater than the number
itself
d) Perfect numbers are those sum of proper factors is equal to the number itself.

Subsets of a given set

13
What do you understand by the word set? It can be explained as a well defined collection of objects.
We hope you can mention some examples of a set as a set of drawing instruments, a set of counting
numbers, a set of even numbers, a set of table tennis equipment etc.sets are denoted with capital
letters like A,B, etc and can be represented as

A={1,2,3} 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = {4,6,7,9,13} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛

Let us compare the two sets A and B

A={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,8,10}

B={2,4,6,8,10}
Have you observed that all the members in B are found in A ? .since all the members in B are
found in A,we say B is a subset of set A.symbolically,subset is represented by ∁ ,so from the sets
above,we write B∁𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐴∁𝐵.How ever if at least an element of B is not contained in A,then B is
not a subset of A. this can be represented as B ¢ A.for example P={𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑. 𝑒, 𝑓. 𝑔. ℎ, 𝑖, 𝑗} and
Q={𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜} since ‘o’ is not found in the set P,it means that Q is not a subset of P ,s0 we write Q
P.
Listing subsets of a given set.

Let us investigate the number of subsets in a given set.if A={1,2,3},List all the possible subsets of
A.the subsets are { },{1},{2},{3},{1,2},{1,3},{2,3},{1,2,3}.
Let us consider another example.set B={a,b}={ },{a},{b},{a,b}.the indication is that every
member of the set is a subset of the given set,and every set is a subset of it self and a null or empty
set is also a subset.
A given set and a null set of any set are called improper subsets.all other sets are proper subsets.
Let us consider the pattern below to establish a relationship between the number of members of a
set and the number of subsets.

SET SUBSETS
{} {}
{1} { },{1}
{1,2} { },{1},{2},{1,2}
{1,2,3,} { },{1},{2},{3},{1,2},{1,3},{2,3},{1,2,3}
{1,2,3,4} { },{ 1},{2 },{3 },{4 },{1,2 },{1,3 },{1,4 },{2,3 },{2,4
},{3,4 },{1,2,3 },{1,2,4 ]},{1,3,4 },{2,3,4 },{1,2,3,4 }

From the table above, another table could be built as follow

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 Number of elements (n) Number of subsets Relation
0 1 20
1 2 21
2 4 22
3 8 23
4 16 24
5 32 25
-
N 2n

Pupils can now observe that the exponent is the same as the number of elements (n) in the set.
Generally the number of subsets that can be formed from a set is given as 2n.

Prime factorization
Prime factorization is a way of expressing a number as a product of prime numbers. Factor tree
can be used to find the prime factorization of numbers. This very often used and enjoyed by
children e.g let us see how we would use factor tree to find the prime factors of 42 and 48.
48
(42)
2 2 24
2 21 12
7 2
3 (3)
2 3
42=2x3x7 3

2
48=2x2x2x2x3 =24x3
The Highest Common Factor (H.C.F)
The highest common factor or sometimes called the greatest common factor(G.C.F) or greatest
common divisor (G.C.D) of two or more numbers is the highest number which is a factor of all the
given numbers.
To find the H.C.F of 24,36 and 48,we find the factors of 24,36 and 48.

15
Factors of 24 are ;{1,2,3,4,6,8,12},factors of 36:{1,2,3,4,6,9,12,18,36},factors of
48:{1,2,3,4,6,8,12,16,24,48}.
The common factors of 24,36 and 48 are {1,2,3,4,6,12}.therefore the H.C.F of 24,36 and 48 is 12.
The least common multiple (L.C.M).
The least common multiples of two or more numbers are the smallest counting number that is a
multiple of each of the given numbers. The L.C.M. of two or more numbers can be found using
the multiples of the numbers.e.gfind the L.C.M of 3, 4,6.
Multiples of 3={3,6,9,12,15,18,21,24………}
Multiples of 4={4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32,36,…..}
Multiples of 6={6,12,18,24,30,36……}.the common multiples of 3,4 and 6 are {12,24,36,….}.
The least common multiple of 3,4 and 6 is 12.
Children can use table below to find prime numbers and composite numbers

Numbers Set of factors Number of factors

1 (1) 1
2 (1,2) 2
3 (1,3) 2
4 (1,2,4) 3
5 (1,5) 2
6 (1,2,3,6) 4
7 (1,7) 2
8 (1,2,4,8) 4
9 (1,3,9) 3
10 (1,2,5,10) 4
11 (1,11) 2
12 (1,2,3,4.6.12) 6

Even and odd numbers.

Looking at the table we can see that some of the numbers have 2 in the set as a factor such
numbers are call Even numbers. Those that do not have 2 as a factor in their set are call Odd
numbers.
To help pupils to develop the concept of even and odd numbers children need to be taken through
grouping of objects in twos. Children are asked to use pebbles in this activity. They group pebbles
into ones, twos, threes, fours etc.e.g

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

16
Children are then guided to find the numbers which can be paired and those numbers which cannot
be paired. The paired numbers should be put in to bracket.
Group pebbles into ones, twos, threes, fours etc.e.g
{ } { } { }
Children realized that those numbers which can be paired are 2,4,6,etc these numbers are called
even numbers and those not in the bracket are called odd numbers.
Multiples of numbers
We see that 2 is factor of 6.if 2 is a factor of 6 then we say that 6 is a multiple of 2.this shows that
if a number ‘a’ divides a number ‘b’ exactly then ‘a’ is a factor of ‘b’ then ‘b’ is a multiple of
‘a’.e.g 4 is a factor of 20 and 20 is a multiple of 4.with our example, we can see that (i) the set of
multiples of 2={2,4,6,8…} (ii) set of multiples of 3={3,6,9,12,15,18…}note that the set of
multiples of numbers is infinite set.
Prime and composite numbers.
Guide children to write numbers from 1 to 100 in a 10x10 grid paper as;

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

Children find out that (1) cannot divide any given number hence one is not included. Starting from
2, children circle 2 and cross out all numbers 2 can divide without a remainder in the 10x10 grid
paper. The next number is 3 circle the 3 and cross out all the numbers that 3 can divide without
any remainder. The next number is 5, circle it and cross out any number that 5 can divide without
any remainder. This is carried out till every number is taken care of.
Children then write all the numbers which were circled. These numbers are called prime numbers.
Refer pupils to the first table to find out that all numbers that have more than 2 factors are called
composite numbers

UNIT FOUR
TEACHING RATIONAL NUMBERS

17
What is a real Number?
The set of all rational and irrational numbers is known as the set of real numbers. Thus the set of
real numbers is the union of the set of rational numbers and the set of irrational numbers.

Real Numbers={Rational Numbers}∪ {𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠}

Real Numbers

Irrational Numbers Rational Numbers

Integers fractions

Whole Numbers Negative Integers

Positive Integers, Zero

Counting Numbers
Natural Numbers

Rational Numbers
𝑎
Rational numbers are numbers which can be expressed as the ratio of two integers like where a
𝑏
2 2 6
and b are integers where b≠ 0 𝑒. 𝑔. 3 , 1 , 5 𝑒𝑡𝑐.

The set of rational numbers consists of integers and fractions, both positive and negative. A rational
numbers can be converted into a decimal which may be terminating or repeating.

Terminating and non-terminating fractions

Repeating Decimal

18
For children to have an idea about terminating and repeating decimal. They need to work problems
of converting common fractions to decimal fractions.
1 3 17 2 14
e.g expressing common fractions like.i) 2 , 𝑖𝑖 8 , 𝑖𝑖𝑖 , 𝑖𝑣 𝑣 in to decimal fractions
4 3 11

solution
1 3 17 2 14
= 0.5, = 0.375, = 4.25 = 0.666 …. = 1.2727 … ..
2 8 4 3 11
1 3 17
We see that the fractions 2 , 8 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ,come to an end when expressed as decimals.such numbers
4
2 14
are called terminating decimals.however the fraction 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 11 𝑑𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑑 when
expressed as decimals, such numbers are called repeating decimals.
2 14
In 6 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠. 𝑖𝑛 , 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑.
3 11

We indicate that a decimal numeral is repeating by placing dots over the digits which repeated
2 14
themselves. For example3 = 0.666 … . 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑟𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 0. 6̇,11 = 1.2727 … . . 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 1.27̈
.for a number which has more than 2 digits repeating,we place dots over the first and the last of
the digits that repeat.thus 3.324132413241….. is written as 3.3̇241̇.
Example

Show to a J H S. Child that a repeating decimal like i) 0.3̇ and 1. 27̈ Can be represented as the
ratio of two integers and hence a rational number.
Solution

Let x= 0.3̇ --------------- (i)

Multiply equation 1 by 10

10x=3.3̇………………… (ii)
Subtract equation one from equation two

10x=3.3̇

-x=0.3̇
9x= 3.0
3
X=9
1
X=3

Consider 1.27̈

19
 Let y=1.27̈ …………………equ 1
Multiply equat. 1 by 100

100y=127.27̈…………..equat.2
Subtract equation 1 from equation 2
99y=126
126
Y= 99
14
Y= 11

Irrational Numbers
A rational number corresponds to points on the number line, but there are points on the number
line that do not correspond to any rational number. Such numbers are called irrational numbers.
Irrational numbers are numbers whose decimals are neither terminating nor repeating
e.g.1.0100200030000040000005---------, 2.31311311131111131111113……
Numbers like these, do not end or repeat themselves, they only follow a pattern. Such members
are called irrational numbers.
Irrational numbers cannot be expressed as the ratio of two integers but they however correspond
to definite points on the number line.
We can not find the actual value of an irrational number.
Examples of irrational numbers are
c) The ratio c/d=π
d) The square roots of numbers like √2 , √3 , √5
Teaching of fractions
The word fraction is describing how the material you are holding is not complete or in your
possession is not whole. Therefore we can conclude that fraction is part of the whole object. We
may look at fraction in three different ways, part of a whole, part of a group, ratio of comparing
two quantities.
Fraction can be introduced by letting pupils experience the action of dividing a concrete material
into several equal parts.
For children to form the concept of fraction, they should have practical experiences such as
i. Breaking a stick into equal parts
ii. Folding paper into equal parts
iii. Cutting a strip into equal parts
iv. Finding how many times the content of a small container will go into a larger container

20
Development of fractions
The best sequence of the development of fraction may be:
i. The meaning of fraction
ii. Writing down fractional notation
iii. Equivalent fractions
iv. Addition and subtraction of fractions a) with the same name b)with different name c)with
mixed number fractions
v. Multiplication of fractions a) by a whole number b) by another fraction
vi. Division of fraction a) by a whole number b) by another fraction.
When introducing fractions to children, it is very important to always name your whole, the whole
should not necessary be a unit object. The whole can be one unit, a group .let children be aware
that in fraction, we measure part of what we have and compare to our original.
Naming of fraction.
A fraction is represented by two numbers separated by a division bar.

3
4
3
Looking at the fraction 4 .the bottom number is called the denominator and it gives us the name of
the fraction and indicates, in to the number of equal parts the whole is divided. The top number is
called numerator, it gives the number of parts taken.
Let us go through some activities to see how fraction can be named.
ACTIVIT 1
Folding paper in to equal parts.

3
5

ACTIVITY 2
Fractions on the number line

21
 1 2 3 4 5
0 5 5 5 5 5

ACTIVITY 3
Using Cuisenaire Rods
In the activity we choose any rod or a set of rods to be our whole. We then make up a row of the
same length as our original whole using rods of the same colour.see the diagram below

Orange
R R R R R
W W W W W W W W W W
1 3
One R represents5 of the orange so three R represents5 of the orange
1 2
One W represent10 of the orange Two W represents 10 of the orange rod.

Equivalent Fractions.
The term equivalent is made up of two words which may be interpreted as “equal in value”
therefore Equivalent fractions are forms of fractions that are equal in value.
Equivalent fractions may be defined as fractions which represent the same number but have
1234
different names. E.g.2,4,6,8 etc.

To show the equivalence of fractions such as 1/2, =2/4=4/8, we can use materials like;
a) Sets b) Cuisenaire rods c) paper folding d) fractional board e) number line

(a) Using Sets

Consider a set with say eight members. Divide the set into two equal parts. Further subdivide into
four equal parts and then eight equal parts.

A set of 8 members Divide into 2 equal parts Divide 4 equal parts Divide 8 equal parts.
(b) Using Cuisenaire Rods
Choose any rod or set of rods to be your whole.e.g orange and dark green. You then
make up as many rows using rods of one colour only e.g. all red or blue etc.
Each must be of the same length as the original whole chosen. You may make a diagram
of rods and write down your observation.
Orange Dark Green

22
 Brown Brown
Purple Purple Purple Purple
Red Red Red Red Red Red Red Red

W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W

Making coloure observations,we may have.

i. Two brown make the orange/dark green whole
ii. Two purples make one brown
iii. Four purples make the orange/dark green whole
iv. Two reds make 1 purple
v. Four reds make one brown
vi. Eight reds make the orange/dark green whole
vii. Four whites make 1 purple
viii. Eight whites make one brown
ix. Sixteen whites make the orange/dark green whole
These colour observations can then be turned into fractional statements as;
i. A brown is one half of the orange and dark green whole
ii. A purple is one fourth of the orange and dark green whole
iii. A red is one eighth of the orange and dark green whole.
Comparing,we see that 8 whites=4 reds=2 purple=1 brown.
1 1 1 1
I.e 8(16)=4(8)=2(4)=1(2) =8/16=4/8=2/4=1/2

(c) Using fractional Board.

ONE WHOLE
1
½
2
¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8
1/16

From the board you can find out how many one fourths are in halves

(d) Using paper folding.

Let us see how we can use paper folding to describe to a primary five pupils that 2/3,4/6
and 6/9 are equivalent.

23
 Take three equal size of sheet of papers. Fold one into 3 equal parts and shade 2 parts
which represent2/3.Fold another one into 6 equal parts and shade 4 parts which
represent 4/6.Fold the third sheet into 9 equal parts and shade 6 parts which represent
6/9.compare the three shaded sheets. What do you notice?

2/3 4/6 6/9

Comparing fractions
Children must be able to compare fractions to tell which of the fractions is less or
greater than the other or equal to the other and also be able to arrange fractions in order
of magnitude ie in ascending or descending order.

Fractions may be compared using

i. Idea of equivalent fraction
ii. Converting fraction into decimal fractions
iii. Expressing fractions as percentages
iv. Using concrete materials
4 3
For example let us consider the fractions 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4

Method 1.
Using idea of equivalent fractions.
You find the L CM of 4 and 5 which is 20 find out the numbers of times 5 will divide 20, use that
4×4 16
number to multiply both the denominator and the Numerator 5×4 = 20 this is for the first
3×5 15
fraction.theSecond fraction it will be = 20 since the Denominators of the two fractions are
4×5
4 3
equal we can now Compare the numerators. Since 16> 15 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 5 > 4.

Method 2
Converting the common fraction into decimal fraction and compare the two fractions to find out
which of them is greater than the other.
4 3
Eg.5 = 0.8 =0.75 .let us now find out the digit after the point which one is greater than the
4
4
other that fraction is the greatest.since 0.8 is greater than 0.75 the fraction is greater than the
5
3
fraction 4.

Method 3.
Using percentages

24
Take the fractions and multiply them by 100 .the fraction that have the highest percentage is greater
than the other.
4 4 3 3
= 5 × 100 = 80% = 4 × 100 = 75%
5 4

4 3 4 3
Since 5 is equal to 80% and 4 is 75% we conclude that the fraction 5 >4.

Method 4:
Using concrete material
We take two rectangular sheet of paper of equivalent shape. We fold one into five equal parts and
4
then shade 4 parts to represent .the other paper is then folded into four equal parts.then 3 parts are
5
3
shaded to represent 4.

4
5

3
4

The two papers are brought side by side and then compared the shaded portion. It would be
observed that the shaded portion for 4/5 is bigger than ¾.
Operation on common Fraction.
To develop operations of fractions in children,we need to use materials like;Cuisinaire rods,paper
folding and number line to name a few.
Addition and Subtraction of fractions
3 1
Using paper folding 5 + 5

25
 3 1
+
5 5

4
5

guide pupils to take two similar sheets of paper.guide them to divide one sheet into 5 equal parts
and shade 3 parts take the second sheet and divide it also in to 5 equal parts and shade 1 part since
the denominator is the same take the third sheet divide it also into 5 equal parts and count the
number of shaded portions we have in the 2 sheets and use it to shade the third sheet and that will
give you fourth fifth .
Using number line.
3 1 4
+5=5
5

1 2 3 4 5
0 5 5 5 5 5

Using cuisinaire Rods

Choose a rod to be your whole. Here we choose the orange rod as a whole, then the red rods are
each one fifth.

Orange
Red Red Red Red Red
3 1
+
5 5

4
5

Let us do subtraction
𝟑 1
.𝟓 − 5

Using number line

26
 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓
0 𝟓 𝟓 𝟓 𝟓 𝟓

Using paper folding.

𝟑 𝟏
−
𝟓 𝟓
Take away the first shaded portion

Removed
2
We will be left with 5

Addition of fractions with different denominator .

1 1
+3
2

1
+
2

1
3

27
3
+
6

2
6

Now that the two fractions have the same denominator we can add the fraction.

3 2 5
+ =6
6 6

3 1
Let us now subtract 4 − 3

3 1
-
4 3

9 3 6
- =12
12 12

Since the denominator are equal now we can subtract the numerators
MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTION.

28
Multiplication of a common fraction by a whole number and vice versa could be seen as repeated
addition of the given fraction.the whole number would indicate the number of times the fraction
1
is to be added to itself.e.g 2 𝑥4

Using Paper folding.

4 identical sheets of paper,each one is divided into 2 equal part and one-half of each is shaded and
put together.the result is 4 halves.this is 2 whole papers.

This becomes 2 papers.

Using number line.
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
Solve the following 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑

𝟏
𝒙𝟒
𝟑
1 4 1
This is taking 3 four times, equal to 3 or 1 3

Multiplication of fraction by another fraction

1 3
For example 3 𝑥 4
1 3
This could be explained as 3 𝑜𝑓 4 .using paper folding, take a sheet of paper, fold into four equal
3
parts and shade 3 parts. Divide the 4 in to 3 equal parts and re-shade a third of what fraction is the
re-shaded/double shaded portion to the whole.

29
3
to find the answer, the double shading is the numerator and the squares in 1 unit square is the
12
3
denominator=12

Division of Fractions.
Division of common fraction by a whole number.
1 1
divided by 2 means sharing 3 into 2 equal parts.
3

Using Paper Folding.

Take a sheet of paper, fold into three equal parts and shade a third. Share the one third into 2 equal
1 1
parts. Compare your results to the entire whole. Thus3 ÷ 2 = 6.

1 1 1
This become 3x2=6
1
Again 3× 2. This is explained as how many halves are in 3 whole?

1
This is 3× 2 = 6.

Division of common fraction by another common fraction

One of the meaning of division of a common fraction by a fraction is represented by how many
1 1
times can the divisor be subtracted from the dividend e.g:2 ÷ 4

Using paper folding

Take a sheet of paper,divide it into two equal parts.now determine the number of quarters that the
whole could be obtained from the half.

1
4
1 4
1 1 2 1×4
There are 2 quarters in a half. Therefore 2 ÷ 4= 2 thus 1 × 14 =2×1 = 2.
4 1

30
 5 1
÷
6 3

5 1
In the diagram above occupies 15 boxes, while occupies 6 boxes of the whole.divding 15 by 6
6 3
15 5 5 1 5
is or 2,therefore ÷3=2
6 6

Decimal Fractions.
1
In decimal fractions we represent 𝑎𝑠 𝑜. 1 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑠)𝑎𝑠 𝑜. 𝑜1 (ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑡ℎ𝑠).again materials to
10
use is the multibase blocks.

1 unit 0.01 (hundredth)

31
 0.1(tenth)
The flat, long and unit represent unit, tenth and hundredths respectively.e.g 0.2 can be shaded as

0.5 0.75
The first shaded region is five-tenth,second is seventy-five-hundred.
Changing common fraction to decimal fraction.
1 1 1𝑥20 20
Eg change 5 to decimal fraction.5=5𝑥20 = 100 = 0.2 the flat can be used for this activity.it contains
100 squares and it is divided into five equal parts which is twenty hundred (0.20).

0.2
1
can also be divided using long division method .
5

Changing decimal fractions to a common fractions

25 1 5 1
Change 0.25 to a common fraction .thus 0.25=100 = 4 .similarly 0.5=10 = 2.

Convert 0.3̇ to common fraction.

32
 1
i. Let x=0.3̇ →(1) multiply both sides by 10 .10x=3. 3̇ → (2) .1.2. 9 = 3 9, = 3.

Write 0.12̈ as a common fraction. Let x=0.12̈ →(1) multiply by 100→100x=12.12̈ →(2)

UNIT FIVE
TEACHING RATIO AND PERCENTAGES
A ratio is a pair of positive numbers that is used to compare two quantities or two sets. The idea
of ratio is the comparison of two or more quantities in the same dimension or unit.
Step 1

33
 To teach ratio guide pupils to share oranges. The sharing can be when one person takes two
oranges the other person takes three oranges by so doing we can say that the oranges have been
shared in the ratio of two is to three. To compare two quantities, we can ask how much more is
one quantity more than the other quantity.
Step 2
Another way of teaching ratio is to let pupils compare two quantities or numbers by finding the
difference between the two numbers. For example. How many more is 20 than 16?
The result of how many more is 20 than 16 is illustrated below. There are 20 objects that are
circled .when 16 is taken away, 4 is left.
16 taken away

4 left

We can also compare two number or quantities by finding how many times of one is the other?

Let pupils compare two numbers or quantities by finding how many times one is as many as the
9 3
other and write this as ratio.example,9 is one and half times as many as 6 because 6 = 2 =
1
1 2.this is illustrated below where members of the first set is compared with members of the
second set.

9 6
Thus we write this ratio as 9: 6
Get more examples on this and work them.
Step 4
After finding ratios of many pairs of quantities or numbers, let pupils find and simplify the ratios.
9 3
For example the ratio 9:6 can be simplified to get 3:2 since 6 = 2 . Group pupils into two and let
them find the ratio of the two groups of pupils.

34
Work more examples with pupils. We can divide a quantity or a number into a given ratio. For
example divide oranges in to the ratio of 2:3 we first find the total number of parts into which 15
oranges are divided.
2
Ie 2+3=5.for the first number; we find 5 × 15, which is 6.similarly the second number is
3
× 15 = 9.therefore,dividing 15 oranges in to the ratio 2:3 is 6 oranges and 9 oranges. Work out
5
more examples of this with pupils.
PROPORTION
8
The ratio 8 to 40(i.e. 8:40) may be simplified to its lowest term as 1 to 5.this is because 40 =
1 1
. 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 5 is the same as the ratio 1:5.an equality of two or more ratios is called
5
proportion. Proportions are useful in problem solving.
For example, if the ratio of teachers to students is 1 to 15 and there are 210 students in a school,
how many teachers are there in the school?
In solving this problem, we can represent the number of teachers in the school by n then by
proportion we have.
1 𝑛
=
15 210
1
Now we multiply the numerator and denominator of 15 by the same number to get the result in an
1×14 14
equal fraction.(note;15× 15 = 210) ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 210 so the number of teachers in the school
15×14
is 14.
1 𝑛 210
Another approach is to cross multiply and find n ie = 210 ↔ 15𝑛 = 210 ↔ 𝑛 = = 14.
15 15

Use proportion to find if two pairs of numbers or quantities are in proportion.

Example:are the following pairs of quantities in proportion? 5 litres,3 litres and 10 hours,6hours.
To answer this question we write the two ratios and compare to see whether they are the same.
Thus 5 litres,3 litres=5:3
10 hours,6 hours=10:6=5:3
Hence the quantities are in proportion.
To solve problems on direct proportion
Method 1
Use unitary method to solve the problem.

For example:two bags of rice cost Gh¢32.00. 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 5 𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒.

35
Cost of 2 bags of rice=Gh¢32.00
32.00
Thus the cost of 1 bag of rice= Gh¢ 2

32.00
The cost of 5 bags of rice=Gh¢ ×5
2

= Gh¢80.00
Work more examples on this method with pupils
Method 2.
Use ratio method to solve problems on direct proportion
For example: four oranges cost 8oGp. What is the cost of 12 oranges?
We let the cost of the 12 oranges be ¢N.then by equal ratios, we have
80 4 80×12
80:N=4:12 = 12 → 4𝑁 = 80 × 12 → 𝑁 = =240Gp.
𝑁 4

The 12 oranges w1ll cost Gh¢2.40

PERCENTAGES.
Percentages are ways of representing fractions with denominators of 100.percentages are
introduced in primary 5.
CHANGING FRACTIONS TO PERCENTAGES.
We have looked at fractions,we saw that a fraction can be described as a ratio of two
2
numbers.for example the ratio 2:5 is the same as5 .

To teach how to rename a fraction in percentage,begin with halve,fourth and tenths.in other
words,find hundredths and percentage names that are equal to halves,fourths and tenths.
For example:
1 1 100 100 50
1. = 2 × 100 = 200 = 100.this is written as 50 percent or symbolically 50%
2

1 1 100 100 25
2. = 4 × 100 = 400 = 100 = 25%.
4

3 3 100 300 75
3. = 4 × 100 = 400 = 100 = 75%
4

1 1 100 10
4. = 10 × 100=100 = 10%
10

7 7 100 70
5. = 10 × 100 = 100 = 70%
10

36
 1 3
Hence we rename 2 in percentage as 50%;4 as 75%.

Diagrams are one method of gaining an understanding of percent. a 10× 10 grid with 100 equal
parts is one of the common models for illustrating percentages or decimals.for example showing
15% using diagram.

2
For example,to rename 5 in percent,we write 2:5= w : 100
2 𝑤 2×100
Therefore 5 = 100 → 5𝑤 = 2 × 100 = 𝑤 = = 40
5

2
Hence the percentage name for 5 is 40%.work more examples with pupils.

CHANGING PERCENTAGES TO FRACTIONS

Once we know how to change a fraction to percentage,the reverse process is quite easy.
40
For example to change 40% to fraction,we write 40% as 100 and we simplify it.
40 4 2
Thus 40%= 100 = 10 = 5
38 19
Again 38%=100 = 50

Work more examples.

CHANGING DECIMALS TO PERCENTAGES AND VICE VERSA
The approach to decimals should be placing emphasis on models and oral language.
For example,we can represent the Dienes base-ten piece the flat as unit,the long as one-tenth and
the cube as one-hundredth,let us look at how it looks like

37
 1 0.1 0.01
We can use these models to represent some given fractions.
We are aware that we are changing from decimals to percentage therefore we can use
model of a flat representing unit. For example the shaded portion represent 0.4 which shows
that 40 out of 100 of smaller squares have been shaded.this represent 40%.

Similarly we can model 0.2,0.25and 0.43

We can also model the percent into decimal for example 30%, 52% 8% into decimals.let us
model 30% so that you can also try your hands on the others

30
This is 30%=100 = 0.3

FINDING PERCENTAGE OF A GIVEN QUANTITY

38
This is the aspect of percent that may be called calculations with percents.calculation with
percent fall into three categories.

• Given the whole and percent,find the part.

• Given the whole and part,find the percent.
• Given the percent and the part,find the whole.
This section is of the category 1
When the whole and the percent are given,the part can be found by multiplying the percent by
the whole.for example.find 15% of ¢50,000.00.
15
The word of is a clue that the percent is acting as a multiplier.thus 15% of ¢50,000.00=100 ×
¢50.00.00 = ¢7,500.00.
On the other hand we can model to solve this problem.
15 out of 100 of small squares are shaded indicating 15%.now the whole 100 squares represent
the¢ 50,000.00.this means that 1 small square represents ¢500.00 (ie ¢50,000.00÷ 100) thus
15% of ¢50,000.00=15×¢500.00=¢7,500.00

This is 15% ¢50,000.00

Every single square represent ¢500.00

EXPRSSING ONE QUANTITY AS A PERCENTAGE OF ANOTHER QUANTITY.

39
As stated earlier ,calculations with percent fall into three categories.expressing one quantity as a
percentage of another falls under the second category.ie given the whole and the part,find the
percent.
When the part and the whole are given,the percent can be found by writing the fraction for the
part of the whole and then writing this fraction as a percent.for example,if 8 of the radio stations
top 40 songs for a given week are new songs,then
8 8
𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑤. 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡, we can divide 8 by 40 to obtain a
40 40
20
decimal and then represent the decimal by a percent. 8÷ 40 = 0.2 = 100 = 20% so 20% of the
top songs of the radio station are new.
The model may be used to provide a visual approach to solving the problem above.
8 songs (20%) 40 songs

0.4 songs
What percent of 40 is 8? The total of 100 small squares represent the 40 songs,then each square
represents 40÷ 100 = 0.4. ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 2 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 0.8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10 squares represent 4
songs.therefore 20 squares will represent 8 songs.20 squares are then shaded,which represent
20%.
When the percent and the part are given,the wholecan be found by using proportion.suppose a
down payment of ¢50,000.00 is required for a loan and this down payment is 10 percent of the
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 10 50,000
loan.then the amount of the loan will be:𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 100 = 𝑎 .

Using the rule for equality of fractions,we can write this equation as 10a=50,000× 100
50,000×100
Therefore a= 10

a=500,000
so the amount of loan is ¢500,000.00

40
another method of solving the problem is illustrated using 10x10 grid paper.
The shaded squares are 10 percent,and these represent ¢50,000 down payment.
If the 10 shaded squares represent ¢50,000 then each small square represents ¢50,000

10=¢5,000.so the total of 100× 5,000 =¢500,000.

¢50,000
¢500,000

¢5,000

UNIT SIX

41
 TEACHING MEASUREMENT.
Measurement of length.
Measurement forms a very important part of our everyday life. There are many things that we
measure, some of these are length ,distance,,capacity,volume,weight,time,money,angles and
several others.
Length is the measure of how long a thing is from one point to the other. In measurement of length
some few vocabularies are learnt,like long, longer than,longest,short,shorter than, shortest.
In teaching the concept of measurement of length we first perform activities on direct comparison,
indirect comparison, and then introduction of standard unit of measure.
Direct comparison of length.
This is where a child is guided to place objects side by side on the same level to determine which
of the objects is longer than the other, shorter than the other, as long as the other.
Indirect comparison of length.
Indirect comparison is introduced when the lengths you want to measure cannot be brought to be
placed side by side, therefore a medium is introduced .like measurement of the length of two
adjacent walls, these two walls cannot be brought together and place them side by side but to use
either your hand span your foot a stick these measure medium is called arbitrary unit. You will use
any of these to find out how many of this measure can a particular wall take and compare with
how many the other wall too had.
Introduction of standard unit for length
We talked about the use of arbitrary unit this unit differ from persons. everybody choose what ever
measure he/she wants to use therefore it brings a lot of confusion in the system.for example in this
classroom if I call two men to measure the length of the teacher’s table with their hand span,the
two people will give us different measurement, to eliminate this confusion,it is necessary to
introduce a standard unit measure like centimeter,milimiter,meter,kilometer etc.
need to use the same size of tables exercise books or postage stamps to spread them in the two
classrooms to find out which of the classrooms has more of those objects used.this shows that the
classroom that got more of those objects used has more large surface area and these objects are
called arbitrary units.

Measurement of Capacity

42
At the lower level,we place more emphasis on capacity while emphasized both volume and
capacity at the upper primary.what is the difference between volume and capacity?are the concept
of volume and capacity similar in a way?
Volume can be said to be the amount of space contained in a three dimensional shape and this may
include how much space is found in a box,a room, or a jar.capacity however, is the amount of
substance that a particular space can contained.like how much water or sand will fill a box or a
jar.well,volume and capacity are close related and the capacity of a given container is determined
by its volume.
Direct comparison.
In direct comparison of two or more empty containers can be filled with water and pour it back in
to another container to see which container can hold more water.
Indirect comparison.
This is where one container can not be lifted to pour out its content into another container,therefore
need another smaller container that can be used to fill the other one.in this case we find out how
many times the smaller container can fill the bigger one that can not be lifted and compare to see
which is bigger containers can hold more water.
Introduction of standard measure.
The liter is used as a standard unit measure. Guide the pupils to use a liter bottle or any graduated
container with liter to fetch water to filled the bigger containers to see how many liters will fill
each of them.
Measurement of weight and mass.
We normally use weight and mass interchangeably. Weight is refers to as the measure of force o
gravity acting on an object. Mass on the other hand, is the amount of matter in an object.
How do we determine which object is heavier than the other? We compare various pair of objects
to find out which one weighs the most by holding one object in each hand. Some of the objects
may have equal weight so let the pupils compare and re-check, pair until they are able to put the
objects in order from the lightest to heaviest. Do several experiments in comparing weight and
after these introduce the use of device for weighing.
Simple balance
Get an improvised balance, if you don’t have one, by getting a coat hanger and two empty tins at
either ends. This is the simplest balance to make. It may not be very sensitive but don’t wory.it
will be adequate for the purpose of demonstrating the principle of the balance. Put an eraser in one
end, a stone in the other one, you will discover that one end will go down showing that one is
heavier than the other. Guide the pupils to compare weight of objects directly like that and arrange
the objects in the order of lightest to the heaviest. After comparison and ordering of masses pupils
will notice that there is the need for a standard measure. We introduce the kilogram as the basic
unit for the measurements of mass. We provide 1kg weight in hand to get the “feel” of it. They

43
then pick up objects in the classroom or outside and determine whether they weigh about 1kg or
more or less. They check their results using a balance.
Measurement of time.
Many events take place in the lives of children and it help them to develop the idea of passage of
time. We list here some of the events familiar to children ,school time, break time, closing time,
time to get out of bed, let your pupils tell you which of the above events occur first, which is
second and so on. Again what do the following words mean to your pupils.today,
tomorrow,yesterday,morning,evening and afternoon. Guide them to explain the words. Guide the
pupils to tell how time is measured without using standard measure of time. That is the sound of
birds, sun.
Unit of time.
Help your pupils to understand the unit of time by providing improvised clock. Guide the pupils
to understand that any time the minute hand is on 12 and the hour hand is on any number, that
number is the time.
Guide the pupils to read the clock by the hour by telling and fixing the hands of the clock to show
9,o’clock ,6,o’clock, 12,o’clock, 8,o’clock.
Lunch time, closing time, play time, sunrise and sunset. There is now the need to read the clock
by half hour and quarter hour. Guide the pupils now to discover that 60 minutes make an hour,24
hours make a day,7 days makes a week and so on.
Teaching of money.
Money is any legal document that can be used for exchange of goods and services is called money.
Introduce all the currency in circulation to the pupils to let them touch it and be able to describe
the nature of that note, its colour, the fixtures on it.
Organized a play shop in the classroom for the pupils to buy and sell after that close the play shop
and ask questions about the change their suppose to receive when items are bought and pay using
a higher denomination the balance and how much money can be used in paying for a number of
items bought with a particular price. After that you introduce the cedi sign to the pupils and how
it is written.

UNIT SEVEN
TEACHING OF GEOMETRIC CONCEPTS
Teaching of angles.

44
Angle is introduce by explaining to the pupils that when you make a turn an angle is form or when
two or more lines meet the space created is called an angle.
Angle can be introduced to pupils using the corners of the classroom, when a door is open and
closed; when two interloping circles are fixed together angles are form when turning them.

Types of angles.
An angle that is less than a right angle is an acute angle.see the illustration below.

• An angle which is greater than a right angle but less than two right angles is or a
straight line is an obtuse angle. See also the illustration below.

An angle that is greater than two right angles but less than one turns a reflex angle.

• Direct comparison.
An angle can also be described as the union of two rays that have the same endpoint. When we
measure an angle, we assign a number to the spread between the two arms, or rays.
To introduce the idea of the size of an angle, we can open a pair of scissors and draw pupils
attention to the angle formed by the two blades. We explain that the size of an angle has to do with
the spread between the two blades.
We guide pupils to compare two angles by first asking them to trace one of them and directly
compare the tracing with the other angle.in comparing the two angles pupils place the vertex and
one of the arms of the tracing on the vertex and one arm of the other angle.the other arm of the
smaller angle lies in the interior of the large angle.

45
We then give the pupils tracing paper and a sheet on which are drawn angles of various measures
in a number of different positions. We instruct the pupils to order the angles according to size by
tracing and comparing the angles with each other.

Angles of various measures

NON-STANDARD UNIT.
We can draw an angle on the chalkboard and ask pupils to determine “how big” angle is. They can
make a small angle as a unit of measure and find how many copies of this small angle fit inside
the angle to be measured. This small angle can be a wedge cut from cardboard.
Pupils should predict and verify the results of using a smaller unit angle to measure angles. Pupils
could prepare several copies of cardboard wedges representing angles of three different sizes. They
would then draw an angle on paper and measure it using the three different units. Pupils first
estimate before measuring and they measure to the nearest unit.
Pupils can be guided to create an instrument for measuring angles by dividing a semi-circular cut
out into equal sectors by folding. The teacher can then challenge them to use this to find the
measures of angles of various cardboard wedges.
STANDARD UNITS
Before pupils learn about the degree as a standard unit of measure of angle, they can use the right-
angle as a reference.
Pupils should be shown how to fold a piece of paper twice to produce a right angle.they then use
the right –angle to identify right angles on object in their claaroom and to classify other angles as
greater than or less than or less than a right angle.we tell pupils that an acute angle has a measure
that is less than a right angle and an obtuse angle has a measure greater than right angle but less
than a straight angle.

Right angle straight angle acute angle obtuse angle

46
We can define the degree as the amount of turning (or the size of unit of an angle)
Such that the measure of a quarter turn (or right angle) is 900.pupils then note that the measure of
a half turn (or straight angle) is 1800 and the measure of a full turn is 3600.pupils also estimate the
measures of various acute and obtuse angle, angles drawn on the board or on paper. The teacher
then demonstrates how to use a protractor to measure angles in degrees, emphasizing the correct
placement of the baseline and the vertex. Pupils estimate and measure the sizes of angles in degrees
using a protractor. They also draw angles of giving measures using a protractor. Pupils can also
work in pairs, with one pupil drawing an angle and the other estimating and then measuring it.
THE SUM OF THE INTERIOR ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE.
Guide pupils to draw at least three different types of triangles.
Guide them to use a compass and open it to any radius and mark angles in the triangle.
Guide them to use a sharp object to cut the three angles out.
Guide them to arrange the cut out angles in a straight line.

Equilateral triangle right angle triangle isosceles triangle

Guide the pupils to draw equilateral triangle
aa

Guide the pupils to cut out all the three angles

Guide them to arrange the cut out angles in a straight line

a

Guide the pupils to try this same procedure for all the three triangles. This shows that the
sum of interior angles in any triangle add up to 1800.
SUM OF THE EXTERIOR ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE.
a

47
 aa

b
c
Guide the pupils to use a compass to mark the outside angles
Guide them to use a sharp object to cut out the angles
Guide them to arrange the angles
They will notice that a circle has been formed. This shows that the exterior angles of a
triangle add up to 3600.
THE SUM OF EXTERIOR ANGLES OF A PENTAGON.

Guide the pupils to cut out all the marked angles.

Guide the pupils to arrange the cut out angles and it will form a circle which shows that all the
exterior angles of any polygon add up to 3600.
THE SUM OF THE INTERIOR ANGLES OF A REGULAR POLYGON.
We classify polygons by the number of sides that the have. The number of sides of a polygon gives
the number of angles. A polygon with equal length of sides is called a regular polygon.let us go
through the following activities to establish the formulae for finding the sum of the interior angles
of a polygon.

• Guide the pupils to draw various successive polygons on a cardboard and split it
into triangles by drawing diagonals from one vertex to all the other vertices.
•

One triangle 2 triangles 3 triangles 4 triangles

48
 • Since the interior angles of a triangle sum up to 1800,pupils calculate the
sum of the interior angles of each polygon by counting the number of
triangles and multiply it by 1800.
• The results are shown in a table for pupils to see the pattern which emerges.

Polygon NO.of sides No.of triangles Sum of interior angles

Triangle 3 1 1x180=1800
Quadrilateral 4 2 2x180=3600
Pentagon 5 3 3x180=5400
Hexagon 6 4 4x180=7200
Heptagon 7 5 5x180=9000
Octagon 8 6 6x180=10800
- - - -
- - - -
- N n-2 (n-2)x180

• Pupils would notice that in each case that the number of triangles is two less
than the number of sides of the polygon.
• Pupils should infer that the sum of the interior angles of any regular polygon
with n sides is (n-2)180.

PERIMETER OF PLANE SHAPES

Plane shapes
When three or more points are not found to be on the same line, we have a kind of geometric
figure called a plane figure. a plane fiqure is the same as a plane.it is a figure in two
dimensions.rectangle,triangle and hexagon are examples of plane shapes. Can you now mention
other examples of plan shapes?what do they have in common? They normally have flat surfaces
PERIMETER OF 2-D SHAPES.
let us look at perimeter.it is the measure of the total distance around a plan shape.we shall now
focus on finding the perimeter of plane shapes or plan figures.some activities leading to the
determination of perimeter of plan shapes include:
▪ Explaining the concepts of perimeter as total length or distance around a plan shape.
▪ Provide different cut-out shapes of different dimensions. Measure and record the lengths
around each shape.
▪ Sum all the measured lengths as the perimeter of a given shape.
How would you determine the perimeter of a rectangle?let us consider the following activities to
determine the perimeter of a rectangle.
▪ Draw a rectangle as shown
L

49
 W W
L
▪ measure the length around the rectangle as l,l,w and w where l and w are lengths and widths
respectively.
▪ Sum the measured lengths as the perimeter (p)
P=l+l+w+w=2l+2w=2(l+w)
Similarly,the perimeter of a square and other shapes can be found as follows:
Square.

• Draw a square on a cardboard

• Measure the lengths around the square as l,l,l and l
• Suum the measured lengths as the perimeter of a square
• the perimeter of a square P=4l
L
L L P=L+L+L+L=4L
L
Trapezium
a
c d P=a+b+c+d

b
Regular pentagon
a a
p=a+a+a+a+a=5a
a a
a

Regular hexagon a
a a p=a+a+a+a+a+a= 6a.
a a

50
 a

CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE
circle.
A circle is a plane figure bounded by one line called the circumference,which is such that all points
on the circumference are equidistance from a fixed point within.the fixed point is call the centre
of the circle.the diameter is the chord which passes through the centre of a circle.
MEASURING THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE.
There are so many ways of doing this.we shall discuss two methods under two activities.
ACTIVITY 1
You will need a cylindrical object like a milk tin,a milo tin, a paper strip,a needle and a ruler.wrap
the strip of paper around the tin so many times.using the pin or needle,make a hole through the
strip .remove the strip and you will observe several holes of equal interval on the strip.with a
ruler,measure any of the intervals and that is equal to the circumference of the cylindrical object.
Activity 2.
You will need a cylindrical object like a milk tin,milo tin and an oil paint.use the oil paint and
make a mark on the cylindrical object.roll the object gently on a cement floor.the mark of the oil
paint will make a mark on the floor measure the distance between the two marks and that is the
circumference.
The Diameter of a circle or a circular object
Determine the diameter of a circle or a circle object is not easy unless the exact centre of the object
is determined. You will need materials like two wooden blocks, a ruler and a cylindrical object
like the milo tin.perform the activities below to determine the diameter

• place a circular object e.g.milo tin such that it lies on its curved surface
• hold the Milo tin firmly between two wooden blocks
• measure the distance between the two wooden block as the diameter of the milk tin
D
Wooden block
Circular object

51
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PI (π), CIRCUMFERENCE AND THE DIAMETER
Using the methods above, let us go through the following activities to establish the relationship
between the pi (π),circumference and the diameter.what is pi? It is the ratio of the circumference
of a circle or a circular object to its diameter.to determine the pi lets follow the activities

• collect several circular objects such as milk tin,milo tin,jago tin etc
• tie a piece of string or wrap a strip of paper around each object,stretch out the string or the
strip of paper and measure out the length on a ruler.
• Record this measure as the circumference ( c) of each circular object.
• Measure the diameter (d cm) of each circular object by holding it firmly between two
wooden blocks and measure the distance between the two wooden blocks as the diameter.
• The results are recorded in a table
𝑐
Circular object Length of Length of distance Ratio 𝑑
circumference
Milk tin
Tomato tin
Geisha tin
• Calculate the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of each object
𝑐
• Notice that the ratio of the circumference to the diameter 𝑑 in all cases is approximately
3.1 or 3.2
• Explain to pupils that the approximate value which is constant for all cases is denoted by
pi (π).
𝑐
• Ie π=𝑑 is the relationship between the circumference and the diameter of a circular object
• With the previous knowledge that the ratio of the circumference (c) to diameter ( d ) equal
to pi ( π ).
𝑐
• π=𝑑 and d=r +r=2r
• therefore the circumference ( c )=2π

MEASUREMENT OF AREA.
Area is the space or surface occupied by something. In teaching the concept of area there is the
need to make our lesson very practical. We need to have the following items postage
stamps,playing cards, exercise books,cut-out squares,rectangles,geoboard and empty tins.
Direct comparison.
This is where the teacher guide pupils to bring two or more area to be placed on top of the other to
find out which of the area is larger than the other in the performance of this activities words like

52
larger than,equal and smaller than are learnt by pupils.the pupils will also become aware of
difference in area of surfaces.
Indirect comparison.
When the area of two or more surfaces ca not be brought together to be placed on top of the
other,then there is the need to introduced the use of another object as a medium to be used in
measuring the two surfaces to find out which is larger than the other e.g when you want to find out
which of the two classrooms has a larger surface area,then there is the need to use the same size of
tables exercise books or postage stamps to spread them in the two classrooms to find out which of
the classrooms has more of those objects used.this shows that the classroom that got more of those
objects used has more large surface area and these objects are called arbitrary units.
Area of plane shapes.
To help pupils to understand the area of plane shapes better, cut-out unit squares can be used in
covering a given region of squares and rectangles.e.g

Cut –out square

Guide the pupils to arrange these cut-out squares in the rectangle and find out how many of them
will cover the whole rectangle.now count them and record the number and find out those at the
rows and those at the column of the rectangle,use that to find the rule of finding the area of a
rectangle.
Relationship between the area,the length and with of a given rectangle or square.
Activity.
I. Chose some rectangles and squares with various sizes.
II. Count the number of centimeter squares of each rectangle or square.
III. Measure the length and width
IV. Multiply the length by the width.
V. Put your results in a table as shown

No. Shape No.of square Length (L ) Breadth ( B ) LXB

centimeter
1 Rectangle A
2 “ B
3 ,, C
4 Square A
5 ,, B

53
Compare the number of unit centimeter squares that could cover the face of each shape and the
corresponding product of its length and breadth.can you see a pattern? Then state it.it clear that
what emerges from our activities above is that,the area of a square or a rectangle is as shown below.

Area= length × 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ

= L𝐿 × 𝐵
We can also use the geo-board to determine the area of some shapes.
TLM:Geo-board and rubber band

• Form rectangles of different dimensions (at least 3) on the geo-board using rubber band.e.g

• Count the total number of small squares enclosed and record the result as the area.
• Count the number of squares along the length and the width of the rectangle and record the
results as L and B respectively.
• Multiply the number for L by the number for W and record the result as LXB.
• compare the product LXB with the total number of squares in (ii) above and note that they
are equal.
• The area of a rectangle or a square is the product of its length and width (L X B).
Let us extend our activities to find the area of a triangle.
AREA OF A TRIANGLE.
To find the area of a triangle,we apply the concept of area of a rectangle.let us first take a
rectangular sheet of paper as our main TLM and follow the activities below.

• Fold and cut the rectangular sheet of paper along one of its diagonal to obtain two equal
triangles from the rectangular paper.
A B A B

D C D C
1
We can now notice that one rectangle is equal to two triangles or 2 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 1 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

54
 • Relate the length of the rectangle to the base of the triangle and the width to the height of
the triangle
A L B A

W Height

D C D base C
We can now conclude that,the area of a triangle is half the area of a rectangle.
1 1
=2 (𝑙 × 𝑤) = 2 ℎ × 𝑏

AREA OF PARALLELOGRAM
Activities

• Revise your knowledge on finding the area of a rectangle

• Draw a parallelogram on a paper as shown
A E B
height

D base C

• Cut along the line CE and fix it along the side AD

Height

Base

• Take notice that the figure so formed is a rectangle

• You have to realize that length of a rectangle corresponds with the base of the
parallelogram while the breadth of the rectangle corresponds with the height of the
parallelogram.
• Find the area of the rectangle to be equal to the area of parallelogram as L X B=base x
height.
AREA OF A CIRCLE

55
To find the area of a circle,we will need a cardboard and a sharp instrument.let us now proceed
as follows

• Draw a circle of any radius on a hard cardboard and cut it out as a circular disc.
• Divide the circular disc into two equal parts and shade one halve.
• Divide the entire circle into sixteen equal sectors
• Cut out the circular disc using a pair of scissors,the sectors into sixteen pieces
• Rearrange the pieces head to tail in a rectangular form as shown

πr πr
rr

πr

r r

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

πr
• Explain that the curved edge of each semi-circle is half the circumference and therefore
1
the length 2 × 2𝜋 = 𝜋𝑟
• Multiply the length labeled as πr by the width r to get the area of the rectangular shape as
A=LXB

=πr× 𝒓
=πr2
Measurement of volume.
Volume refers to the amount of space in a given shape that has three dimention.we want to
determine the volume of several containers using arbitrary units.guide pupils to collect many bottle
tops of the same variety.provide them with various containers such as empty milk tins,chalk
box,drinking cups and so on.guide them to estimate and determine the volume of each container
in terms of the number of bottle tops.let them order the containers based on their findings.
Measurement of volumes using standard measure.

56
Guide pupils to obtain cubes and boxes like chalk boxes.guide them to estimate how many cubes
they think will fill each box.let them carefully stack the cubes in to boxes to find the actual
volume.explain to pupils that the size of each small cube is 1 cubic centimeter.
Guide pupils to get the number of 1x1 centimeter cube fill the boxes guide them also to find out
how many cubes filled the length of the box, width of the box and the height of the box. Guide
them to find the product of L×W×H.guide the pupils to form a table and record their findings.

Box Length( L) Width (W) Height (H) LXWXH Total no.of

cubes
A 2 3 2 2X3X2 12
B 3 2 3
C 2 2 2
D 4 2 1
The volume of a cylinder and a cone.
From our previous lesson we learnt that the volume of a cuboid is base area which is LXB and
the height which is LXBXH.also we earlier learnt that the area of a circle is πr2.all these will be
necessary in this lesson.
Consider,this figure below
a) Closed cylinder
It is a cylinder with circular base radius ‘ r ‘ and height ‘ h’.how then
Shall we find its volume? Find the area of the circular base and
H multiply by the height.
Rrr as such, we simply state that the volume of a cylinder=

Base area x height=πr2× ℎ =πr2h

Radius r

THE VOLUME OF A CONE.

The volume of a cone is determined by forming a cone from two rectangular sheet of paper of the
same dimension.
Use one of the sheets to form a cylinder. Use the second sheet to form a cone.
Guide the pupils to fill the cone with sand and transfer it into the cylinder to find out the number
of times the sand in the cone will fill the cylinder. Since the formula of the cylinder is 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ then
we can divide the formulae of the cylinder by the number of times the sand in the cone filled the
cylinder and that give us the formulae of the cone.

57
 Activities
1. Guide the pupils to take two similar shape of a rectangular sheet of paper.
2. Guide them to take one sheet to form a cylinder.
3. Guide them to form a cone from the second sheet.
4. Take the cone fill it with sand and transfer it into the cylinder.
5. Guide them to find out the number of times the content of the cone will fill the cylinder.
6. Guide them to conclude.

First sheet of paper cylinder formed out of the sheet.

Second sheet of paper cone formed out of the sheet.

UNIT SEVEN
TEACHING GEOMETRICAL SHAPES AND CONSTRUCTION
Plane shapes
Plane shapes are considered to be shapes that are two dimensional; we can only find their area by
using length and breadth or width. We cannot calculate their volume, because they do not have
height.
We normally consider plane shapes as i) circle ii) triangles iii) quadrilateral .etc.

58
The first shape which children learn to recognize is the circle. The distance around a circle is called
the circumference. All points on the circumference are equal distance from the fixed points called
the centre.
A circle has a radius which is referred to as the distance from the centre to the circumference.
Chord is the lines that join two points on the circumference.
Diameter is the chord which passes through the centre.
Semi-circle is half of a circle
Quadrants are formed when a circle is divided into four parts each part is called a quadrant.
Sector is the area that is formed by two radii.
Arc is part of a circumference we have major and minor arcs.
Segment is the area formed by a chord and an arc; we have major and minor segments.
Quadrilateral.
Quadrilaterals are plane shapes bounded by four straight lines. We have different categories of
quadrilaterals. We may sort quadrilaterals by using three criteria’s as shown;
a) How many sides are equal?
b) How many pair of sides is parallel?
c) How many angles are equal?
Types of quadrilaterals
1. KITE;-it has one pair of opposite angles equal and adjacent sides equal.

2. Trapezium; - it has one pair of opposite sides parallel

H

3. Parallelogram;-it has two pair of opposite sides parallel and has 2 pair of opposite sides also
equal.

59
4. Rectangle; - it has 4 equal angles, these angles are right angles. It also parallelograms which
mean that 2 of the two opposite sides are parallel and equal.

5. Rhombus;-it has four equal sides and can be referred to as a rickety square.

6. Square;-it has four equal angles and four equal sides.

How do we teach children plane shapes?

You can teach plane shapes by dueling so much on the properties of the shapes.
1. Use the manila cards to prepare the shapes.
2. Put the pupils in to groups of 5 members
3. Give each group all types of the prepared shapes
4. You the teacher must also have all the prepared shapes with you.
5. Pick a shape and let each group also pick the same type of shape. Guide them to identify
the characteristics of the shape and write them on the board. Find out from the pupils how
that kind of shape can be called. If they’re not able to mention the name, then you mention
it to them.

Triangles

60
 A triangle is a plane shape bounded by three sides. It has three sides and three angles. If
two sides are equal then two angles will also be equal, if three sides are equal then three
angles will also be equal.

Types of triangles
Triangles can be grouped in terms of how many sides are equal, how many angles are
equal. In terms of sides, we have three triangles and in terms of angles we have three, in
all we have six types ‘of triangles.
In terms sides have i) scalene triangle.ii) isosceles triangle and iii) equilateral triangles.

Scalene triangle isosceles triangle equilateral triangle

scalene triangle; - it is a triangle with no sides and no angle is equal.
Isosceles triangle; - it is a triangle with two sides equal and two angles equal. In isosceles triangle
the third side is called the base the two angles are base angles and they are equal. The third angle
is called the vertical angle. From the vertical angle you can divide the base line in to two equal
parts.
Equilateral triangle; - it is a triangle with all the three sides and all the three angles are equal. It
has each angle equal to 600.
In terms of angles.
we have i) Acute angles triangle, ii) obtuse angles triangle.iii) right angle triangle.

Acute angle triangle Obtuse angle triangle Right angle triangle

An acute angle triangle:-it is a triangle with all the angles less than 900.
An obtuse angle triangle:-it is a triangle with one angle greater than 900.
A right angle triangle:-it is a triangle with one angle is 900.the side which is opposite to 900 is
called the hypotenuse.
Solid shapes.
Common solids

61
Solid shapes are shapes that are three dimensional, they have length, breadth and the height, and
therefore their volumes can be calculated.
Identification of solid shapes.
Solid shapes can be grouped in to three categories known as i) prisms ii)pyramids iii) spheres.
Prisms:-these are the solid shapes that have a uniform cross section.prisms are named after the
shape of its end face.
Examples of prisms are:-
Cubes ,

Cuboids,

Cylinder

,triangular prism

,pentagonal prism

62
Pyramids:-these are the solid shapes that have all their points projected to meet at a point called
apex. A pyramid is named after the face with the greater number of edges.
Examples of pyramids are:-

Triangular pyramid, Rectangular pyramid

, Pentagonal pyramid, Circular pyramid.

Spheres:-
They have round shape. Example is the shape like orange, football, tennis ball etc.

Identification of faces, edges and vertices

With the use of everyday objects, the teacher must help children to identify faces, edges
and vertices of solid objects. A solid object may have flat, curved or both flat and curved surface.
Solids which look like chalk box, have flat surfaces, solids like oranges or balls have round or
curve surfaces and solid like Milo tins are partly flat and partly round. The surfaces of a solid
object are divided into different regions and each region is called a face.

Two faces meet in an edge; some edges are straight while others are curved. A corner where
two or more edges meet is called a vertex. Curve surface Flat face
Vertex
Flat face curved edge
Straight edge

63
 Guide the pupils to draw a table and identify number of edges, number of faces and
number of vertices that any solid shape have.

Name of solids Number of faces (F) Number of edges (E) Number of vertices
(V)
Cuboids 6 12 8
Cylinder 2 2 0
Pentagonal prism 7 15 10
Square pyramid 5 8 5
Triangular pyramid 4 6 4
Triangular prism 5 9 6
Cube 6 12 8
Cone 2 1 1
Sphere 1 0 0

Teacher must guide the pupils to draw all the shapes correctly and also guide them to
identify the various face, edges and vertices. Guide the pupils to be able to determine the
relationship between the number of faces, the number of edges and the number of vertices. You
may notice that F+V-2=E.
NET OF SOLIDS.
Making solids from Nets
Practical work on volumes and area of curved surface can be associated with geometrical
work on nets of solids.children should draw nets of solid shapes,cut them out and fold them to
form the various solids.
Let children use cards to make the following nets and fold them to form the solids.

a) prism
Net of Cuboids

64
 Net of Cylinder

b) Pyramid :- triangular pyramid rectangular pyramid

The idea of locus

Locus is the path of points which move in a plane in relation to other points in a plane.at the
elementary work,we may talk about four different types of locus.these locus are usually drived
from our basic constructions.
a. The circle:this is the locus(path) of points which moves in such a way that its distances
from a fixed point like o is always the same ie .the circle is the locus which is equidistance
from one point.
Note :the fixed point is the centre and the distance is the radius.
radius

locus

65
 centre
b. The perpendicular bisector (mediator )
This is the locus of points which moves in such a way that its distance from two fixed
points say A and B are always equal ie equidistance from two points.

A B

c. The Bisector of an angle

This is the path of point which moves in such away that its distance from two intersection
rays of angle are always equal ie thay are equidistant from two lines
A

B Locus

C
d. The parallel lines
This is the path of points which moves in such away that its distance from a line say AB is
always the same ie it is equidistant from a line.

A B

66
Take students through to construct

• Copy angles
• Constructing angles- 900 ,450 ,600,300.
• Triangles
• Regular hexagon.
COPYING OF ANGLES
Transfer of the value of an angle to another position is what we called copying of angle.
Activities
1. Guide the pupils to draw a horizontal line and name it AB.
2. Guide the pupils to measure the length of the line that cuts the lines of the angle.
3.guide them to place the compass point at the beginning of the angle and describe an arc.
4.let pupils measure the length of the arc at the given angle and transfer it to the new angle.
5. guide the pupils to draw a line from the beginning to cut the arc that was described.

CONSTRUCTION OF ANGLES 900 ,450,600 AND 300.

An angle is form when two or more lines meet and created space.
When one makes a turn an angle is formed.
e.g
This is an angle
This is also an angle

Constructing 900
Activities

67
 • Guide the pupils to draw a horizontal line AB.
• Guide them to mark a point on the line AB.
• Guide them to place the compass point on the marked point and describe a
semicircle.
• Guide them to put the compass at the place where the semicircle ends and make
an arc.
• Guide them to place it at the second point and describe another arc again. Where
the two arcs meet, draw a line to meet the point marked on line AB.

Constructing of Angle 450

Angle 450 is half of angle 900
Activities

• Guide the pupils to bisect angle 900 for them to get angle 450

Constructing of Angle 600

In constructing angle 600 ,the following activities must be carried out.

• Guide the pupils to draw line AB.

• Guide them to make a mark on line AB.
• Guide them to stand on the marked point on line AB and draw a semicircle.
• Let them maintain the radius of the compass
• Stand on the point where you started the semicircle and mark on the arc.
• Join the line from the marked point to line AB.

Constructing of Angle 300

In constructing angle 300 the following Activities must be carried out

• Angle 600 has been constructed already therefore the next thing to do is to bisect angle
600 to get your 300.
Construction of Triangles
Triangles can be constructed when the following conditions are given.
a) Three sides
b) Two sides including angle
c) Two angles and a side
d) Right angle hypotenuse and another side.

68
 Construction of Triangle with three sides.
Construct triangle PQR such that PQ=8cm, QR=5cm, PR=6cm
Steps
a) With a ruler and a compass draw the line PQ=8cm
b) With centre P and radius 6cm draw an arc
c) With the centre Q and radius 5cm draw an arc to meet the first arc at R.The point R will
then be 5cm from Q and 6cm from P.
d) Complete the triangle by drawing straight line PR and QR.

Construction of Triangle with two sides and one angle.

Construct triangle ABC with AB=8cm,BC=6.5cm, and angle ABC=450
Steps
a) Make a rough sketch of the triangle
b) Draw line AB=8cm
c) Construct angle 450 at B
d) With B as centre and 6.5cm as radius make an arc intersecting the line making 450
with AB at C.
e) Join AC to complete the triangle.

Constructing triangle with two angles and one side.

Construct triangle STR such that ST=7cm angle STR=450 and angle TSR=300 .
Steps.
a) Make a rough sketch
b) Draw line ST=7cm
c) Construct angle 450 at T
d) Construct angle 300 at S
e) Let the two lines meet at R to describe the required triangle.
Construction of a regular Hexagon
A hexagon is a polygon with six sides. To construct a regular polygon we draw a circle of a
given radius and divide the circle into equal angles .for 5 sided polygon,
3600 3600
Angle= 5
= 720 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 6 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑, 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 6
= 600

69
Construct a regular Hexagon of sides 3 cm.
Steps
a) Draw a circle of radius 3cm
b) Using the same radius as the circle, place the compass point anywhere on the
circumference and draw an arc on the circumference.
c) Place the point of the compass at the end of the arc and draw another arc on the
circumference.
d) Repeat the process until you get to the point where you started it.
e) Join the arcs with the straight lines to complete the diagram.

UNIT EIGHT
TEACHING OF NUMBER PLANE
In this lesson we shall be discussing the number plane. This will lead us to how to plot and locate
points on the X-Y plane.

70
We first of all use classroom arrangement, how tables and chairs are arranged in the class. Let
pupils understand that the front desks horizontally is the first row and the desks that are arranged
vertically is called the column

7
Rows 6 A
5
4 B
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
Columns
Guide the pupils to identify the sitting positions of pupils in the class in identifying the position,
we read from the column first before the row therefore we get a point like (column.row). Guide
them to identify the position of A using column and row.let them understand that the point A is
plotted there using a point from the column and another from the row so that gives us (2,6) this
point is what we called ordered pair.
Guide the pupils to translate the classroom situation on to the board.
Points in a plane.
A point in a plane is made up of an ordered pair usually denoted by (a,b) where ‘a’ is a number
from the horizontal axis and ‘b’ from vertical axis.to fix the position of a point in a plane,we use
two straight lines cutting each other at right angles.these two lines fix our directions. The point of
intersection of the two lines is called the origin which is denoted by ‘o’.all measurements is taken
from the point of intersection ‘o’.Units of distances are marked off on the two intersecting
lines,starting from the origin.we measure positive in one direction and negative in the other. The
line drawn horizontally is called the x-axis and the one drawn vertically is called the y-axis.the
plane containing these axes is called Cartesian plane.
Let us go through the following activities to locate and plot points on the Cartesian plane.

• Draw the horizontal and vertical axes on a graph sheet and label their points of intersection
O as the origin.
• Mark and label each of the axes with numbers of equal intervals and divisions.
• Identify the co-ordinates of a point as an ordered pair (x,y) ie.where the first co-ordinate
represent ‘x’ the distance of the point from the origin along the horizontal axis and the
second co-ordinate represent ‘y’ as the distance along the vertical axis.

71
 • Assist pupils to locate and plot points on the number plane for any given co-ordinates.

EXAMPLE.
A JHS1 pupil thought that (4,5) and (5,4) represent the same point on a number plane.show and
explain how you would help the child to understand that the two are different points.

SOLUTION

• Guide pupils to draw and label the x and y axes on a graph sheet.
• Guide pupils to note that (4,5) is 4 units along the x-axis (horizontal line) from the origin
and 5 units measured along the y-axis (vertical lin) from the origin.
• For the point (5,4),help pupils to note that first number 5 is measured along the x axis and
4 measured along the y-axis from the origin.

5 ------------------------ (4, 5)
4 ------------------------------ (5, 4)
3
2
1
+ + + + + + + o + + + + +
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-2
-3
-4

• Help pupils to locate and plot the two points as shown above
• Hence as shown on the number plane the two points are different.
EXAMPLE II
How would you guide a child to locate the points ( 2,5 ) and ( 3, 2 ) on the Cartesian plane.

72
SOLUTION

• Draw and label an a graph sheet the X and Y axes.

• Guide the pupils to plot the point (2,5 ) by moving 2 units from the origin along the x-axis
and 5 units from the origin along the y-axis.
• Also, the point (3, 2),guide them to move 3 units along the x-axis and 2 units along y-axis
from the origin.
• Guide the pupils to plot the points on the graph sheet as shown
5 ------- ( 2,5 )
4
3
2 ----------- ( 3,2 )
1
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2
-3
-4
STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS.
Ask the pupils to perform the following activity

• Using a scale of 2 cm to 1 unit on both axes draw two perpendicular axes ox and oy on a
graph sheet
• On the same graph sheet, mark the x-axis from -5 to 5 and the y-axis from -6 to 6.
1 1
• Plot on the same graph sheet the points A (1,12),B (4,12) and C (1,4)
• Join the points to form a triangle. What type of triangle have you drawn?
Gradient of a Straight Line.
Consider a straight line which passes through the points P (2, 3 ) and Q (5,6).If we take x-axis as
the horizontal and the line through and P and Q as a road,then,if you walk from P to Q.You would
rise by a vertical distance FQ.whilst at the same time you move a horizontal distance PF.
𝐹𝑄 6−3 3
The gradient of the road is=𝑃𝐹 = 5−3 = 3 = 1

Instead of using the two points P and Q,we could have consider any other two points say A and B
𝑂𝐵 1−0 1
on the line. In this way the gradient would be expressed as: 𝐴𝑂=0−(−1) = 1 = 1

73
 𝐹𝑄
This is the same as 𝑃𝐹

Y
7
6 Q(5,6)
5
4
3 -------------------- F
2 P (2,3)
1 B
A + + + + + +
-1 1 2 3 4 5

𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦
The Gradient of the straight line is therefore taking as 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 in moving from one point on the
line to another.this means in moving from point A to point B.
𝑦−𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵−𝑦−𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
The gradient = 𝑥−𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵−𝑋−𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑅𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐴𝑇𝐸 𝑂𝐹𝐴

𝑦2−𝑦1
Thus if A is (x1,y1) and B is (x2,y2 ) then gradient of AB= 𝑥2−𝑥1

Example 1
Go through this example with your children.find the gradient of the line joining the following pair
of points a) A(4,2) and B(7,11) b) P(-2,-3) and Q(4,6) c) T(4,6) and S(5,-3)

GRAPH OF LINEAR FUNCTIONS (straight lines)

Let us consider the mapping which shows the relationship between the domain X and the range Y
X -1 0 1 2 3

74
Y -1 1 3 5 7
We see that the rule of the mapping is x 2x+1 ie y=2x+1 if we mark the domain of the
relation (the x’s) on the horizontal axis and the range ( the y’s) on the vertical axis y-axis, we will
notice that the set of the ordered pairs lie on the straight line. Guide the pupils to draw the graph.
Guide the pupils to design activities to teach congruent and similar shapes and symmetry.
Guide them to teach images of shapes under translation, reflection, rotation and enlargement.
Transformation
Transformations are actions carried out on shapes. The actions of the operations upon the
geometrical figures may change the shape,size or position of figures.
Transformation may therefore be taken as the mapping between two points,plane shapes or solid
figures.
Types of transformation.
i) Translation
ii) Reflection
iii) Rotation
iv) Enlargement
Translation
This is a movement in which all the points of a figure move by the same distance in a certain
direction.
A translation transforms or maps each of the points of a figure into another point in a certain
distance away in a given direction.these points are called the images of original points.
Examples of translation in every day life are:
a) The motion of a car on a smooth (flat) straight road.
b) The movement of your chair nearer your table in a straight line.
To understand translation we go through these activities.
Activities 1
Identification of Congruent Shapes.
Congruent shapes have the same shape and same size.
In this activity shapes are placed on a table. One shape is taken and children are asked to pick
shapes which are congruent to the picked shape. Congruent cut out shapes or figures may be
used. Ensure that there will be shapes that will be congruent and those that will not be congruent.

75
Activity 2
Sliding of shapes
Children are asked to slide or change the positions of given objects without turning, to a given
distance to explain translation as a movement in a straight line.

A 3units A1 2units A2

B B1 B2

C C1 C2
Shape ABC is slide forward 3cm to shape A1B1C1 from this position it is slide forward 2cm to
A2B2C2 .
Activity using Geoboard.Dot paper or Square paper
Shapes are made n a geoboard and pupils are asked to translate in a given distance and direction.
2. Use a rubber band to form a shape on a geoboard
3. Identify each point of the shape
4. Move each point to another point with the same distance and direction
5. Measure the size of the shape at the new position.
What we should look for
1. The original shape is the same as the new shape.
2. Each point moves in the same vertical direction and the same horizontal direction.
3. Children must discover that.
The above activity is best used to introduce translation.
Activity to describe Translation using Numbers (Translation vector)
In this activity we could use dot paper or graph sheet.
Let children draw two perpendicular axes OX and OY on a graph sheet using 2cm to 2 units on
both axes.
Plot on the grap sheet the points (0,2),(2,1),(2,-1),(0,-2),(-2,-1),(-2,1).join the points with straight
lines to form a shape.

76
On the same graph sheet plot the point (5,4),(7,3) (7,1),(5,0),(3,1),(3,3) and join the points with
straight lines to form a shape .children should study the two shapes on the graph sheet. The
shapes can be taken as an object and its image under translation.
Help pupils to complete the following table given the co-ordinates of shapes before and after the
transformation.
BEFORE AFTER.
(0,-2) (5,0)
(0,2) (5,4)
(2,1) (7,3)
(2,-1) (7,1)
(-2,-1) (3,1)
(-2,1) (3,3).
Let children answer questions like
Question ;- what relationship is there between the x-co-ordinate before and after?
Answer ;-it is increased by 5
Question;-what relationship is there between the y-co-ordinate before and after?
Answer;-it is increased by 2.
Question ;-how could you describe this translation using number?
Answer;- it is discovered that translation can be represented by a number.
The first number represents movement along the x-axis (horizontal) and the second number
represents movement along the y-axis (vertical).in the example shown above each point is moved
or translated 5 places to the right along the x-axis and 2 places upwards along the y-axis.in
5
mathematics, the movement can be represented using the notation ( ).this is what we called the
2
translation vector.from the above activity we may see that a translation may be represented by
𝑥 𝑥+𝑝 𝑝
the mapping of co-ordinates as (𝑦) → (𝑦 + 𝑞 ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 (𝑞 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.

REFLECTION.
Like translation, a reflection is also a transformation of one set of points to another set of points.
In reflection a shape is flipped over a line. In teaching reflection, we can use the analogy of
looking into the mirror. Let children see the difference in reflection and looking in to the mirror.
In transformation we normally carry out reflection on two dimensional shape,which is drawn on

77
paper.the image is real as original shape.the image we see in the mirror is vitual,we can not touch
it and if we look behind the mirror we can not see it.
For the understanding of transformation of reflection,the children must understand the
mathematical properties of reflection.this must be done through activities below.
Activity 1
Paper folding and cutting along a common line.
Children fold a piece of paper into half and cut a shape or shapes from the double thickness.they
open out the piece of paper and compare the shape on either side of the fold.
Activity 2.
Place an object before a mirror.look into the mirror to see patterns of symmentarical shape.the
object in front is moved backwards and forward.they will notice that the image will also behave
in the same manner.
Activity 3.
Making congruent shape on fold paper.
Let children take a piece of paper and fold it in to half.on one side of the fold let them draw a
simple polygon and label the vertixes A,B,C etc.
With the paper still folded,let the children push a pin through each of the vertices.on the back of
the other have of the paper label the pin holes A1,B1,C1 etc.ask the children to join up the points
with a pencil and then unfold the paper.
They will notice that the shapes are the mirror image of the other.let the children join the points
AA1,BB1,CC1, etc and label the points where the lines cross the fold of the paper TSR.what angle
do these lines make with the fold of the paper?.
Measure and compare AT and A1T,BR and B1R and CS and C1S.
question;-what conclusion can you make?
Answer ;- it develops the idea that each point and its image are the same perpendicular distance
from the line of reflection but on opposite sides of it. AT=A1T,BR=B1R,CS=C1S.
The above activities will develop the following properties in children.
1. The movement that takes a shape on to a corresponding shape over a line is called a
reflection in the line which is the fold of the paper/mirror line or line of reflection
2. In a reflection a point and its image are at equal distance from the mirror line and other
opposite sides.
3. The line joining a point to its image is perpendicular to the mirror line.
4. Any point on the mirror line is its own image.
5. The size of angle is not changed, however, the sense of reflection is reversed and the
length of a line is not changed.

78
 6. To describe a reflection, you only need the line of reflection.
To draw an image of an object on graph sheet children should apply the above properties but not
formula. The formula under the reflection will be developed latter on.
Example.

Draw on a sheet of graph paper, two perpendicular axes OX and OY for -6≤ 𝑥 ≤ 8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6 ≤ 𝑦 ≤
12. mark the following points A(2,2),B(-1,1),C(1,1),D(2,8),E(4,7),F(3,10),G(1,5),H(2,5),K(2,6).
1. Draw A1B1C1, the reflection of ABC in the X-axis. Write down the co-ordinates of
A1B1C1.
2. Draw D1E1F1 the reflection of DEF in the y-axis. Write down the co-ordinates of
D1E1F1.
3. Draw A2B2C2 the reflection of ABC in the line x=-2.write down the co-ordinates of
A2B2C2 .
4. Draw a square G1H1J1K1,the reflection of GHJK in the line y=x.write down the co-
ordinates of G1H1J1K1,
ROTATION.
A rotation is a transformation of movement which is achieved by turning. Rotation is the
mathematical term for turning. a rotation takes place about a point from a given distance and it
has a size, which is measured in terms of an angle. The angles usually given in degrees.
The centre of rotation can be either inside or outside the figure.in our everyday activities we
come across turning objects.for example we turn our heads to look at some one,the knbs of radio
sets are turned.the tap turn on and off.the door turns on its hinges.
Rotation is measured in degrees like bearing but bearing is measured clockwise,a rotation is
measured in ant-clockwise direction.anti-clockwise rotation is positive and clockwise rotation is
negative.
In rotation, a point and its image is at the same distance from the centre of rotation.every line
through the centre of rotation is turned through the same angle.
A rotation can be described by given the centre of rotation and the angle of rotation.the centre of
rotation is the only point that does not move.
A rotation of 1800 is called a half turn.in a half turn, a line and its images are parallel but in
opposite directions and the line joining a point to its image passes through the centr of rotation.
To develop the concept of rotation in children,they must go through activities like;-
Activity 1
Turning objects in everyday life.
Children must be asked to turn their heads to look at friends sitting beside them.they may also
turn the door handle to open or close the door in its hinges.in this activity,clockwise rotation and
anti-clockwise rotation must be explained.
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Activity 2
On a geo-board the children are asked to make shapes of their choice.the shapes are turn abour a
marked point.
Activity 3
Turning cut-out shapes.
Make cut –out shapes of simple polygons.label points ABC……etc.
Trace the cut-out shapes on a paper.fit the cut out shape on its outline.mark a point either inside
or out side the cut out shape.rotate the cut out shape about the point at an angle.trace the new
position of the cut out shape.
Activity 4
Drawing with ruler and protector.
Draw any simple polygon say rectangle ABCD, suppose we want to rotate it about point o
outside the shape at an angle 900.draw OB1 Making 900 with OB and OB=OB1.

UNIT NINE
COLLECTING AND HANDLING DATA,CHANCE
Statistics is a branch of mathematics that involves the collection of information and then decides
how to display, interpret and use the information.

80
There are two main tasks involved in statistics
a) To collect and describe measurement
b) To make estimates where all measurements are known.
The information which is collected is usually referred to as data. The data is quite often in
numerical form. There are different forms of data which is involved in statistics eg. Records of
rainfall, weather records, population census count, patients treated at health centre, arrival and
departures at an airport, examination results etc.
A data may be discrete or continuous. A continuous data may have values like16.3, 3.13, 6.08
etc. for example finding the height of a pupil in a class.
A discrete data however cannot have values of decimal part or fractional part. Only whole
numbers are possible. For example the number of patients treated at a health centre.
To introduce statistics to children
a) Lead pupils with real examples to appreciate importance of statistics in everyday life, for
example keeping records of
i.rainfall for farming purpose ii.goods sold in a shop to determine what customers buy
most.
b).let children collect data using the school or class as a source of data collection. For
example they may be asked to find;
• The day of month on which the birth of each person in the class occurs
• The height of pupils in the class
• The ages of pupils in the class etc.
(c ).when the children have collected the data,they will need to make decisions about the
data.how it will be used,how it may be presented and finally what it means.
Sources and Collection of Data.
Lead pupils to identify the various areas where data can be collected eg.

• Election results in the school

• Sales of commodities on the market
• Height of pupils in the school or class
• Imports and exports
• Ages of pupils in the class.
• Examination marks in a class.

Method of Collecting Data.

Data may be collected by the following methods
• Experimentation
• Questionnaire

81
 • Survey
To collect information, the first thing to do is to decide what type of information is to be
collected. After this you think of the appropriate method to be used. An information like ages of
pupils in a class, the day of birth of pupils may be collected using questionnaire if the data is
huge but if small data we can use interview.
Organization of Data.
When data is collected,it is often difficult to analyse or even understand the data unless it is
sorted out or organized in a table form.

• This table is what we called frequency distribution table

Presentation of Data.
Data can be presented in graphs and in charts form.these are

• Pictogram
• Block graph
• Bar chart
• Histogram
• Pie chart
• Cumulative frequency curve or Ogave
Collection of raw data.
This is the data which has not been organized but presented in the form as it was collected e.g the
test scores (out of 10) collected for 40 pupils in class.3 4 7 5 6 9 4 2 7 6 5 4 6 9 10 5 6 6
7 7 0 5 5 3 8 9 1 2 7 5 6 2 7 6 5 4 9 9 5 6.The above data can be organized in
frequency distribution table

Scores Tally Frequency

0 / 1
1 / 1
2 // 2
3 // 2
4 //// 4
5 //// // 7
6 //// //// 10
7 //// / 6
8 // 2
9 //// 4
10 / 1
Stem-and –leaf plot
For a stem and lesf plot,we break the data into two.usually the last digit of the data becomes the
leaf and the first digit is the stem.a key is made to show how the number is broken.

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Example
Make a stem and leaf plot to represent the data below.
12 23 14 35 29 25
34 31 16 27 25 16
26 25 19 20 21 18
Solution
1 2 4 6 6 9 8
2 3 9 5 7 5 6 5 0 1
3 5 4 1

Key 1 2 means 12

Example
Make a stem –and –leaf –plot to represent the data below
112 123 114 135 129 125
134 131 116 127 125 116
127 125 120 121 122 118

Solution
11 2 4 6 6 9
12 3 9 5 7 5 7 5 0 1 2
13 5 4 1

Key 11 2 means 112

Pictograph or Pictogram
In pictogram, we select something in the form of a symbol, picture or diagram to represent a
given quantity, size or numbers of things we are measuring and then express the given data in
83
terms of these pictograms are useful with young children since they are interesting and
understanding. In using pictogram key must be given to give the meaning of the picture.
For example the following is the result of a survey conducted in a class of a J H S, to find the
favorable soft drink of each people in the class.

Soft Drink Number of pupils Soft Drink Number of pupils

Coca-cola 6 Coca-cola
Pepsi-cola 5 Pepsi-cola
Pee-cola 8 Pee-cola
Fanta 3 Fanta
Muscatel 5 Muscatella
Mirinda 4 Mirinda
Club Cola 6 Club cola
Sprite 3 Sprite
Frequency table Pictogram
The above information can be represented by a pictogram as shown = one child
In the example above each tin represents one child but if the number of children were very large
we could use one tin for say 20 children
Consider the following table which shows the distribution of voters in an election for class
prefect

Name Number of votes Name Number of votes

Ankomah 6 Ankomah
Borquaye 12 Borquaye
commey 18 Commey
yaw 15 Yaw

In this data we could use to represent 3 people.

Block Graphs
Like the pictogram the block graphs are very simple to construct.the block graph is made up of
simple rectangles or squares.this can be constructed by pupils using concrete materials like
match boxes,milk tins etc.
For example let pupils use match boxes or milk tins to build a block graph on their table using
the data of soft drinks above

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 Pepsi-cola fanta mirinda sprite
Coca-cola pee-cola muscatella club-cola
Let pupils see that the spaces between blocks must be of the same width since the materials used
to build the blocks are of the same shape.the pupils must use the blocks themselves.from the
diagram we can see that a block graph does not need a vertical axis.
Using simple data to calculate the mean,median and the mode.
AVERAGES:MODE ,MEDIAN,MEAN.
So far we have considered data collection and organization of data.once data have been collected
and organized,we should be able to understand and communicate the result to the others.for
example,if a pupil records the amount of time spent watching television each day for 10 days
period,these 10 numbers can be replaced by ‘typical’ number or a ‘central’ number to describe the
amount of time in general that pupils watch television.tn this section we shall consider some three
of such numbers called mode,median,and mean (also called averages).the mode and median are
introduced in primary class 5 while mean is introduced in primary 6.
Finding the mode.
Finding mode or median is introduced in primary 5.in guiding pupils to find the mode of a set of
numbers,let them give you their ages,write the ages on the chalkboard as they give you.you will
realize that most of the pupils are about 11 years,though few may be 10 years or 12 or even 13.the
age of majority of them (the most typical age) is what we call the mode.if in the class,majority of
the pupils are 11 years old,then the modal age in the class is 11 years.for example,if a class of 20
pupils,their ages are given as follows
11,12,13,11,13,12,11,11,12,11,12,13,11,13,11,12,12,11,11,13
We realize the most typical or common age is 11.so the mode of the set of numbers above is 11.
The stem-and-leaf-plot may also be used to find the mode of a set of numbers.for example,the
number the occurs most is 23 in the figure below

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 1 1 2 6
2 2 3 3 3 8
3 2 4 5

Finding The Median.

As the name indicates,median is the central number of a set of data.however,the central number
can be arrived at only when the numbers have been arranged in order of magnitude.for example,to
find the median of the numbers 2,4,3,5,2,7,8,7, and 2, we first re-arrange the numbers in order of
magnitude as 2,2,2,3,4,5,7,7,8.
There are nine numbers in all,four to the left of 4 and also four to the right of 4.hence the median
is 4.here,the number of items is odd (ie 9) and selecting the middle number leaves equal number
of items on each side of the middle one.another example is to find the median of the set of
numbers:12,22,16,11,23,28,23,32,23,35,34,37,38.again,we re-arrang the numbers in order of
magnitude as:
11,12,16,22.23,23 ,28,32,34,35,37,38.
Again the middle number is 23.
Note :
The arrangement of the numbers in order of magnitude can be in ascending order (as example
above) or descending order.
In the above examples, the numbers of items involved are all odd. When the number of items
involved is even, then we find the median as the average of the two middle numbers when the
numbers are arranged I order of magnitude.
For the set of the numbers 12,22,16.11,23,28,23,32,32,35,34,37,38,39, the number of items
involved is 14 (which is an even number).to find the median of these numbers we first re-arrange
them in order of magnitude.
39,38,37,35,34,32 ,32,28,23,23,22,16,12,11
The median should be at the middle place where the vertical thick line is drawn. But there is no
number there, hence we find the average of the two middle numbers ie 28 and 32.therefore the
28+32 60
median= 2 = 2 = 30

Let pupils find the median age of the class.

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Finding Mean of a Set of Data
in the above example we saw that the average of two numbers is given by the sum and dividing
the sum by two.extend this idea by asking pupils to find the average age of 2,3,4 and 5 pupils in
the class.after going through these activities children will realize that to find mean or average of a
set of numbers, we first find the sum of the numbers and divide the sum by the number of items
involved. For example,the mean of the st of numbers: 2,2,3,5,6,6,7,9 is given by
2+2+3+5+6+6+7+9 40
mean= = =5
8 8

Let children find their mean age and mean height.

.

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