CHAPTER 7 NOTES

1. ENCODING: GETTING INFORMATION INTO MEMORY

Attention means focusing on specific stimuli or events while ignoring others

Selective attention Is the ability to filter out distractions and focus on certain inputs

Research shows that the brain can only handle one attention demanding task at a time
meaning that multitasking can have negative impacts.

According to Craik and Lockhart's theory, we can process information at different levels:

• Structural encoding: It’s a shallow processing that emphasises the physical structure
of the stimulus. For example, if words are flashed on a screen, structural encoding
registers such things as how the words are printed (capital, lowercase and so on) or
their length (how many letters). (shallow)
• Phonemic encoding: This level is a bit deeper and involves focusing on how the
words sound. For example, saying the words out loud or silently in your head.
(intermediate)
• Semantic encoding: This is the deepest level of processing. It involves thinking about
the meaning of the words and what they represent. For example, considering what
actions or objects the words describe. (deep)

Other dimensions that can enrich the encoding process:

• Elaboration: Semantic encoding can often be enhanced through a process
called elaboration – the linking of a stimulus to other information at the time of
encoding. For example, if you learn that phobias can be caused by classical
conditioning and relate this to your own fear of spiders, you are engaging in
elaboration. This process creates multiple connections in your mind, making the
information more memorable.
• Visual imagery: Means forming a mental picture of what you want to remember. It
helps in encoding the information more effectively. Some words, like "juggler," are
easy to visualize because they represent concrete objects, while abstract words like
"truth" are harder to visualize. According to Allan Paivio's dual-coding theory, using
 both a visual code (picture) and a semantic code (meaning) creates a stronger memory
because it provides two ways to remember the information.

STORAGE: MAINTAINING INFORMATION IN MEMORY

Theories of memory have often been shaped by the technology available at the time. Early
theorists like Aristotle and Plato compared memory to a wax tablet, where memories were
impressions stamped into the wax. The clearer and longer-lasting the impression, the stronger
the memory.

The most influential model was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968, 1971). According
to this model, memory has three main stages:

Sensory Memory:

• Sensory memory is a brief storage system that retains information in its original
sensory form (e.g., visual, auditory, or tactile) for a very short time, usually just a
fraction of a second.
• It allows the sensation of visual patterns, sounds, or touches to linger momentarily
after the original stimulus is gone.

Example:

• When you move a light quickly in a circle in the dark, you see a complete circle even
though there's only a single point of light. This is due to sensory memory retaining the
image briefly, allowing you to perceive continuity.

Short-Term Memory (STM):

• Short-term memory is a limited-capacity storage system that holds unrehearsed

information for approximately 20 seconds.
• Information can be retained for longer if rehearsal (the process of repetitively
verbalizing or thinking about information) is used. For instance, repeating a phone
number helps keep it in short-term memory until you can dial it.

Durability of Storage:
 • Without rehearsal, information decays rapidly. Research by Peterson and Peterson
(1959) demonstrated that participants could recall consonants poorly after just 15
seconds when prevented from rehearsing them. This indicated that information in
short-term memory is lost quickly, and it was later suggested that interference from
new information is a significant factor in this loss.

Capacity of Storage:

• The capacity of short-term memory is limited. George Miller (1956) proposed that
people can typically remember about seven items (plus or minus two).
• However, more recent research by Nelson Cowan (2010) suggests that the capacity
might actually be closer to four items, emphasizing that covert rehearsal and chunking
(grouping items into larger units) can increase recall capacity.
• Chunking helps to overcome the limitations of short-term memory by allowing
individuals to remember larger groups of familiar stimuli as single units. For example,
remembering "FNB" as one chunk is easier than remembering "F," "N," and "B"
separately

Working Memory

• Evolution: Short-term memory is now considered part of a more complex system

known as working memory, proposed by Alan Baddeley.
• Components: Baddeley’s model includes:
1. Phonological Loop: Manages auditory information.
2. Visuospatial Sketchpad: Manages visual and spatial information.
3. Central Executive: Directs attention and processing.
4. Episodic Buffer: Integrates information across different modalities and
connects to long-term memory.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

• Definition: An unlimited capacity store for information lasting indefinitely.

• Storage Views:
o One view suggests that all information is stored permanently, while forgetting
is due to retrieval issues.
 o An alternative view posits that some memories may fade or disappear over
time.
• Flashbulb Memories: These vivid recollections of significant events provide insight
into long-term memory. However, studies show that these memories can be inaccurate
and fade over time, contradicting the idea of permanent memory storage.

Key Takeaways

• Short-term memory is limited in duration and capacity but can be extended through
rehearsal and chunking.
• Working memory expands on the concept of short-term memory, incorporating
multiple components for processing information.
• Long-term memory is more complex, with evidence suggesting that while some
memories may last a lifetime, inaccuracies and forgetting do occur, challenging the
notion of permanent storage.

FEATURE Sensory memory Short term Long term

memory memory
Main encoding Copy of input Largely phonemic Largely semantic
format
Storage capacity limited small No known limit
Storage duration About ¼ second Up to 20 seconds Minutes to years

Categories and Conceptual Hierarchies:

• Categorization: People tend to organize information into categories for easier storage
and recall. For example, in a study by Bousfield (1953), participants recalled words
more effectively when they naturally clustered similar items, such as animals or
professions.
• Conceptual Hierarchies: Information can also be organized into multilevel systems
based on shared properties among items. Gordon Bower (1970) suggested that
structuring information this way can significantly improve memory recall.
Schemas:

• A schema is an organized framework of knowledge based on past experiences. For

instance, university students have a schema of what a professor's office typically
contains. In a study by Brewer and Treyens (1981), participants recalled common
items associated with a professor’s office, often remembering items that fit their
schema while neglecting atypical items, like a picnic basket.
• Importantly, schemas can also enhance recall of surprising or inconsistent
information, as these elements may attract more attention and deeper processing.

Semantic Networks:

• Not all information fits neatly into categories or schemas; some knowledge is
structured in networks called semantic networks. These networks consist of nodes
(representing concepts) linked by pathways (representing relationships between
concepts).
• The concept of spreading activation is central to semantic networks. When one node
is activated, related nodes are also activated, facilitating recall. For example, thinking
about "fruit" can make related words like "peach" easier to remember due to the short
pathways connecting them.

2. RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFORMATION OUT OF MEMORY

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon:

• This is when you cannot remember something, like a name, even though you feel you
know it.
• Common for everyone, happening about once a week, especially as you get older.

Retrieval Cues:

• Hints or clues that help you remember.

• For example, thinking about where you had breakfast can help you recall what you
ate.
Study by Brown and McNeill:

• They tested people on hard words and found that people could guess the first letter of
the word correctly 57% of the time, even if they couldn't recall the whole word. This
shows that partial memory helps.

Reinstating the Context of an Event

1. Context Cues:
o These are hints from your surroundings or situation that help trigger your
memory.
o For example, thinking about where you usually eat breakfast can help you
remember what you had.
2. Experiencing Context Cues:
o People often recall forgotten memories when they revisit places where they
used to live. This is because the familiar environment triggers memories
associated with that place.
o Another common situation is when you walk into a room to get something,
forget what it was, and then remember it as soon as you go back to the original
room.
3. Importance in Eyewitness Testimony:
o In legal settings, hypnosis is sometimes used to help witnesses remember
details by getting them to imagine being back at the crime scene.
o However, studies show that hypnosis doesn’t reliably improve memory recall
and can actually lead to more mistakes, such as recalling false information.

Reconstructing Memories

Memory is often perceived as a perfect recording of past events, akin to a “mental

videotape.” However, research indicates that this view is misleading. Instead of accurately
replaying the past, memories are reconstructed each time we recall them, and this
reconstruction can introduce distortions and inaccuracies.

1. Reconstructive Nature of Memory: Studies show that human memory is not a

reliable storage system; it is reconstructive. When we recall a memory, we may
 inadvertently add or alter details based on suggestions, context, or post-event
information.
2. Misinformation Effect: This phenomenon occurs when misleading information
presented after an event alters a person’s memory of that event. For example, if
people are asked leading questions using emotionally charged verbs (like "smashed"
versus "hit"), they may recall details (such as broken glass) that did not exist.
3. Schemas and Memory: Our existing knowledge and beliefs (schemas) influence how
we remember events. If new information fits our schemas, we may incorporate it into
our memories, leading to further inaccuracies.
4. Impact on Eyewitness Testimony: The reliability of eyewitness testimony is
critically affected by the misinformation effect. Even individuals who are aware of the
potential for distortion can still be influenced by misleading information, making
eyewitness accounts inherently unreliable.

Source Monitoring

Source monitoring is a critical cognitive process involved in memory retrieval, wherein

individuals infer the origins of their memories. This process helps us determine where our
memories came from, whether from direct experience, conversations, readings, or other
sources. However, source monitoring is not always reliable, leading to errors in memory
recall.

1. Nature of Source Monitoring: When we retrieve a memory, we don't have explicit

labels indicating where that memory originated. Instead, we must make inferences
about the source. For example, one might wonder, "Did I hear this from a friend or
read it online?" Most of the time, we make these judgments quickly and without
conscious thought.
2. Source-Monitoring Errors: These occur when a memory from one source is
incorrectly attributed to another. For example, you might mistakenly believe that a
quote you heard in a podcast was from your psychology class. These errors can lead
to strong feelings of confidence in the accuracy of an incorrect memory, making them
particularly compelling despite their inaccuracy.
3. Impact on Eyewitness Testimony: Source-monitoring errors are significant in
understanding eyewitness testimony. People may assert that they remember details
from an event they did not actually witness, often because these details were
 suggested to them. This suggests that the process of memory retrieval can blend real
experiences with suggested information, leading to fabricated memories.

3. DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEMORY SYSTEMS

Declarative versus Nondeclarative Memory

Memory can be categorized into two primary systems: declarative memory and
nondeclarative memory. These systems serve different functions and have distinct
characteristics.

1. Declarative Memory: This system is responsible for storing factual information. It

includes:
o Episodic Memory: Recollections of personal experiences and specific events
(e.g., your last birthday party).
o Semantic Memory: Knowledge of facts and concepts that are not tied to
personal experience (e.g., knowing that Paris is the capital of France).

Recall of declarative memories generally involves conscious, effortful processes. For

example, when you try to remember the names of the planets, you actively search
your memory.

2. Nondeclarative Memory: Also known as procedural memory, this system

encompasses skills, actions, and conditioned responses. It includes:
o Procedural Memory: Knowledge of how to perform tasks (e.g., riding a bike,
typing).
o Emotional Memory: Associations that involve emotional responses (e.g., fear
associated with a traumatic event).

Nondeclarative memory is often automatic, requiring little conscious effort. You can
ride a bike without thinking about each movement involved, which contrasts with the
more conscious effort needed to recall a specific fact.

3. Key Differences:
 o Conscious Awareness: Declarative memory requires conscious effort to
retrieve, while nondeclarative memory often operates automatically.
o Forgetting: Declarative memories are more susceptible to forgetting over
time, whereas procedural memories tend to remain intact even after long
periods without practice.
o Neuroscientific Evidence: Patterns of memory loss in individuals with
amnesia (like H.M.) demonstrate the separation of these two systems. H.M.
could learn new motor skills but could not recall facts or experiences from his
past, highlighting the intactness of his procedural memory despite impaired
declarative memory.

Semantic versus Episodic Memory

Semantic Memory and Episodic Memory are two subtypes of declarative memory
identified by Endel Tulving. While both involve the storage of factual information, they
differ in their nature and function.

1. Episodic Memory:
o Definition: Episodic memory refers to the recollection of personal experiences
and specific events in time. It is characterized by temporal tagging, meaning it
involves recalling when an event occurred.
o Characteristics:
▪ Involves personal, autobiographical memories (e.g., memories of
family vacations, significant life events).
▪ Enables "mental time travel," allowing individuals to re-experience
past events (Tulving, 2001).
▪ Provides a basis for imagining and planning future events, which can
impact psychological well-being (D’Argembeau et al., 2011).
▪ Associated with a sense of "remembering" during retrieval, which is
often vivid and detailed.
o Example: Remembering your first day at school, the smell of the food at a
wedding you attended, or the sound of a friend's laughter at a concert.
2. Semantic Memory:
 o Definition: Semantic memory contains general knowledge and facts that are
not linked to a specific time or personal context. This information is more
abstract and universal.
o Characteristics:
▪ Includes knowledge about the world, concepts, and meanings (e.g.,
knowing that water boils at 100 degrees Celsius or that a cat is a type
of animal).
▪ Typically lacks temporal context; individuals generally do not
remember when or where they learned these facts (McNamara, 2013).
▪ Associated with a sense of "knowing" during retrieval, which is less
vivid than episodic memory.
o Example: Knowing the capital city of France is Paris or that the Earth orbits
the Sun.
3. Key Differences:
o Content: Episodic memory is personal and contextual, while semantic
memory is general and factual.
o Temporal Context: Episodic memory is temporally dated; semantic memory
is not.
o Retrieval Experience: Episodic memories evoke a feeling of recollection,
while semantic memories evoke a feeling of familiarity or knowing.
4. Neuroscientific Evidence:
o Evidence from studies of amnesia shows that episodic and semantic memories
can be dissociated. Some individuals may lose their episodic memories but
retain semantic knowledge (Szpunar & McDermott, 2009). This suggests that
the two memory types may operate through different neural mechanisms,
although there is ongoing debate regarding their distinct neural bases.

Prospective versus Retrospective Memory

Prospective Memory and Retrospective Memory are two distinct types of memory tasks
that focus on different aspects of remembering.

1. Retrospective Memory:
 o Definition: This type of memory is concerned with recalling information from
the past. It involves retrieving previously learned facts or experiences.
o Characteristics:
▪ Involves remembering events or knowledge that have occurred (e.g.,
facts, experiences, or skills learned).
▪ Examples include recalling who won the last Rugby World Cup,
reminiscing about your high school days, or retrieving information
learned in class.
▪ Generally, retrospective memory relies on cues that trigger
recollections of past events or learned information.
2. Prospective Memory:
o Definition: This type of memory involves remembering to perform actions in
the future. It requires an individual to recall intended actions without external
prompts.
o Characteristics:
▪ Involves planning and remembering to carry out future intentions (e.g.,
bringing an umbrella, walking the dog, calling a friend).
▪ A key aspect is that the individual must actively remember to
remember the task at hand, often leading to challenges, especially with
interruptions or distractions.
▪ While examples may seem trivial, failures in prospective memory can
have significant consequences, particularly in critical settings like
aviation or healthcare (Dismukes, 2012).
3. Key Differences:
o Temporal Focus: Retrospective memory focuses on the past, while
prospective memory is oriented towards future actions.
o Cues for Recall: Retrospective memory often relies on external prompts or
cues, whereas prospective memory requires internal reminders to execute
tasks.
o Consequences of Failure: Mistakes in prospective memory can lead to
serious consequences in professional settings, whereas retrospective memory
failures typically involve forgetting facts or experiences.
4. Individual Variability:
o There is considerable variability among individuals in their ability to perform
prospective memory tasks. Those who struggle with these tasks are often
described as "absentminded."
o Research indicates that older adults may face greater challenges with
prospective memory compared to younger individuals, though findings can
vary depending on context (Niedźwieńska & Barzykowski, 2012).
o Interestingly, the increasing reliance on smartphones for managing prospective
memory tasks has been linked to a decline in performance, although this
decline seems reversible with practice (Dumbrava, 2016).

Good luck on your last semester

test! Give it your all and finish